Basic Concepts of IT

XI Computer Science Page 1 of 28
CHAPTER # 1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Q: What is Computer Science and Information Technology?
Computer science is the study of computer i.e. their design (architecture) and their uses for
computations, data processing, and system control. It includes engineering activities such as
the design of computers and of hardware and software that make up a computer system
Q: Define the term computer?
Word Computer is derived from word "compute" so, it is a calculating device that can
perform arithmetic or logic functions at a very high speed. OR Computer is a device that
takes information as input, processes it according to the given steps of instructions and
provides the result called output.
Q: What are the parts of a computer system?
HARDWARE:
The physical equipments that make up the computer are called hardware. In other words,
hardware is any part of computer you can touch; it consists of interconnected electronic
devices such as keyboard, mouse monitor, printer etc.
SOFTWARE:
Software is a set of instruction (also called a program)that tell the computer how to perform a
task. In other words, software tells computer what to do.
DATA:
Data consists of raw facts and figures .Which the computer stores and reads in the form of
numbers .The computer process data according to the instructions contained in software.
After data is processed through the computer, is called information. A useful model to
describe the relationship between data and information is called Data processing cycle.
INPUT DATA ------------> PROCESSING ------------> OUTPUT INFORMATION
PROCEDURES:
Procedures are the steps that you must follow to accomplish a specific computer related task
Manuals containing rules and guidelines to follow when using software, hardware and data
are available. They are written by computer specialists for particular organizations.
USERS:
Users are people or computer operators. Users operate the hardware, create software, put
data into the computer and use information that comes out of it.
Q: Define input devices.
In order to process data computer must have the ability to receive this data. The element of
a computer system which enters the data into the computer is known as input devices.
These translate given information into a form which computer can understand.
There are two types of input devices
1.Keyboard Devices
2.Non Keyboard Devices.
Q: Describe keyboard and its divisions.
Keyboard is most common input device. Keyboard is used to enter the data in to computer
programs and data or input into computer. It looks like a typewriter keyboard but has
additional keys for specific purposes. It has 101 keys arranged in following five groups:
 Character keys
 Function Keys
 Special-Purpose keys
 Numeric keys
 Cursor-Movement Keys
Character Keys: This is the main part of keyboard by using this keypad the letter a->z,
A->Z, numbers 0->9 and special keys like!, @,#," etc. may be typed.
Function Keys: A set of twelve keys located at the top of the keyboard. All of these keys
have pre-defined meanings which depend on the application software.
Special-Purpose Keys: Some special keys are spread on keyboard like Ctrl, Alt, Esc,
Home, etc. These are used to help enter and edit data and execute command.
Numeric Keys: This part or pad is located on the right side of keyboard. When "NUM
LOCK" key is pressed then the numbers on numeric keypad can be used to enter numeric
data.
Q: What is non keyboard Devices?
Non keyboard input devices or direct input devices are as follows:
1. Scanning Devices
1. Bar-code reader
2. Mark and Character reader
3. Image scanner
4. Fax machine
2. Voice-input devices
3. Pointing Devices
1. Mouse
2. Trackball
3. Joystick
4. Touch screen
5. Light pen
Scanning Devices:
Scanning devices use light sensitive equipment to record data in the form of bar codes,
optical marks, or magnetic ink symbols or even just plain text or graphics. This data is
converted into electronic form that can be processed by the computer.
Voice Input Devices:

This input device is the latest innovation, which helps us input data by actually talking to
computer. This system requires a microphone, which takes the analog signals from voice
and sends them to an analog to digital converter. This converter converts analog signals into
digital signals, which are called voice patterns.
Pointing Devices:
A device with which you can control the movement of the pointer to select items on a display
screen called pointing device.
Q: Define CPU with its parts?

The main unit of any computing system is called Central Processing Unit. It is also known as
the brain of computer. The CPU is contained on a tiny chip called microprocessor. CPU
control all input and output connections inside and outside of the computer and take a look
on the programs that are currently present in computer to produce correct answer to their
user.
The CPU has two main components:
1. The control unit (CU)
2. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
THE CONTROL UNIT:

This unit control the execution of programs input/output devices, storage and retrieval of
data from storage devices, routing of information between memory and ALU and also control
the direction of Arithmetic and logic units. So we can say that it directs and coordinates all
activities of a computer.
THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:

It performs actual processing of data, which includes addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. This unit also performs certain logical tasks such as comparison of two numbers to
see that one is greater than other or equal.
Q: What is memory unit?

The main memory also called main storage , primary memory/storage, internal memory /
storage, or simply memory holds data and instructions for processing. Main memory is used
to store programs and data that the CPU is presently processing. Most types of memory only
store items when the computer is turned on data are destroyed when the machine is turned
off.
Q: What are system unit and its components?

The part of microprocessor that houses the CPU is called the system unit and is housed
within a system cabinet. You will find that many parts can be easily removed for
replacement. In addition, many microprocessors are expandable. Thus, more main memory
may be added as well as certain other devices.
The components of the system unit are:
 The power supply
 The mother board
 Microprocessor-include registers, bus, clock, and coprocessors.
 ROM
 Other forms of main memory-cache, VRAM, flash

 Expansion cards
 Ports
Q: Define the components of system unit?
POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply is a box inside the system that provides electrical power to all components in a
system unit. It converts 220 volt main AC supply to the required 5 or12 volt DC supply which
computer components use.
Since electricity generates a lot of heat, the power supply unit is equipped with a fan that
prevents the system and components from overheating.
MOTHERBOARD:
A motherboard is also called a system board or logic board, is an electronic circuit board that
contains the CPU, memory, and other basic electronic components. A motherboard also
includes expansion slots.
MICRO PROCESSOR:
As computer has evolved, the size of the microprocessor has become smaller while its
speed and capacity has increased. Indeed the microprocessor, also called the CPU, is a tiny
chip, on which electronic circuitry has been etched. The chip is mounted on a piece of
plastic, called carrier, with metal leafs attached to it. The microprocessor manages the
computer processing and the transfer of data to and from primary memory, commonly called
RAM.
Some features of microprocessor are:
 Register
 Bus
 Clock
 Coprocessor
REGISTER:
Register is the temporary memory holding areas within the CPU for data and instruction that
are to be processed immediately.
BUS:
A bus is a kind of electronic path way that connects parts of CPU with each other and the
CPU with other important devices. There are different types of buses.
 Address Bus
 Control Bus
 Data Bus
CLOCK:
The clock controls how fast all operations within the CPU take place. If you bring a
microprocessor system, clock speed is an important measurement to know about. It is
expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
COPROCESSOR:
Coprocessors are microprocessor that are subordinates to the CPU and helps it handle data
overload and speed up the computer’s operation.
MAIN MEMORY:
RAM is also called primary memory. RAM used to store program and data for processing.
RAM is volatile memory which means that any data stored in RAM is lost when the computer
is turned off. So we can say that it is an erasable or reusable memory.
OTHER FORMS OF MEMORY:
CACHE MEMORY: It is more expensive and faster than RAM but slower and less
expensive than registers. It is used to increase the speed of processing by making current
programs and data available to CPU at a rapid rate. The general principle is to kept
frequency accessed data in the faster cache while frequently used items should be kept in
RAM.
VIRTUAL MEMORY: Virtual storage is a condition in which part of a program is stored on

disk and is brought into as needed. This feature, which requires special software, uses the
disk as an extension of RAM. It runs programs while putting many pieces on RAM and rest
of them on disks, which are retrieved as appropriate.
FALSH MEMORY: Flash memory or Flash RAM, cards consist of circuitry on credit-card-
size cards that can be inserted into slots connected to the motherboard. Unlike standard
RAM chips, flash memory is non-volatile. It can be used not only to simulate main memory
but also to supplement or replace hard disks for permanent storage.
ROM:
Read only memory is memory from which data may be retrieved but the contents cannot be
changed by the user. They store instruction in permanent or non-volatile form. Non-volatile
storage does not lost its contents when the power is turned off. A computer can have some
other types of ROM chips besides simple ROM which are:
 PROM-Programmable Read Only memory
 EPROM-Erasable Programmable Read Only memory
 EEPROM-Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only memory
 EAPROM-Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only memory

EXPANSION CARDS AND SLOTS:
Expansion slots are sockets on the motherboard into which expansion cards can be
inserted. The slot connects the expansion card with the power supply and the buses for
moving data and instructions.
PORTS:
Ports are connecting sockets on the outside of the system unit. This allows us to plug in
other devices, such as monitor, keyboard, modem etc. Cables connected to the ports
transmit streams of bits, such as those in an 8-bit ASCII character, to the outside devices.
Ports are of several types:
 Serial ports
 Parallel ports
 USB ports
Q: Define softcopy and Hardcopy output.
SOFTCOPY:
Softcopy means the output is in a form that cannot be physically touched, Softcopy is the
best for information that needs to be viewed only occasionally or a few moments. The
principle softcopy output devices are monitors and sound or voice output devices.
HARDCOPY:
Hardcopy means the output taken on paper or in a form that can be physically touched. The
principle hardcopy output devices are Printers, plotters, and microfilm output devices.
Q: Write a short note on monitors.
This is the most commonly used form of output devices when a permanent record is not
required. A monitor is a television-like device to display text and graphics from a computer.
The monitor is also referred as screen. There are two main types of monitors:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor

 Flat panel monitor
Q: Define impact printers.
IMPACT PRINTERS:
These noisy printers print images by physically striking an inked ribbon against papers with a
hammer like mechanism.
Serial or Character Printers: Those printers which are capable to print only one character
at a time called “Character printers”. These printers can print 10 to 600 characters per
second and have only one print head. Dot matrix printer and daisy wheel printers are the
examples of printers.
DOTMATRIX PRINTER: Printer with only head at a time one character prints and moves to
next character position. This character produced by an arrangement of tiny hammers like
pins, which strike the ribbon against paper. These dots are arranged in a specified pattern to
form characters. Dot matrix can also print drawings or graphics. It can print at a speed of 30
to 600 CPS (characters per second)
DAISY WHEEL PRINTER: In daisy wheel printer an electric motor spins a wheel and a
print hammer strikes to produce image of a character on paper. These printers cannot
produce pictures or graphics but print out is much better than dot matrix printers.
Line Printers: A line printer can print an entire line at a time which normally covers 80 or
132 characters and for each character have a separate printing head normally it can print
about 250 lines per min. Drum and Chain printers are examples.
DRUM PRINTERS: A drum printer consists of a solid cylinder drum that has embossed
characters in bands on its upper surface. On printing position many bands contains all the
possible characters. The drum rotates at a high speed and for each location a print head is
located behind the paper.
CHAIN PRINTERS: In chain printer each character links with chain which moves and for
every position there is a printing hammer located behind paper. When the chain rotates the
properly timed print hammers strike paper along with inked ribbon against the proper
character on the chain as it passes.
Q: Define Non-impact printers.
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS:
This kind of printer does not generate the kind of hammering noise that an impact printer
does. Non-impact printers produce high quality images. Following are some common types
of non-impact printer:
Thermal Printers:
A thermal printer creates images by using colored waxes and heat in the pins of the print
head to burn dots onto special paper. Thermal printers can printers can provide the highest-
quality desktop color printing available. However, they are expensive and require expensive
paper.
Inkjet Printer:
An inkjet printer forms images by spraying tiny droplets of ink from jet nozzles onto the
paper. Ink-jet printers using multiple nozzles can print in several different colors of ink.
Laser Printers:
These quiet printers produce high quality printing and normally known as LASER (Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Rays). In these printers with the difference of electric
charge laser exposed areas attract an ink powder called toner which is fused permanently
on paper with heat or pressure.
Q: Define computer software. What are its types?
SOFTWARE:
Set of information stored as interconnected program to perform a specific task is called

software.
OR
The set of instructions that tell the computer what to do is called software.
Software can be divided into two types:
 System software
 Application software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
System software is a set of program which is designed by the manufacturer of computer.

These programs are developed for efficient management of hardware. They improve the
functional capabilities of the computer and assist the user to solve their problems easily.
For example: operating system, translator, editor etc.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
Application software is a collection of programs which are written by the users themselves to
solve their problems. These programs are written in a computer language such as Fortran,
basic, C language etc.
For example: MS-Power Point.
Q: What is an operating system? Write down its functions and features.
THE OPERATING SYSTEM:
The operating system (OS) is collection of system software used to manage the overall
operation of the computer. It is designed to support the activities of a computer. The prime
objective is to improve the performance and efficiency of a computer system. Popular
operating systems are Windows XP, Windows NT etc.
FEATURES:
Efficiency, in terms of processor and resource utilization.

Reliability, in terms of being error free and handling all possibilities in the job execution.
Maintainability, in terms of enhancing facilities, modularity, correction of bugs etc.
Small size, in terms of memory and backing store required.
FUNCTIONS:
 Processor management that is assignment of processors to different tasks being

performed by the computer.
 Memory allocation and management.
 Coordination of input and output devices

 File management, the storage and transfer of files on internal and external memory.
 Automatic transition from job to job as directed by control statements.
 Establishment of data security and integrity.
 Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer
operator.
Q: What are language translators?
Language translators are programs those converts programming languages into 1s and 0s
or machine language. They either compile or interpret it. THESE method give the translators
their common names that are: compiler and interpreter.
COMPILER:
A compiler is a language translator which translates the whole program at once into machine
language before it is executed. After the source program has been converted this new file is
known as object file of object program.
INTERPRETER:
An interpreter is a program that a program in step by step manner. It translates one

instruction and control executes the resulting machine language, while the next instruction is
being translated. If the program is run several times a day it has to interpret many times.
Q: What are operating system environment?
SINGLE TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:
A single tasking OS is that executes only one program at one time. Most of the earlier
operating systems were single tasking. Some examples are apple DOS.
MULTITASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:
A multitasking is an OS is that executes several programs at a time. These are available on

all types of computer i.e microcomputers to mainframes. Examples are Windows XP, OS/2
etc.
MULTI-USER OPERATING SYSTEM:
The processing power of larger computers can be utilized more efficiently if a number of
users are able to work with it on the same time. The OS allocates limited CPU time to each
user, separates job execution requests and so on. Examples are UNIX and Windows 2000.
CHAPTER # 2
INFORMATION NETWORK
Q: What is Network?
Two or more than two components connected to each other by a cable so that they can
share data.
OR
Two or more computers and associated devices that are connected by communication
facilities.
OR
Communication between two points. The network has become essential for the following
reasons. Networks enables users to share files with others. Networks enables users to share
equipments such as LASER printers and large hard disks drives which are very expensive.
Networks enables users to share software. It improves communications speed and
accuracy.
Q: What are Network Operating Systems?
Network operating systems are that system software which is needed or required to work
with or within a network. Some network operating systems are:
NETWORKS OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Novel
 UNIX
 Linux
 MS-Windows 3.11 for work groups
 MS-Windows 95 and 98
 Sun Solaris
Q: Define several types of Networks.
There are many types of computer networks, but the three most common types are:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)

2. WAN (Wide Area Network)
3. GAN (Global Area Network) commonly known as Internet.
LAN (Local Area Network):
A local area network is a privately owned communication computer network within a small
geographic area, like a home, office, or group of buildings. Connected by a length of wires,
cables or optical fibers, run by special networking software.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
A wide area network is a telecommunication network, usually used for connecting

computers, that covers a wide geographical area. WANs can be used to connect cities,
states, or even countries. WANs are used by larger to corporations or organizations to
facilitate the exchange of data. It also enables LANs to communicate with each other.
GAN (Global Area Network)
Global area network or internet (a worldwide collection of interconnected networks) is a

collection of networks, a network of networks that communicate with each other by using the
same standard (protocols) of communication.
Q: Write some characteristics of LAN networks.
The major characteristics of LANs are:
 The network operates within a building or floor of a building. As increasingly powerful

LAN desktop applications, the trend is to reduce the size of individual LANs and
connected smaller LANs together.
 LANs allow office workers to share hardware, software and data and to essentially
make incompatible units compatible.
 Local services are usually available; LANs rarely shut down or restrict access to
connected workstations.
 The LANs provides a communications link to outside communications systems and it
can be connected to other local area networks on different locations. Note that
modems are not always needed with a local area network, special hardware, special
software are used instead.
Q: What is a topology? define topologies of LAN.
TOPOLOGIES OF LAN
The arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components referred as
"TOPOLOGIES".
OR
The physical layout of a network is called a topology.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES:
The four basic topologies are:
 Star topology
 Ring topology.
 Bus topology.
 Hybrid topology.
STAR TOPOLOGY:
In star topology each device is connected to a central unit. Any communication between one
device and another goes through the central unit. Each device is directly connected to the
central server, which is a computer containing the interface cards and software to manage
all data communication in this network. If a user at workstation 2 want to send that request to
the server. This central server notifies workstation2 when that task is complete.
Advantages:
 New terminals can be added to network easily.

 There is to chance of data collision because central server prevents collision between
messages.
 If the connection is between any communications device and the central server, the
result of the devices on the network will continue operating.
 Transmission delay between two terminals or between server and terminal do not
increased by adding new nodes to the network because any two devices may be
connected via two links only.
Disadvantages:
 The network crucially depends on the central server. If the central server fails the
entire network will stop.
 Star topology is expensive because a separate cable is required for connecting each
computer with the central server.
RING TOPOLOGY:
In the ring topology, multiple terminal and some peripherals are connected into a ring like
structure. All communication between terminals follows a clockwise or anticlockwise pattern.
The message goes from terminal to terminal until the desired device is reached. There is no
central server.
Advantages:
 In a ring network message flow in only one direction. Thus, there is no longer danger
of collision.
 It is more reliable than a star network topology because communication is not
dependent on single host computer.
Disadvantages:
 If the ring is broken, the entire network stops working.

 It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
 New computer or terminal cannot be added to network easily.
 Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of terminals.
BUS TOPOLOGY:
In a bus topology, each device is connected to a common cable. Each component must
have own interface devices. Usually a circuit board or card, which plugs into one of the
expansion slot. The card, which plugs into one of the expansion slot. The card contains the
hardware and the software necessary to access the internet. All communication takes place
on the common cable or bus. The data are sent down the bus and are available to all
devices. Each message must contain information identifying the destination devices. If some
messages collide, the devices waits and tries to retransmit. There is no central server.
Advantages:
 The type of network is simply and easy to understand.

 A bus network may be organized as client/ server or peer-to-peer networks.
 New terminals can be added to a network easily.
 If one of the terminals becomes defective it does not affect on other computers of the
network.
Disadvantages:
 Extra circuitry and software are needed to avoid collision between data.
 If an error arises in a network, it is not easy to detect.
 If a connection in the bus is broken, the entire network may be broken.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY:
Hybrid Networks are combination of different topologies. For example, a university campus
might use a bus network to connect different departments and star and/or ring network within
certain department.
Q: What are LAN models or major types of LAN network?
LAN MODELS/MAJOR TYPES OF LAN NETWORK:
LAN usually follows one of the two models:
 Client/Server: Server based Network (Domain)

 Peer-to-Peer Network (Workgroup)
Client/Server: Server based Network :
A Client/Server model uses one or more computers as servers, and the other computers on
the network are clients. The server is a high-capacity, high-speed computer with a large hard
disk capacity. It contains the network operating system the software required to run the
network. The server also contains network versions of programs and large data files. Clients-
all the computers that can access the server-sends request to server. Here are some
common services those client requests:
1. Storing and retrieving files on the server's hard disk.

2. Running programs that are stored on the server's hard disk.
3. Printing to a network printer.
Peer-To-Peer Network:
A peer-to-peer LAN is one in which all computers on the network communicate directly with
one another without relying on a server. Peer-to-peer networks are less expensive than
Client/Server networks and work effectively for up to 25 computers. Beyond that they slow
down under heavy use. They are thus appropriate for networking in small groups.
Q: What are components of LAN?
COMPONENTS OF LAN:
Local area network is made up of several standard components.
1. Connection or Cabling System: LANs do not use the telephone network. They use
some other cabling or connection system, either wired or wireless. Wired connections
may be twisted-pair wiring, coaxial cable, or fiber-optical cable. Wireless connections
may be infrared, radio-waves transmission or blue tooth, or WiFi.
2. Microcomputer with network interface cards: A network interface card enables the
computer to send and receive messages over a cable network. The network card can be
inserted into an expansion slot in a PC.
3. Network Operating System: The network operating system is the system software that
is designed for network use and manages the activity of a network. UNIX, Linux,
NetWare, Windows 2000 Server and Windows Server 2003 are examples of network
operating systems.
4. Other Shared Devices: Printers, fax machines, Scanners, storage devices and other
peripherals may be added to the network as necessary and shared by all users.
5. Routers, Bridges and Gateways:
ROUTERS: A router is a network device that directs communication messages when
several networks are connected together. High-speed routers can serve as part of
internet backbone. Or transmission path, handling major data traffic.
BRIDGES: A bridge is a hardware and software combination used to connect the same
data types of networks.
GATEWAYS: A gateway is an interface that enables dissimilar networks to
communicate, such as LAN with a WANs or two LANs based on different topology or
network operating system.
Q: Define E-mail with advantages and disadvantages.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL):
E-mail, also known as electronic mail, is one of the most popular internet services. E-mail
allows you to send messages to other users on the internet. Most e-mail programs also
permits users to attach data files and program files to messages. An internet e-mail address
has two parts: the user name and the domain name. The user name identifies the person
who originates or receives the mail; the domain name identifies the computer system on
which the user has an account. These parts are separated by an @ sign. For Example
mazeem@hotmail.com.
Advantages:
 IT’S FAST: Mail is delivered instantly to any where in the world. No other method of
delivery can provide this service. Timely buying and selling decisions can be made in
a heartbeat.
 IT’S EASY: When you contact the service, you see a list of messages you have
received. You read the first message and then decide how to respond. You can save it
or print it. You can even forward the message to others.
 IT’S AVAILABLE: The e-mail service is available round the clock and round the
globe.
 IRS FUN: International electronic mail systems enable you to find friends all over the
world.
 ITS FLEXIBLE: You can send a message to more than one persons if you like.
Disadvantages:
 It is still not generally available to all.

 It has created an information overload.
 It is possible that any of the e-mails contain virus, which may affect your computer
system.
 Any e-mail send to wrong address cannot be recalled back.
 It is not completely private or confidential due to hacking.
 As e-mail is free, so someone may send e-mail for trouble so that you may feel
uneasy to deal with.
Q: What are major features of Internet?
The internet provides several effective communication tools. These include electronic mail,
use net, telnet, File Transfer Protocol and chat.
USENET:
Usenet is a collection of more than 30,000 news groups, or discussions on every confineable
subject. Users read and post e-mail-like messages (articles).
TELNET:
Telnet is the service of internet that allows you to access remote computer outside your
area.
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL:
A protocol used to transfer files over an internet. For example, after developing the HTML
pages for a website on a local machine, they are typically uploaded to the web server using
FTP.
WORLD WIDE WEB:
The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked, hypertext documents accessed via the
internet. With a web browser, that allows users to vie web pages that may contain text,
images, videos, and other multimedia and navigates between them using hyperlinks.
WEB BROWSER:
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with text,
images, and other information typically located on a web page at a website on world wide
web or a local area network. Text and images on a web page can contain hyperlinks to other
web pages at the same or different websites. These allow a user to quickly and easily
access information provided on many web pages.
CHAPTER # 3
DATA COMMUNICATION
Q: What do you understand by term data communication or Telecommunication?
Data communication or telecommunication is the process of transmitting and receiving data

across a distance. The data transferred can be voice, sound, images, video or text or a
combination of these all. It is also the study and application of computer devices used to
transmit and receive data.
The three basic elements of any communication system are:
1. A transmitter: This creates the message to be transmitted.

2. A medium: trough which message or data is transmitted from one location to another.
3. A receiver: which receives the message?
Q: What are the characteristics of data transmission?
All forms of data communication have several characteristics.
1. Signal type.
2. Transmission mode
3. Direction of transmission.
SIGNAL TYPE:
Data is transmitted by two types of signals, each requiring different kinds of communications
technology. The two types of signals are analogue and digital.
TRANSMISSION MODES:
Data can be sent in two modes that are: Asynchronous or Synchronous transmission.
DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION:
Data is sent in one direction, or is sent in two directions in two types of ways. These types of
transmission are called simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
Q: Define type of signals.
ANALOGUE SIGNAL:
A continuously electrical signal in the form of wave is called analogue signal. There are two
factors that govern the characteristics of an analogue signal.
1. Amplitude: is the height of wave. It is actually the strength of volume.

2. Frequency: is the number of time a wave repeats in second.
DIGITAL SIGNAL:
Digital signal send data as distinct pulses, either on or off or present or absent electric
pulses.
Q: Define Transmission modes.
TRANSMISSION MODES:
Data can be sent in two modes that are: Asynchronous or Synchronous transmission.
Asynchronous:
In asynchronous transmission, data is sending one byte at a time. Each byte is preceded by
a start and stop bit. Asynchronous transmission is inexpensive and so is widely used with
microcomputers. However, it is also relatively slow.
Synchronous Transmission:
In synchronous transmission, blocks or packets of several bytes at a time are transmitted

without start or stop bits. synchronous transmission is used by large computers to transmit
great volumes of data at a very high speed. Complex and expensive timing must be used to
keep transmission activities synchronized.
Q: Define Directions of Transmission.
DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION:
Data is sent in one direction, or is sent in two directions in two types of ways. These types of
transmission are called simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
Simplex Transmission:
In simplex transmission, data is transmitted only in one direction. Device connected to such
circuit is either send only or receive only device.
Half Duplex Transmission:
In half duplex transmission, data communication is two-way, but the data travels in only one
direction at a time. Half duplex is somewhat slow.
Full Duplex Transmission:
In full duplex, data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously. Full duplex is faster than
half duplex but more expensive because it requires special equipment. Full duplex is used
primarily for mainframe communications.
Q: What is OSI model? Define all layers and draw diagram.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a set of internationally recognized, non-proprietary

standards for networking and for operating system involved in networking functions.
The Layers
At each layer, certain things happen to the data that prepare it for the next layer. The seven
layers, which separate into two sets, are:
Application Set
 Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the operating
system or application whenever the user chooses to transfer files, read messages or
perform other network-related activities.
 Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and
converts it into a standard format that the other layers can understand.
 Layer 5: Session - Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the
receiving device.
Transport Set
 Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error
checking and recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means that the
Transport layer looks to see if data is coming from more than one application and
integrates each application's data into a single stream for the physical network.
 Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is
determined in this layer. Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled here.
 Layer 2: Data - In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the data.
Also, the type of network and the packet sequencing is defined.
 Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the physical
characteristics of the network such as connections, voltage levels and timing.
Q: What is a Protocol Stack?
Protocol Stacks
A protocol stack is a group of protocols that all work together to allow software or hardware
to perform a function. The TCP/IP protocol stack is a good example. It uses four layers that
map to the OSI model as follows:
 Layer 1: Network Interface - This layer combines the Physical and Data layers
and routes the data between devices on the same network. It also manages the
exchange of data between the network and other devices.
 Layer 2: Internet - This layer corresponds to the Network layer. The Internet
Protocol (IP) uses the IP address, consisting of a Network Identifier and a Host
Identifier, to determine the address of the device it is communicating with.
 Layer 3: Transport - Corresponding to the OSI Transport layer, this is the part of the
protocol stack where the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) can be found. TCP works
by asking another device on the network if it is willing to accept information from the local
device.
 Layer 4: Application - Layer 4 combines the Session, Presentation and Application
layers of the OSI model. Protocols for specific functions such as e-mail (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol, SMTP) and file transfer (File Transfer Protocol, FTP) reside at this
level.
Chapter # 4
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF COMPUTER
Q: What are the uses of computer?
Education: Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information
to make sense. Students exposed to the internet say they think the web has helped them
improve the quality of their academic research and of their written work. One revolution in
education is the advent of distance learning. This offers a variety of internet and video-based
online courses.
Health and Medicine:

Technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now be
digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers
are using computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of psychotherapy.
Science: Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea
of a “collaboratory”, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over
the world can work easily together even at a distance.
Business: Business clearly sees the interest as a way to enhance productivity and
competitiveness. Some areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and
marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be
better educated and more knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must
be comfortable with computer technology.
Recreation and Entertainment:

Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by computerization. For
example:
(i) In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special
effects and even imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and
commercials.
(ii) In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for
athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.
(iii) In restaurants, almost every one has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by
indicating choices on a rather unusual looking cash register; the device directly enters
the actual data into a computer, and calculates the cost and then prints a receipt.
Government:
Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law
enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting,
Education, Aviation and many others.
Defence:
There are many uses computers in Defence such as:
(i) Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts an example is Predator. If you have cable I
would recommend watching the shows “Future Weapons" and “Modern Marvels". The
show future weapon gives an entire hour to the predator.
(ii) They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses GPS and
Computers to help the missile get to the target.
(iii) Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the
incoming target to destroy them.
(iv) Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational
Awareness) and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.
(v) Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipments to and
around the battlefield.
(vi) Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the
platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.
(vii) Computers help design and test new systems.
Q: What is the impact of computer on our daily life?
Personal Impact
 Privacy and personal rights.

 Data banks, computer terminals, data security
 Employment
 Job opportunities, new careers, the need for retraining
 Business transactions
 Automated billing, credit cards, interac, consumer spending
 The replacement of people through automation
 Robots, word processing
 The impact that a machine has on a human – ergonomics
Community Impact
 Employment
 Traffic Control
 Urban Planning
 Law Enforcement
National Impact
 Communications Media
 The use of information for control
 Vote counting
 Electronic funds transfer
 Stock-market Transactions
 Defense
 Satellite Broadcasting
Global Impact
 Reporting of current Events
 Communications Media
 World Government
 International Standards
 Exploration of space and sea
 World wide access to data
Future Impact
 Computers in the home
 Gaming
 Learning
 Electronic mail
 Shopping
 Business transactions
 Information processing, storage and retrieval
 The home as a work center
 Effect on the family unit and on familiar patterns of life
 Travel
 Computer communication as a replacement for travel
 The possible disappearance of hard copy as a medium of communication
 The cashless society
 Possible effects on the formal education system
 The use of robots in industry and in the home
 Teleprocessing networks
 Communications networks
CHAPTER # 5
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Q: What are computer registers?
Register:
A register stores bits of information in a way that systems can write to or read out all the bits
simultaneously. Typical uses of hardware registers include:
 Configuration and start-up of certain features, especially during initialization

 Buffer Storage e.g. video memory for graphics cards
 Input/Output (I/O) of different kinds
 Status reporting such as whether a certain event has occurred in the hardware unit.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-
bit register" or a "32-bit register".
Q: Define buses and its types.

Buses:
A bus is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which can be shared by
multiple components in order to communicate with one another.
OR
A bus is a subsystem that transfers data between components inside a computer, or
between computers.
Address Bus: An address bus is a bus that is used to specify a physical address. When a
device needs to read or write to a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the
address bus. The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can
address. For example, a system with a 32-bit address bus can address 232 (4,294,967,296)
memory locations. If each memory address holds one byte, the addressable memory space
is 4 GB.
Control Bus: A control bus is (part of) a computer bus, used by CPUs for communicating
with other devices within the computer. The control bus carries commands from the CPU
and returns status signals from the devices, for example if the data are being read or written
to the device the appropriate line (read or write) will be active
Data Bus: Data bus carries the entire data signal from one component to another.
CHAPTER # 6
SECURITY, COPY RIGHT AND THE LAW
Q: Define Computer Crime.
COMPUTER CRIME:
Computer crime has been broadly defined as a criminal act that has been committed using a
computer as the principal tool.
OR
Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer
may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.
Computer crime can take the form of:
 The theft of money, for example, the transfer of payments to the wrong accounts
 The theft of information, for example, by tapping into data transmission lines or
databases at no cost
 The theft of goods by their diversion to the wrong destination
 The theft of computer time, for example, use of an employers computer resources for
personal work
Q: What is Virus? How can we protect our computer from them?
A computer virus is an executable program. Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause
damage of your hard disk contents, and/or interfere normal operation of your computer.
By definition, a virus program is able to replicate itself. This means that the virus multiplies
on a computer by making copies of itself. This replication is intentional; it is part of the virus
program. In most cases, if a file that contains virus is executed or copied onto another
computer, then that computer will also be "infected" by the same virus.
A virus can be introduced to a computer system along with any software program. For
Internet users, this threat can come from downloading files through FTP (file transfer
protocol), or referencing email attachments.
When a virus is introduced to a computer system, it can attach itself to, or sometimes even
replace, an existing program. Thus, when the user runs the program in question, the virus is
also executed. This usually happens without the user being aware of it.
A virus program contains instructions to initiate some sort of "event" that affects the infected
computer. Each virus has a unique event associated with it. These events and their effects
can range from harmless to devastating. For examples:
 An annoying message appearing on the computer screen.

 Reduced memory or disk space.
 Modification of data.
 Files overwritten or damaged.
 Hard drive erased.
ANTI VIRUSES:
Anti-virus software scans files or your computer's memory for certain patterns that may
indicate an infection. The patterns it looks for are based on the signatures, or definitions, of
known viruses.
OR
Antivirus is protective software designed to defend your computer against malicious
software. Malicious software, or "malware" includes: viruses, Trojans, keyloggers, hijackers,
dialers, and other code that vandalizes or steals your computer contents. In order to be an
effective defense, your antivirus software needs to run in the background at all times, and
should be kept updated so it recognizes new versions of malicious software.
Q: What is a Worm?
A worm is computer code that spreads without user interaction. Most worms begin as email
attachments that infect a computer when they're opened. The worm scans the infected
computer for files, such as address books or temporary webpages, that contain email
addresses. The worm uses the addresses to send infected email messages, and frequently
mimics (or spoofs) the "From" addresses in later email messages so that those infected
messages seem to be from someone you know. Worms then spread automatically through
email messages, networks, or operating system vulnerabilities, frequently overwhelming
those systems before the cause is known. Worms aren't always destructive to computers,
but they usually cause computer and network performance and stability problems.
Q: What is a Trojan Horse?

A trojan horse is a malicious software program that hides inside other programs. It enters a
computer hidden inside a legitimate program, such as a screen saver. Then it puts code into
the operating system that enables a hacker to access the infected computer. Trojan horses
do not usually spread by themselves. They are spread by viruses, worms, or downloaded
software.
Q: What is Spyware?
Spyware can install on your computer without your knowledge. These programs can change
your computer’s configuration or collect advertising data and personal information. Spyware
can track Internet search habits and can also redirect your web browser to a different
website than you intend to go to.
Q: What is Malware?
Malware is a term that is used for malicious software that is designed to do damage or
unwanted actions to a computer system. Examples of malware include the following:
 Viruses  Worms  Trojan horses  Spyware  Rogue security software
Q: How to remove Malware such as a Virus, Spyware, or Rogue Security Software.
Removing a computer virus or spyware can be difficult without the help of malicious software
removal tools. Some computer viruses and other unwanted software reinstall themselves
after the viruses and spyware are detected and removed. Fortunately, by updating the
computer and by using malicious software removal tools, you can help permanently remove
unwanted software.
CHAPTER # 7
OPERATING SYSTEM
Q: What is an operating system?
OPERATING SYSTEM:
An operating system, or OS, is a software program that enables the computer hardware to
communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating
system, a computer would be useless.
Operating System Types

As computers have progressed and developed so have the operating systems. Below is a
basic list of the different operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that
fall into each of the categories. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one
of the below categories.
GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and
icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI definition for a
complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI Operating Systems.
 System 7.x
 Windows 98
 Windows CE
Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and different times. See the multi-user definition for a complete
definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of multi-user operating
systems.
 Linux
 Unix
 Windows 2000
Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one
computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing operating systems.
 Linux
 Unix
 Windows 2000
Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to

run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking operating systems.
 Unix
 Windows 2000
Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run
concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:
 Linux
 Unix
 Windows 2000
Q: Define the functions and features of an operating system.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM:
The main functions of an OS include:
 In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same
time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and
how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application
a turn.
 It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
 It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such
as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports.
 It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about
the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
 It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so
that the initiating application is freed from this work.
 On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage
how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
 Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention
of deadlock.
Ma i n F e a t u re s o f O p e r a t i n g Sy st e m s
Operating System An operating system is the core software that allows a computer to run
as an useful device, it manages the hardware, the user interface and all other software
running on the computer.
K E Y P A R T S O F A N O P E RAT I N G S YST EM
This has the task of loading the applications into memory, making sure
they do not interfere with one another and allowing them to share use
of the CPU efficiently. The kernel also handles file storage to and from
KERNEL secondary storage
Every piece of hardware that makes up the computer or connected to it,

DEVICE will have a device driver that allows the operating system to control and
DRIVERS communicate with it.
This part of the operating system is directing what you see on the
screen (via the device driver) and reacting to your key presses and
USER other inputs. The user interface could be a basic command line
INTERFACE interface (CLI) or a Graphical User Interface (GUI)
This part of the operating system provides all the basic facilities that run
SYSTEM in the background without user interaction. For example print spool
UT ILIT IES services and cryptographic password management.

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XI Computer Science Page 1 of 28

Q: Define the term computer?

Q: What are the parts of a computer system?

INPUT DATA ------------> PROCESSING ------------> OUTPUT INFORMATION

Q: Define input devices.

Q: Describe keyboard and its divisions.

Q: What is non keyboard Devices?

Non keyboard input devices or direct input devices are as follows:

Voice Input Devices:

Q: Define CPU with its parts?

THE CONTROL UNIT:

THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:

Q: What is memory unit?

Q: What are system unit and its components?

 Other forms of main memory-cache, VRAM, flash

Q: Define the components of system unit?

Some features of microprocessor are:

OTHER FORMS OF MEMORY:

VIRTUAL MEMORY: Virtual storage is a condition in which part of a program is stored on

 PROM-Programmable Read Only memory

 EPROM-Erasable Programmable Read Only memory

 EEPROM-Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only memory

 EAPROM-Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only memory

EXPANSION CARDS AND SLOTS:

Q: Define softcopy and Hardcopy output.

Q: Write a short note on monitors.

 Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor

Q: Define impact printers.

Q: Define Non-impact printers.

Q: Define computer software. What are its types?

Set of information stored as interconnected program to perform a specific task is called

Software can be divided into two types:

System software is a set of program which is designed by the manufacturer of computer.

For example: operating system, translator, editor etc.

For example: MS-Power Point.

Q: What is an operating system? Write down its functions and features.

THE OPERATING SYSTEM:

Efficiency, in terms of processor and resource utilization.

 Processor management that is assignment of processors to different tasks being

 Coordination of input and output devices

Q: What are language translators?

An interpreter is a program that a program in step by step manner. It translates one

Q: What are operating system environment?

SINGLE TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:

MULTITASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:

A multitasking is an OS is that executes several programs at a time. These are available on

MULTI-USER OPERATING SYSTEM:

Q: What are Network Operating Systems?

NETWORKS OPERATING SYSTEMS

Q: Define several types of Networks.

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network):

WAN (Wide Area Network)

A wide area network is a telecommunication network, usually used for connecting

GAN (Global Area Network)

Global area network or internet (a worldwide collection of interconnected networks) is a

Q: Write some characteristics of LAN networks.

The major characteristics of LANs are:

 The network operates within a building or floor of a building. As increasingly powerful

Q: What is a topology? define topologies of LAN.

The physical layout of a network is called a topology.

The four basic topologies are:

 New terminals can be added to network easily.