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4.Composites
Composite materials are created by combining two or more materials at the macroscopic scale.
Unlike metal alloys, it is possible to distinguish the individual constituents in a composite
material. Composite materials are not new. An early form of composite materials could be traced
back to ancient Persia in the form of straw reinforced bricks. At a much later time, cement,
gravel, and steel bars were combined to form what is known as reinforced concrete.
Development of thin fibers and thermoset polymers led to the creation of fiber-reinforced
materials such as glass-epoxy. A much more recent examples are carbon-polymer and metal
matrix composite materials with applications in aeronautics, automotive, space, sports, and
biomedical fields.
In study of composites we separate materials into five different types based on their mechanical
properties. This separation also identifies the number of independent elastic constants needed to
form the constitutive relations between stress and strain. The five types of materials are:
2. Monoclinic - Similar to anisotropic material with slightly less non-uniformity, it has one
plane of symmetry for material properties.
3. Orthotropic - Similar to anisotropic material but with three planes of symmetry for
material properties.
4. Transversely Isotropic - At every point of this material there is one plane in which the
mechanical properties are the same in all directions.
5. Isotropic - At every point of this material the mechanical properties are the same in all
directions. Such materials have infinite planes of symmetry for material properties.
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Alloying of a basic metal with one or several other metals is a method by which a desired
characteristic of the basic metal can be enhanced. For example, to improve the strength of
aluminum, it is alloyed with zinc.
Q7. What is the difference between the proportional-limit and yield points on a stress-
strain curve of a material?
Proportional limit is referred to a point on the stress-strain diagram where the curve becomes non-
linear. Beyond this point the linear stress-strain variation described by Hooke's law ceases to
be valid. The yield point, on the other hand, is a point at which a permanent deformation or
slip occurs and upon unloading, the specimen will not go back to its original dimensions. The
proportional limit and yield points are usually very close to each other. In the absence of
accurate data, the two points are assumed to coincide.
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