10.

From
these
results we that
see
can
even
though
the REFEKKNCES
leakage current increases and the transconductance [1] A. G. Revesz and E;. H.Zaininger, RCA Ret’,,VOI 29, p. 22,19ciE,.
decreases, the transistors are still “alive” and operative, [ 2 ] K. H. Zainingerand A. G.Holmes-Siedle, RC.1 R e v . , vol. ,253,
p. 208, 1967.
Thus, in the case of neutron bombardment, A1203 hiOS [3] K. H. Zalninger,“Irradiation of N I S capacitorswith ;7igh
transistors
also
seem
quite
be
to“hard.” energy
electrons,” I E E E Trans. iVZlCka7 Science, vc~l.NS-13,
pp. 237-247, December 1966.
[4] E.H.Snow, A. S. Grove, and I). J . Fitzgerald, “Effects of icmiz-
VI. CONCLUSION ing radiation on oxidized silicon surfaces and planar devices,”
Proc. I E E E , vol. 5 5 , pp. 1168-1185, July 1967.
I t hasbeendemonstratedthatfabrication of MOS [5] J. P. IIitcheIl,“Radiation-inducedspace-chargebuildupin
510s structures,” IEEE Tvans. Electvon Devices, vol. ED-14,
devicesemployingagateinsulatorobtainedbyplasma pp. 764-774, November 1967.
anodization of evaporated aluminum is feasible. These [6] A. G.Revesz, K. H. Zaininger,and R. J . Evans, to bepublished
in J . Electrochem. SOC.
devices exhibit excellent characteristics and are remark- [ j ] J , Lindyayer and \v. p. Sable, J r , , “Radiation resistant AIOS
resistant
radiation.
ably
to devlces, I E E E Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-15, pp. 637-
640, September 1968.
[SI A. S.Lf’axman and K. H. Zaininger, AppZ. Phys. Letters, vol.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 12, p. 109, 1968.
[9] J . Aliles and P. Smith, J . Electrochem. SOC.,vol. 110, p. 1250,
F’ and R* have assisted in the [IO] *\96i; \vaxman,Electronics,p, 88, .\Iarc! 18, 1968.
fabricationofthedevicesand in measurements; F. [11] A. G. Stanleyand H. A. R. IVegener, Effects of electron ir-
Kolondracarriedoutthebombardmentand P. Rappa- radiation of metal-nitride-semiconductor insulated gate field-
effect transistors,” Proc. I E E E (Letters), vol. 54, pp. 784-785,
port gave constant encouragement, Alay 1966.

Electromigration-A Brief Survey

and Some Recent Results
JAMES R. BLACK, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-Recently,electromigrationhasbeenidentifiedasa electromigrationhasbeenrecognized as a potential

potential wear-out failure mode for semiconductor devices employ- wear-outfailuremode in semiconductingdevicesem-
ing metal film conductors of inadequate cross-sectional area. A brief
survey of electromigrationindicatesthatalthoughtheeffecthas
ployingmetal film conductors of inadequate cross-
been known for several decades, a great deal of the processes in- sectionalarea,andhasstimulatedinvestigations of
volvedisstillunknown,especiallyforcomplexmetalsandsolute mass transport in metal films [4]-[ll]. The failure is
ions. Earlier design equations are improved to account for conductor a n electrical open circuit due to the apparent loss of
film cross-sectional area as well as film structure, fdm temperature, conductormetal.Fig. 1 presents a scanningelectron
and current density. Design curves are presented which permit the
construction of high reliability “infinite l i e ” aluminum conductors
micrograph of a n aluminum film conductor which has
for specific conditions of maximum current and temperature stress failed duetothis process.Severalvoids in theI-mil
expected in use. It is also shown that positive gradients, in terms of wide aluminum stripe are seen with one void extending
electron flow, of temperature, current density, or ion diffusion co- across the entire conductor resulting in a n open circuit.
efficientforeshortenconductor life becausetheypresentregions
where vacancies condense to form voids. BRIEFSURVEV
IKTRODUCTION Professor Huntingtonand his co-workers a t h e
RensselaerPolytechnicInstitute,Troy, X. Y . , have

E LECTRORIIGRATION is a term applied to the

transport of mass in metals when the metals are
stressed a t high current densities. The effect has
been known for several decades and has been observed
contributed greatly to an understanding

in bothmoltenand solid metals[1]-[3].Recently,
hlanuscript received December 31, 1968. This work was supported
in part by the Rome .Air Development Center, Air Force Systems
Command, Griffiss AFB, Rome, N. Y.,under Contract F30602-67-
C-0166, Project 5519. This paper was presented at the IEEE Re-
liability Physics Symposium, LVashington, D. C., December 1968.
The author is with hIotorola Inc., Semiconductor Products Di-
vision, Phoenix, Ariz. 85008.
is still
unknown
of the processes
involved in electromigration;however,todate,much
[12]-[19]. T h e Rensselaer group
studied the current induced motion of surface scratches
on bulk metals, and they have concluded that a metal
ionwhich has beenthermallyactivatedand is a t its
saddle point (lifted o u t of its potential well and is es-
sentially free of the metal lattice), is acted on by two
opposing forces in anelectricallyconductingsingle
band metal. (See Fig. 2.)
 BLACK: ELECTRO34IGRATION 339

activationenergy for thevelocity of surfacescratch

motion on bulk materials \.\-as determined by the Rens-
selaer group to be identical to the activation energy for
the lattice self-diffusion of the metals.
I n more complex metals the effect of the “hole wind”
on electromigration is poorly understood. For the hole
conductorsironandcobalt,masstransport is in the
direction ofhole transport, while for the hole conductors
zinc, cadmium, and lead, mass transport is in the direc-
tion of electron flow. Here, the effects of the mean-free-
path length of the carriers and their effectivemasses
appear to play an important role.
T h e forces exerted on solute ions, whether interstitial
or substitutional, require considerably more study to he
well understood. As Ivould be predicted, however, hy-
drogen and deuterium dissolved in the hole conductor
iron move in the direction of the hole motion, and silicon
dissolved in the electron conductor aluminum moves in
the direction of electron flow. This latter case has been
shown to lead to another potential semiconductor de-
Fig, 1. One-mil wide AI stripe which has failed due to void vice wear-out failure mode caused by the dissolution of
formation by electromigration.
silicon intoaluminum a t a contact region, andthe
t E
transport of the solute ions away from the interface by
-e the electron wind force. T h e process is a continuous one
which leads to etch pit growth in silicon a t high current
density contacts where electrons leave the silicon and
enter the aluminum. Failure results when an etch pit
grows through a shallow underlying junction resulting
in an electrical short [20].
The theory as developedfor bulk materials leads to a
masstransport which is adirectfunction of current
density. The experimental work, however, n a s carried
outonlyoveranarrowrange of currentdensities
Fig. 2. Forcesacting on a thermallyactivated ion at itssaddle
point in a conductor. (1.5: 1). A simpletheory-recently
- - -presented [ X ] , and
laterslightly modified [ l o ] , 1111, leadsto a current
densitysquaredrelationship Ivith masstransportas
Theelectric field appliedtotheconductor will
shown in (1).
exertaforceontheactivatedpositive ion in a
e to opposite
direction flow. 1 9
T h e r a t eof momentum exchange between the con-
__- - A J 2 exp - ~

LMTF kT
ductingelectrons colliding with
the
activated
metalions will exertaforce on themetal ion in where
direction
the of electron flow. hITF =medianfailure
time
to in hours,
A = a constant which contains a factor involving
Because of shielding electrons, the force on the ion
the cross-sectional area of the film,
due to the electric field is quitesmall;therefore,the
J=current density in amperes per square centi-
predominating force is t h a t of the “electron wind.” As a
meter,
result,activatedmetal ionswhich areupstream in
4 =an activation energy in electron volts,
terms of electron flow from a vacancy have a higher
k = Boltzman’s constant, and
probability of occupying the vacancy site than do other
T = film temperature in degrees Kelvin.
near neighbor ions which surround the vacancy. hIetal
ions,therefore,traveltowardthepositiveend of the Experinlents carried out with readily cooled metal films
conductor while vacanciesmovetowardthenegative enabledtheexperimentalcurrentdensitytorange
end. The vacancies condense to form voids while the greater than 5 : 1 and appear to confirm the J 2 relation-
ions condense a t certain discontinuities to form crystals, ship.
Xvhiskers, and nondescript hillocks.Surface
scratch I t was also shown that the activation energyfor elec-
marks on bulk metal conductors behave as vacancies tromigrationwasstronglydependentuponthestruc-
and are observed to move along the surface of the con- ture of the film [ X ] . Small crystallite (1.2 p) aluminum
ductor in the direction of the negative terminal. The films enabling iondiffusion to take place in the grain
OPE
BLACK: ELECTROAIIGRXTIOS 341

boundary and over the surface as well as through the 1

-- - 5.18 X loW6exp - (0.84/kT) (2)
lattice exhibited an activation energy of 0.48eV. J2" I F
An electronphotomicrograph of voidsgro\ving in
suchasmall-grained film stressed a t elevated current held for large-grainedfilms6000 A thickand 16.25 p
density ( l o 6 A/cm2) is shown in the scanning electron \vide. When the preexponential constant is normalized
micrograph (SEM) of Fig. 3. T h e film is 0.5 milswide to the conductor cross-sectional area of 9.65 X l o p s c m 2
and both grain boundary and surface diffusion appear the above equation can be written as:
to be the predominant transport mechanisms. A typical
void which has resulted in an open circuit in such a film ( w ) ( t ) esp (0.84ikT)
MTF = ____- (3)
is shown in the SERI of Fig. 4. After extensive gronth j X 10-13J2
of voids, the remaining aluminum filaments appear to
fuse a t high current densities to form a n open circuit. kvhere w and t are the conductorLvidth and thickness ex-
Well-ordered,large-grainedaluminum films\\-here pressed in centimeters.
ion diffusion could take place mainly over the surface T o t e s t t h eeffect film cross-sectional area has on film
and through the lattice exhibited an activation energy lifetime, tn-o additional experiments were made. I n the
for electromigration of 0.84 e\'. T h e increase in activa- firstexperimentlarge-grained films of constant thick-
tionenergyto0.84 eVfor these\\-ell-ordered,large- ness near 7000 b u t possessing varying line\\-idths
grain films is attributed to the reductionof grain bound- from 11.5 to 50.3 p were tested a t elevated current densi-
aries with their associated Ion- energy diffusion paths. ties and temperatures. The results of this experiment are
Fig. 5 is a SEA1 of a typical large-grained film after shown in Fig. 9 which plots the experimentally deter-
stress.Surfacediffusionappearstobe a predominant mined lifetime against the predicted lifetime using ( 3 ) .
transport mechanism since the large area voids which The 1: 1 correspondence indicates that the lifetime of
formarenotassociatedn-iththegrainboundaries. A films is a direct function of the film cross-sectional area
better view of the hillocks which gron- out of the surface over the indicated range of conductor nidths.
of the film is shown in Fig. 6. An enlarged vie\\- of one T h e secondexperimenttestedlarge-grainedalumi-
of thevoids in Fig. 7 clearly sho\vs the void to gron- num films of nearly constant linewidths of about 12 p
from the top surface indicating surface diffusion to pre- and thicknessesvaryingfrom 1921 to 12 540 A. T h e
dominate. results of thistestareshown inFig. 10 \\-hich again
.x
Large-grained aluminum films 12 000 thick coated plotstheexperimentallydetermined life againstthe
with a film of Si02 in an attempt to reduce surface as predictedlifetime using (3). It is concluded that f i l m
well as grain boundary diffusion exhibited an activation lifetime is a direct function of the film cross-sectional
energy for electromigration of 1.2 el'. The increase in area.
activation energy over that of the \vell-ordered b u t non- Normalizingtheequations which havepreviously
glassedfilms is attributed to the reduction of surface beenexperimentallydetermined(andreported a t an
diffusion due to the overlaying glassfilm. The activa- earlier date) to express the behavior of small crystal,
tion energy of 1.2 eV approaches thatof the lattice self- large crystal, and glassed large crystal films of specified
diffusion of aluminum determined by quenching tech- cross sections results in the following equations:
niques of 1.48 eV [21].
small crystallite films (1.2 p )
Fig. '8 shows an SEhI of a hillock n-hich has broken
through the glass overlay. The broken glassfilm remains
intact on top of the hillock indicating that the hillock wt
-- - 2.43 X exp - (0.18:kT) (4)
grolvs from the base. J2M T F
or
EFFECTO F T H E CONDUCTOR CROSS-SECTIONAL
wt exp ( 0 . 4 8 j k T )
AREA ON LIFETIME MTF =
2.43 X 10-16J2 '
I n thederivation of thesimpletheory,themedian
timetofailurewasconsideredtobeinverselyrelated large crystallite films (8p)
to the rate of mass transport. A constant for this rela-
tionship included a factor which would account for the wt
conductor cross-sectional area.As a first approximation -- - 5 X exp - (0.84/kT) (6)
J2MTF
it would be predicted that for a given rateof mass trans-
port, the lifetime of the conductor should be a direct or
function of theconductorcross-sectionalarea. I n the
experiment reported previously it was determined that wt exp (0.84/KT)
MTF =
the equation 5 x 10-13~2 '
342 I E E E TRANS.ACTIONS O S E L E C T R O S DEVICES, APRIL 1969

900

600

ul
a
a
-g 700

a . . . .. .. .. .. ..I .. .. .. .. L, ..._. .. .I.-. ....... .. .. .. .. .. I .. .. .. .. ,I -- .. .. .. I . . .. . . .. ... .. .. . . . . .

I . ....
. . .. (.... ..................
Y
1
~

G600.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. i ....'

. . . . . . . . . .-... . . . . . . . . . .
-1
3
.............................. ).... ....
.. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
U -*
-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~

U
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
................ - , ,
..... -. - . . . . . - .. . .. ....
. . . . . . ,....
500 . . . . , . . . . . . . ~.. . . . . . . ~. . . . . . .
. I + . - . :. :. : :
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... . ,. .. ..... .. .. . .l;;;;.
......................................
. . . . . . . - ..... ~___
...............
. . . . . . . f . ./,
. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . ,- . .z-.. . . . . . . . . --:-.
_ _.fiLLT
..
........ . . . . . . . I . . ........
400 . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .( .- .. ... . . .. .. . .
........
. . .. .l ._
' ..........
........
_ . _

200

IO0

0
I00 200 300 400 500 600 '100
EXPERIMENTAL MTF ( HOURSl

Fig. 9. Experimentally determined versus calculated mean time to failure for large grained aluminum films of variable line width.

large crystallite glassed films throughthe use of largegrainorlarge-grain glassed

films.
zbt
-~ - - 8.5 X 10-lo exp - (1.2jKT) (8) Design graphs are presented in Figs. 12, 13, and 14
J 2 MTF where the cross-sectional film area has been chosen to
be
crn2
and is typical for conductor stripes for
or
integrated circuits. Since the lifetime is directly propor-
wlt exp ( 1 . 2 / k T ) tionaltothe film cross-sectional areathe lifetime of
MTF = films of other cross-sectional areas can also quickly be
8.5 X 10-10J2
determined.
This normalized data plotted as a composite Arrhenius
plot is given in Fig. 11. As shown, these intersect a t a THEEFFECT OF GRADIENTS O N CONDUCTOR LIFETIME

temperature near 275OC. At this temperature and above, Intheabove discussion,equations were developed
lattice diffusion is predominant over surface and grain which express the lifetime of long aluminum conductors
boundary diffusion processes; thus, film structural which contain no gradients of temperature,current
effects are not important in that temperature range. At density, or ion diffusion coefficient. If gradients exist as
temperatures lower than27j°C,however,orders of defined in Fig. 15 i t wouldbeexpected t h a t hillocks
magnitudeimprovementinlifetimecanbeobtained andvoids would preferentiallygrow a t t h e positions
BLACK:ELECTROlIIGRATION 343

f j .I ,I . . , . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. , , t

160 , ! : i
................

Experimentally Determined vs Calculated Mean-Time-To-

Failure for Large Grained Aluminum Film Conductorsof
Thickness Variable 1

t
c
I

40 60 eo 100
E X P E R I M E N TM
ATLF HOURS)

Fig. 10. Experimentally determined versus calculated mean time to failure for large grained aluminum film conductors of variable thickness.

indicated in t h a t figure. This is because aluminum ions t a n t excess vacanciescondense at that point to form
in the plateau moving to the right arrive at the negative voids. In addition, voids and whiskers form more slowly
gradient faster than they are removedfrom t h a t region. in gradient-free regions because vacancies generated by
The aluminum ions therefore accumulate in this region ions flowing downstream are readily filled by ions mov-
and formcrystals,whiskers,ornondescriptextruded ing from upstream portionsof the conductor.
appearing formations just upstream (in terms of elec- Films containing positive gradients of temperature,
tron flow) from a negative gradient. In a similar man- currentdensity,or iondiffusioncoefficientwouldbe
ner,aluminum ions justdownstream fromapositive expected to fail earlier than would be predicted by the
gradient are removed from that region faster than they equationsgenerated in theprevioussection of this
are replaced by ions from further upstream. The resul- paper. This is duetothe presence of regionswhere
344 IEEETR.ANS.ICTIONS O S ELECTRONDEVICES, APRIL 1969

c
I
s

3
L
L
L
C
346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS DEVICES,
O N ELECTRON APRIL 1969

f 1
TEMPERATURE,
CURRENT
f
HILLOCK
FORMATION

DENSITY
OR
DIFFUSION
COEFFICIENT NEGATIVE POSITIVE
GRADIENT GRADIENT
(-)

CONDUCTOR LENGTH 4

E L E C T R O N FLOW 4

Fig. 15. Definition of gradients.

(-)

Fig. 16. Crosssection of silicondiffused resistorcontacted with

aluminum electrodes.

vacancies condense to rapidly form voidswhich quickly

lead to an open circuit. To test the effect gradients in
conductoriondiffusionhave on conductorlifetime,
test vehicles were made in which the conductor material
composition was changed abruptly. This was done by
Fig. 1 7 . Aluminum contacts to silicon diffused resistors after aging
contacting resistors diffused into silicon by aluminum a t J = 1.3X 105 i\/cm2 and 235°C for 250 hours.
conductors as depicted in the cross-sectionaldiagram
of Fig. 16. T h e diffused resistors are silicon doped with
a p-type impurity and are typical of resistors used in
silicon integrated circuits.
Anarray of threetestresistorswasevaluatedby
stressing the aluminumfor 230 hours at current densities
of 1.3 X lo5A/cm2 and conductor temperatures of 235OC.
Fig. 17 s h o w two sets of three resistors after aging a t
the above conditions. Whiskers and hillocks grow (out
focus)
of from the
negative
resistor
contact
regions, I+)
\\-bile voids, some of which grow to form open electrical
circuits, develop at the positive resistor terminals.
A second set of similarresistorsstressed in alike
manner is shon-n in Fig. 18. T h e electrical stress polar-
ity of these resistors, honever, has been reversed from
the previous set. Again, hillocks and whiskers form at
the
negative
resistor
terminals
and
voids
form
near I-)
thepositiveresistorterminalsaswaspredicted. By
comparison \vith the previous figure it is seen that the
formation of hillocks andvoidsnearthecontacts is I+I
determined by the direction of electron flow and serves
as additional proof that the direction of mass transport
of aluminum is in the direction of electron flow.
Ascanningelectronphotomicrograph (SELI) of a
similar sample (Fig. 19) shows extensive whisker growth
at the negative terminals of two of these resistors. One
whisker is nearly 5 . 5 mils long, An enlarged SEA1
photomicrograph of this region is presented in Fig. 20. (b)
Here the appear to be extruded from the Fig. 18. X I contacts
Si
to diffused resistors
after aging a t
aluminum film surface.Therelativeheights of thealu- J = 1.3 X lo5 .4/cm2 a t 235'C for 230 hours.
BLACK:ELECTR0.MIGRA4TION
Fig. 19. Whisker and hillock growth a t negative A I contacts to Si
diffused resistors (ohmic hole in glass is 0.5 by 0.3 mil).
Fig. 20. Enlarged view of whiskerand hillock growth a t negative
-11 contacts to Si diffused resistors.
Fig. 21. Void formation in positive .AI contacts to silicon diffused
resistors (ohmic hole in glass is 0.5 by 0.3 mil).
minum film and of the hillocksindicatesextensive
mass transport of the aluminum to these regions.
A SEI1 photomicrograph of the positive terminals of
two of the resistors is shown in Fig. 21. At these ter-
mifials electrons leave the silicon and enter the alumi-
num. The depletionof the aluminum forms a voidn-hich
results in an open circuit, as is clearly indicated.
347
CONCLUSIONS
Electromigrationhasbeenidentified asapotentia 1
\\-ear-outfailuremode for semiconductordevices pos
sessingconductors of inadequate cross-sectionalarea
Althoughelectromigration in metalshas been k n o w1
for several decades it is still not well understood. Design
equationshavebeenpresented which enable the con-
struction of long line aluminum conductors nith essen-
tially infinite lifetime. This is based upon the structure
of the aluminum, the current density, conductor tem-
perature, and conductor cross-sectional area. It has also
been showm that a positive gradient (in terms of elec-
tron floxv) in the diffusion coefficient of the metal ions
producesaregionwherevacanciescondensetoform
voids and greatly reduce film life. I t is predicted that
similargradients in temperatureandcurrentdensity
will also reduce film life.
ACKKOWLEDGMENT
The scanning electronmicroscope pictures were made
by J. Devaney of theJetPropulsionLaboratory,
Pasadena, Calif.
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