CHILD DEVELOPMENT:

PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DIMENSIONS

Ashley Rowan
2016

A number of environmental interactions affect the physical, cognitive and social-

emotional development of children between the ages of three and six. The development of
children within this age range is affected by all levels of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory, and particularly by immediate microsystem contexts. The presence of atypical
developmental conditions such as anxiety results from a number of factors, and negatively
influences children’s development across these domains.

Adversity in early life correlates with an increased probability of poor outcomes

across physical, mental and social domains (McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011). According
to the Report on the second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and
Wellbeing (Lawrence et al., 2015), approximately one in seven, or 13.9%, of children and
adolescents aged between 4 and 17 years as having experienced a mental disorder within the
12 month survey period between 2013 and 2014, the most common being ADHD and anxiety
disorders, in addition to depressive and conduct disorders.

Experiences of anxiety in the preschool years may include separation anxiety,

characterised by reluctance to sleep without caregivers nearby and separation nightmares
(Link Egger & Angold, 2006). Attachment security is connected to children’s patterns of
stress reactivity to novel and stressful environments, for example, in initial childcare or
schooling attendance (McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011). Certain temperament and
emotionality traits, such as behavioural inhibition, may be observed in children between three
and six which present an increased risk of psychiatric disorders in later life. U.S. studies (see
Link Egger & Angold, 2006) have identified behavioural inhibition in approximately 15% of
pre-schoolers, characterised by shyness, fear, withdrawal in novel situations, and anxious or
fearful distress. It is additionally suggested that behavioural inhibition is associated with
parental anxiety disorders, with physiological implications such as hyper-reactivity.
 The causes of anxiety in children are numerous, and may be influenced by all spheres
presented in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. This theory attempts to account for
the effects of children’s environment on development, by examining the interplay between
individual characteristics and contextual factors in children’s lives. Ecological systems theory
may be conceptualised as set of contextual structures within which the dynamic relationship
between individual and environment is enacted. Centred on the individual, the model’s first
dimension encompasses the child’s closest influences in immediate microsystem contexts
such as the immediate family or childcare, expanding to broadened contexts such as
neighbourhoods - the exosystem – and broader societal and cultural contexts of the
macrosystem. The additional Mesosystem represents the congruence of interrelationships
between two or more of these contexts. Children’s experiences and development represent
progressively complex accommodation and relations within these extended settings and
contexts. The model may be used in analyses of issues in child development and in designing
prevention and intervention programs (Bowes & Hayes, 1999).

Influences from within all of these spheres may affect childrens’ development.
Factors such as contemporary economic and social pressures experienced within families
may affect the degree to which children achieve developmental milestones and are able to
mature into resilient and well-adjusted young people (Kay-Lambkin, Kemp, Stafford &
Hazel, 2007). Many issues impact on family life, such as balancing paid work and family life,
financial issues including unemployment, the breakdown of relationships, social and
geographical isolation, and chronic illness (Arthur, Beecher, Death, Dockett & Farmer,
2008).

Family contexts which induce anxiety in children are characterized by higher levels of
parental control, low autonomy support, and prompting of avoidant coping strategies. In these
circumstances children may develop negative conception of the self as incompetent to
manage, the world as anxiety-provoking, and certain emotions as worthy of avoidance
(Wareham & Salmon, 2006). Children may receive inadequate care due to social problems
such as family violence, substance abuse, poverty and social disadvantage (Arthur, Beecher,
Death, Dockett & Farmer, 2012). Additionally, negative sibling relationships attributed to
child-perceived preferential treatment may affect social development (Hoffnung, Hoffnung,
Seefert & Burton-Smith, 2010), with quarrelling, antagonism and adjustment difficulties
between siblings ensuing as a result, a situation particularly apparent in family situations
affected by financial stress, marital conflict, or single parenthood (Berk, 2008). The
relationship between parents may also influence child outcomes including attachment,
anxiety, antisocial behaviour, stress management and self-concept (Newland, 2015).

Family violence in the home imposes the risk of significant physical and
psychological harm to children, who are often witnesses to and victims of abuse. In addition
to physical harm, detriment to social and emotional development may manifest in insecure
attachment issues and delayed language development. The trauma of family violence affects
brain development and the capacity to endure future stresses (Arthur, Beecher, Death,
Dockett & Farmer, 2008).

Stress and adversity experienced in childhood through these factors influences both
neural structure and function. For example, a child’s social anxiety may lead to withdrawal
from future social encounters. This impairment of social skills and relationships may
facilitate myelination of the neural pathways that promote social withdrawal (Barrett, 2014).
Prolonged exposure to stress in early life is associated with atypical levels of stress
hormones, which in turn may affect the structure and function of the neurobiological systems
on which social and psychological functioning are based. Exposure to negative or hostile
environments contributes to adaptive changes in children’s neurobiological systems, with
long-term detriment to coping mechanisms. Techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging
[MRI] grant researchers the ability to investigate the neurobiological impact of childhood
adversity in terms of both brain structure and function (McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011).

In times of stress, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal [HPA] axis stress response acts

on the hypothalamus and adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Protracted high cortisol levels can
have a negative effect on health, with research on cortisol levels through HPA axis activity in
children suggesting a connection between stress and atypical HPA functioning, a factor
which predisposes children to psychiatric vulnerability in later life (McCrory, De Brito &
Viding, 2011).

Additionally, the amygdala is central to evaluating potentially threatening

information, fear conditioning, emotional processing, and memory of emotional events.
Heightened amygdala response has been observed through functional MRI using emotional
face-processing tasks, in which patterns of children’s brain activity are examined as the child
is exposed to a number of faces exhibiting threatening facial cues. This response has been
particularly noted in children who have experienced maltreatment or institutionalisation
(McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011; Thomas et al., 2001, in Miller, 2007). Studies have
shown increased amygdala volumes in children who have experienced early
institutionalisation, with this effect apparent many years following the cessation of
experiences of adversity (Lupien et al., 2009; Mehta et al., 2009, in McCrory, De Brito &
Viding, 2011).

Another affected part of the brain is the corpus callosum [CC], responsible for various
mental processes related to emotion and higher cognitive abilities. This area is particularly
susceptible during the ages 3–5 and 9–10 years. There is consistent evidence of decreases in
CC volume in maltreated children, which may help to account for any present emotional and
cognitive impairment (McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011).

The development of children’s social-emotional domain is critical for young

children's understanding of themselves and others (Twigg & Jorgensen, 2013). By the time
they enter preschool, children understand that ‘thinking’ refers to an internal human activity,
and may represent reality or the imaginary. They realise that human behaviour is influenced
by both the thoughts and emotions of mental states and characteristics including ability and
personality (Hughes, 2004). In terms of their emotional understanding, children at the later
stages of this age range have typically developed a sound understanding of mental states and
the emotions. In pre-school, for example, children are typically able to identify a range of
emotions, and understand that people do not necessarily physically show what they feel, and
may experience conflicting emotions simultaneously. This emotional understanding is
particularly associated with empathy, peer relations and social rules for controlling emotional
displays (Hughes, 2004).

Both positive and negative emotions serve adaptive and coping functions, regulating
individuals’ interpersonal processes, behaviours, thoughts and feelings. However, the
development of maladaptive or dysregulating functions noted above constitute both an
indicator of and contributor to atypical development (Barrett, 2014). In dealing with stress
and anxiety, children alternate between external and internal coping techniques to regulate
emotions in different contexts. Strategies include problem-centred coping strategies to deal
with adversities in changeable situations, and internal emotion-centred coping to control
distress in unchangeable circumstances (Berk, 2008).

Under protracted duress, emotional systems adapt and become more effective in both
detecting and processing threats, however, children who experience this may display a
lessened capacity to negotiate other social interactions. It is also suggested that symptoms
such as reactive aggression may manifest in children who experience this kind of emotional
duress (McCrory, De Brito & Viding, 2011).

Positive mental health outcomes have the potential to be attained through early
intervention (Wyn, Cahill, Holdsworth, Rowling & Carson, 2000). The establishment of
social and emotional competencies, such as effective coping skills and positive relationships,
allow mentally healthy children to enjoy a positive quality of life (Wallace, Holloway,
Woods, Malloy & Rose, 2011). A number of environmental conditions and strategies may be
employed in order to foster social-emotional development in children between the ages of
three and five. Providing safe and supportive environments promotes mental health of
children by encouraging a sense of belonging, providing an environmental context which
supports secure attachments, social inclusion and participation (Kay-Lambkin, Kemp,
Stafford & Hazel, 2007; Thornton, 2011).

Additionally, resilience education and coaching promotes long-term mental health and
wellbeing. Resilience, or the ability to ‘rebound’ after adversity, is adaptive process of
behavioural learning developed through lived experience (Thornton, 2011, p. 13), emphasises
the development of independence, positive coping skills and future outlook (Burns et al.,
2009, p. 7; Kay-Lambkin, Kemp, Stafford & Hazel, 2007, pp. 38-40). The capacity for
resilience may be nurtured through childhood experiences, affected by factors including the
child’s personal characteristics, positive family situation, authoritative parenting, and social
structures within school and the wider community (Berk, 2008, p. 525).

Contact with nature and outdoor environments has also been linked to positive health
and wellbeing outcomes. Contact with nature contributes to the holistic development of
children’s physical, mental and spiritual health, and has been suggested to reduce stress,
alleviate effects of depression, and enhance coping abilities (Gray & Martin, 2012, p2. 42-3;
Maller, 2009, p. 522-523). According to Kellert (2005, in Gray & Martin, 2012), “human
physical, mental and spiritual well-being remains dependent on healthy interaction with the
natural environment” (p. 43).

It is evident that many environmental factors and interactions affect the physical,
cognitive and social-emotional development of children. Between the ages of three and six,
the development of children is affected by all levels of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory, and particularly by immediate microsystem contexts. Anxiety in these children may
result from a number of influences, with negatively outcomes of children’s development
across the physical, cognitive and social domains.
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