ATOMIC STRUCTURE

LECTURE 2
IN MSE 300
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

(Whitten et. al., 2007)

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Evidences
• Radioactivity (H. Becquerel, M. Curie, E. Rutherford)
• Cathode ray experiments (J.J. Thomson)
• Oil Drop experiment (R. Millikan)
• Canal Ray experiment
• Alpha particle experiment (E. Rutherford)
RADIOACTIVITY
• H. Becquerel, M. Curie, E. Rutherford
• Atoms can in fact break down
• Uranium, Polonium
• Radioactive elements can emit 3 kinds of radiation
 Alpha () particles  positive (+)
 Beta () particles  negative ()
 Gamma () particles  no detectable charge
CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT
• J.J. Thomson
• Cathode rays () can be deflected by an Electric field
 repelled from the negative plate and attracted to
the positive plate
• Cathode rays () can be deflected by a Magnetic field
• Electrons have mass
• By balancing the effect of the applied magnetic and
electric field, electron’s mass to charge ratio was
computed
(Whitten, 2007)
OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
• Robert Millikan
• Charge-to-mass ratio of different sizes of negatively
charged oil drops
• Established the charge on the electron
• Mass of an electron = 9.10938 x 10-28 g
• Charge of an electron = 1.602 x 10-19 C
(Whitten, 2007)
CANAL RAY EXPERIMENT
• Collision of cathode rays (electrons) and gas
molecules strips electrons from the molecules
• The positively charge particles formed a canal
through holes in the cathode ()
• Different gas molecules resulted to positive particles
with different mass-to-charge ratio that are multiples
of that derived from hydrogen
• Positive particle of hydrogen (proton) was the most
fundamental
(Whitten, 2007)
-PARTICLE EXPERIMENT
• Ernest Rutherford
• Thin gold foil was bombarded with alpha particles (+)
 most passed straight through
 Some were deflected in large angles
 Few were deflected backward
• Positive charge is concentrated in the center in a very
small volume
(Whitten, 2007)
(Whitten, 2007)
THE ATOM
• Atomic number
 Number of protons
• Atomic weight or atomic mass
 Mass per atom or mass per mole of atoms
• Mass number
 Number of protons + neutrons
• Charge
 + (cation)
  (anion)
 Neutral (free)
COMPLETE THE TABLE
Name Symbol No. of No. of No. of Mass Net
p+ e- n0 no. charge

23
Na

14 28 0

8 10 16

10 20 2+
Oxygen 8 18
COMPLETE THE TABLE
Name Symbol No. of No. of No. of Mass Net
p+ e- n0 no. charge

Sodium 23
11 11 12 23 0
Na
Silicon 28
14 14 14 28 0
Si
Oxygen 16
8 10 8 16 2-
O 2
Neon 20
Ne2 10 8 10 20 2+
Oxygen 18
O 8 8 10 18 0
ISOTOPES
• Atoms of the same element (same atomic number)
having different atomic masses
ISOTOPES
• Atoms of the same element (same atomic number)
having different atomic masses
ATOMIC MODELS

(Whitten et. al., 2007)

Photoelectric
Effect
Because of his explanation of the
photoelectric effect, Einstein received the
1921 Nobel Prize in physics.

When electromagnetic radiation of sufficient

energy (the energy must be equal or greater than the
amount needed to liberate the electron) strikes the
surface of metal inside an evacuated tube,
electrons are stripped off the metal to create
electric current.
 Photoelectric
Effect
Because of his explanation of the
photoelectric effect, Einstein received the
1921 Nobel Prize in physics.

1 photon striking 1 electron

increase in intensity  increase in number of photons
Thus, increasing the current
BOHR ATOM
• Dot at the center represents nucleus
• radius  n2 (1:4:9:16)
• Electronic energy is quantized

(Whitten, 2007)
QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Principal (n) – main energy level
n = 1,2,3,4,…
• Angular momentum (l) – sublevel or subshell or
specific shape of the atomic orbital
l = 0,1,2,3,…,(n-1)
• Magnetic (ml) – specific orbital within
ml = - l…,0,…+ l
• Spin (ms) – spin of the electron and the orientation
of the magnetic filed produced
ms = +1/2, -1/2
Table 5-4, p. 195
QUANTUM NUMBERS

Table 5-4, p. 195

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
• Ground vs excited state electron cofiguration
• Aufbau principle
• (n+ l) rule
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Hund’s Rule

Table 5-4, p. 195

p. 201
Fig. 5-30, p. 201
p. 224
Table 6-1, p. 225

Fig. 6-2, p. 225

Table 6-2, p. 228

Fig. 6-3, p. 228

p. 228
Fig. 6-4, p. 230
p. 230
p. 232
BONDING FORCE AND ENERGY

Fnet  FA (r )  FR (r )

Enet   ( FA  FR ) dr
r

Enet  E A  ER
BONDING FORCE AND ENERGY
at equilibriu m
Fnet  0
FA (r0 )   FR (r0 )

Enet,min  0 ( FA  FR ) dr
r

Enet  E A (r0 )  ER (r0 )

dEnet
 Fnet  0
dr r  r0
BONDING ENERGY VS TM
IONIC BONDING
• Metal + Non-metal (significant difference in EN)
• Ionization or transfer of electron
 (+) cations  Li+ Na+ Be2+ Mg2+ Al3+
 () anions  O2- S2- Cl- Br- I-
• Columbic attraction
 k0 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q) A
FA  FC   2
r 2
r
• Repulsive Force
B r
FR  m or FR  e 
r
BONDING FORCE
• Net force of attraction and repulsion
 k0 ( Z1q)( Z 2 q) r
Fnet  FC  FR    e 

r2
 k0 ( Z1q)( Z 2 q) B
Fnet  FC  FR   m
r 2
r
• Equilibrium bond length, r0, if Fnet = 0
COULOMBIC FORCE
• Attraction between two oppositely charged species
 1 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q)  k0 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q)
FC  
4 0 r 2
r2

0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m = 8.85 x 10-12 C/Vm

k0 = 9 x 109 Vm/C
Z = valence charge
q = electronic charge = 1.602 x 10-19 C
a = center-to-center distance
COULOMBIC FORCE
Sample Problem

Compute the coulombic and repulsive force of

attraction between Na+ and Cl- in NaCl.
(rNa+= 0.098 nm; rCl-= 0.181 nm)

 1 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q)  k0 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q)
FC  
4 0 r2 r2
BONDING ENERGY
• Net energy of attraction and repulsion
 k0 ( Z1q)(Z 2 q) r
Enet  EC  ER   De 
r
• Equilibrium bond length, a0, if Fnet = 0

dEnet
 Fnet  0
dr r  r0
BONDING ENERGY
Sample Problem

The net potential energy between two adjacent ions,

Enet, is sometimes represented by the expression:

C r
Enet  EC  ER    De 
r
Derive the expression for equilibrium inter-ionic
spacing, r0, and bonding energy, E0, and in terms of
the parameters C, D, and .
BONDING ENERGY
Sample Problem

The net potential energy between two adjacent ions,

EN, may be represented by the equation below:

A B
Enet  EC  ER   n
r r
Calculate the bonding energy, E0, and equilibrium
inter-ionic spacing, r0, in terms of the parameters A,
B, and n.
COVALENT BONDING
• Sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms with
relatively small or zero electronegativity difference
• Directional
• Valence electron
• Single, double, triple
• Bond Length
• Bond Energy
COVALENT BONDING

Fig. 7-3, p. 259

COVALENT BONDING
Methane Molecule Hydrogen gas
COVALENT BONDING
Bond Energies and Bond Length for Representative
Covalent Bonds
Bond Bond Bond Bond Bond Bond
Energy, Length, Energy, Length,
kJ/mol nm kJ/mol nm
CC 370 0.154 CCl 340 0.18
C=C 680 0.13 OH 500 0.10
CC 340 0.12 OO 220 0.15
CH 435 0.11 OSi 375 0.16
CN 305 0.15 NH 430 0.10
CO 360 0.14 NO 250 0.12
C=O 535 0.12 FF 160 0.14
CF 450 0.14 HH 435 0.074
COVALENT BONDING
Ethylene

Polymerization of Polyethylene
ENERGY OF REACTION
Polymerization of Polyethylene

Bond Bond Bond

Energy, Length,
kJ/mol nm
CC 370 0.154
C=C 680 0.13
CH 435 0.11
METALLIC BONDING
• Primary bonding found in metals and its alloys
• Involves electron sharing
• Undirectional
• Sea of electrons, electron clouds, delocalized electrons
• Ions cores
METALLIC BONDING
• Free electrons shield the positively charge ion cores
from mutually repulsive electrostatic forces
• Free electrons act as a glue to hold the ion cores
together
METALLIC BONDING
• Bonding energy

E r
SECONDARY BONDING
• Van der Waals bonding
• Induced Dipole
• Permanent Dipole
• Hydrogen bonding
BONDING ENERGY
Sample Problem

A common way to describe the bonding energy curve

for secondary bonding is the “6-12” potential,

 K A KR
Enet  6  12
r r
For argon, KA=10.37x10-78 Jm6 and KR=16.16x10-135
Jm12, calculate the bond length (in nm) and bond
energy per mol (kJ/mol) for argon.
References:
[1] Callister, William D. Jr., Materials Science and
Engineering, 6th ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,Singapore
(2009).

[2] Shackelford, James F., Introduction to Materials Science for

Engineers, Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
(2004).

[3] Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Materials Science for Engineers, 4th
ed., Addison-wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Philippines (1980).

[4] Whitten et. al., Chemistry, 8th edition. U.S.A., David

Harris, 2007.