MPB-08370; No of Pages 9

Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends

and perspectives
Yooeun Chae, Youn-Joo An ⁎,1
Department of Environmental Health Science, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Contamination by bulk plastics and plastic debris is currently the one of the most serious environmental prob-
Received 21 August 2016 lems in aquatic ecosystems. In particular, small-scale plastic debris such as microplastics and nanoplastics has be-
Received in revised form 21 January 2017 come leading contributors to the pollution of marine and freshwater ecosystems. Studies are investigating the
Accepted 27 January 2017
impacts of micro-and nanoplastics on aquatic organisms and ecosystems worldwide. This review covers 83 stud-
Available online xxxx
ies that investigated the distribution of microplastics and the ecotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics in marine
Keywords:
and freshwater ecosystems. The studies indicated that micro-sized plastics and plastic debris were distributed
Aquatic ecosystems at various concentrations in aquatic ecosystems around the world. They had various effects on the growth, devel-
Pollution opment, behavior, reproduction, and mortality of aquatic animals. We discuss these studies in detail and suggest
Microplastics directions for future research.
Nanoplastics © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nanoparticles
Ecotoxicity

1. Introduction
Plastic pollution is one of the most serious environmental issues
worldwide (Dunlap and Scarce, 1991; Mato et al., 2001; Gregory,
2009; Thompson et al., 2009; Rochman et al., 2013), and concerns
about plastic pollution are increasing (Goldstein et al., 2013; Gross,
2013; Cózar et al., 2014). Microplastics are plastic particles measuring
b5 mm in diameter, as defined by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration in 2008 (Betts, 2008; Barnes et al., 2009),
whereas nanoplastics are generally b 100 μm in diameter) (Koelmans
et al., 2015; Bergami et al., 2016). They are of concern because of their
wide distribution (Cole et al., 2013; Klein et al., 2015) and the enormous
variety of uses of plastics (Plastics Europe, 2014). Small bits of plastic
debris can be ingested by aquatic organisms (Lee et al., 2013b; Kaposi
et al., 2014; Cole and Galloway, 2015; Desforges et al., 2015), accumulat-
ing as they travel up the food chain (Cedervall et al., 2012; Rillig, 2012;
Mattsson et al., 2014) and finally reaching humans (Bouwmeester et al.,
2015). They can cause various adverse effects on organisms, including
growth inhibition (Hämer et al., 2014; Au et al., 2015; Cole and
Galloway, 2015; Sjollema et al., 2016; Sussarellu et al., 2016), behavioral
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anyjoo@konkuk.ac.kr (Y.-J. An).
1
Telephone: +82–2–2049-6090 | Fax: +82–2–2201-6295 | E-mail: anyjoo@konkuk.
ac.kr.
disorders (Mattsson et al., 2014; Rehse et al., 2016), reproductive dys-
function (Lee et al., 2013b; Besseling et al., 2014; Sussarellu et al.,
2016), feeding disorders (Hart, 1991; Wright et al., 2013; Hall et al.,
2015; Nasser and Lynch, 2016; Green et al., 2016), reduced viability
(Browne et al., 2008; Canesi et al., 2015), and even mortality (Casado
et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2013b; Au et al., 2015; Nasser and Lynch, 2016).
Micro-sized plastics are found in marine and freshwater ecosystems
worldwide, as shown in Fig. 1 and Table S1. Many of the studies includ-
ed in this review were conducted in North America and Europe, while
several studies were carried out in East Asia, Latin America, Africa, and
Oceania. Fig. 1 shows the distribution of studies that measured plastic
particles from the surface of the ocean (navy color), on the beach sand
(brown color), in deep sea water (dark gray color), and in lake water
(light blue color). Microplastic densities varied from 0 to 466,305
microplastics per km2. Detailed values and sampling dates may be
found in Table S1.
In this review article, we summarize 59 studies that examined the
ecotoxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics to aquatic organisms, as
well as describing the scopes and purposes of the studies. The studies
were classified according to whether they examined 1) the sole effects
of microplastics on organisms, 2) the complex effects of microplastics
in association with other contaminants, 3) the intrinsic toxicities and
the trophic transfer of nanoplastics, or 4) the differences in toxicity be-
tween microplastics and nanoplastics. The 59 studies include both ma-
rine (Fig. 2) and freshwater (Fig. 3) ecosystems. We conclude by
suggesting directions for future studies and perspectives to guide them.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
0025-326X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
2 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Studies that measured the concentrations and distributions of micro-sized plastics in ocean surface water (navy), beach sand (brown), deep sea water (dark gray), and lake water
(light blue) worldwide. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

2. Effects of microplastics in aquatic environments
2.1. Intrinsic toxicity of micro-sized plastics
The toxic effects of micro-sized plastics have been studied and inves-
tigated since the late 1980s and early 1990s. Studies on the toxicities of
several microplastics of varying sizes and characteristics and their lethal
or sub-lethal effects have been assessed using aquatic organisms includ-
ing algae, ciliates, invertebrates, crustaceans, and fish, as shown in Table
S2. In two of the earliest studies, Hart (1991) assessed the effects of
polystyrene (PS) divinylbenzene microspheres on the feeding, clear-
ance rate, and ciliated band lengths of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus,
Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, Stylasterias forreri, Ophiopholis
aculeata, and Parastichopus californicus, and Bolton and Havenhand
(1998) analyzed the effects of two sizes (3 and 10 μm) of polymer
(ficoll) on the feeding performance of Galeolaria caespitosa larvae.
This research was followed by several studies on the ecotoxicity of
micro-sized plastics. Browne et al. (2008) analyzed the effects of fluo-
rescent PS microspheres of various sizes on the uptake, translocation,
and cell viability of Mytilus edulis, a model marine organism. The use
of these fluorescent particles allowed visual analysis of microplastics.
The study showed that smaller particles may accumulate more easily
in organisms and that short-term exposure did not cause significant bi-
ological effects, although the authors suggested that long-term expo-
sure studies and analysis of the effects of chronic exposure were
necessary. Graham and Thompson (2009) used sea cucumbers
(Echinodermata), including Thyonella gemmata, Holothuria floridana,
Holothuria grisea, and Cucumaria frondosa, to investigate the ingestion
of various types of plastic debris, including poly(vinyl) chloride (PVC)
fragments, nylon fragments, and PVC pellets, collected from sediments
during short-term (20–25 h) exposure. They reported that
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) attached to the surface of plastics
could cause adverse effects and could transfer from the plastic con-
sumers to their predators, including humans, through trophic chains.
Recently, more advanced studies using high-level analytical equip-
ment and in-depth analysis have been conducted. Von Moos et al.
(2012) analyzed various indicators of exposure to high-density polyeth-
ylene (HDPE) particles in M. edulis, including condition index, uptake,
lysosomal membrane stability, lipofuscin, neutral lipids, and histological
diagnosis. Despite the relatively short-term exposure (96 h), ingested
microplastics (0–80 μm) caused significant adverse effects on the tissue
and cells of M. edulis. Cole et al. (2013) exposed 14 marine species to
fluorescently labeled PS (7.3–30.6 μm) for 1 and 24 h and analyzed
the uptake rate of microplastics by different species. They used coherent
anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy to observe the
microplastics adhered to the surface of copepods. In another study,
Wright et al. (2013) exposed Arenicola marina to 0% and 5% (w/w)
and 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 5% (w/w) of clean and chemically inert
unplasticized polyvinylchloride (130 μm) in an acute test (48 h) and a
chronic test (4 weeks), respectively. They investigated feeding activity,
gut residence, and egestion in the acute test and feeding activity, immu-
nity, and energy reserves in the chronic test. The data confirmed a de-
crease of the number of casts, the number of egestion events, and the
total energy reserves after exposure to polyvinylchloride. The study
proved that microplastics can cause physical effects on organisms in
marine ecosystems and emphasized the need to reconsider how plastics
are discarded.
In another study, Hämer et al. (2014) examined both acute (3 d) and
chronic (6–7 weeks) exposure to three different fluorescent plastics
(10 μm of dyed green aqueous fluorescent PS particles, 0–100 μm of
blue fluorescent PS granules, and orange fluorescent polyacrylic wool
plastic fibers) in the marine isopod Idotea emarginata. Hämer et al. fed

Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3

plastics embedded in artificial agarose-based food to I. emarginata. They and the ingestion rate of I. emarginata in the chronic test. Isopods did
analyzed the food choice and the localization and amount of plastics in not distinguish between food with or without plastics, and the
the digestive tract in the acute test and measured the size increment microplastics only presented in the stomach and the gut, not in the

Fig. 2. Studies on the toxicities of microplastics and nanoplastics to marine organisms and ecosystems.

Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
4 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Studies on the toxicities of microplastics and nanoplastics to freshwater organisms and ecosystems.
tubules of the midgut gland. Microplastics did not remain in the body
after egestion and long-term exposure did not cause mortality, growth
inhibition, or a delay in intermolt duration.
Kaposi et al. (2014) examined short-term exposure of polyethylene
(PE) on the sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla, using fluorescent green PE
microspheres with a diameter of 10–45 μm. The exposure times ranged
from 15 min to 5 d. There was a decrease in the ingestion rate when
phytoplankton food was available, compared with the rate when no
food was present. T. gratilla larvae egested the microplastics from their
stomachs within hours of ingestion. Ingested PE microplastics caused
a small non-dose–dependent effect on the growth of T. gratilla larvae
but did not significantly affect their survival. The study concluded that
the concentrations of microplastics in real marine ecosystems threaten
marine invertebrate larvae, including T. gratilla, but further research is
needed.
In a study by Setälä et al. (2014), several zooplankton species were
exposed to fluorescent PS spheres with a diameter of 10 μm and the in-
gestion of the spheres was analyzed via microscopy. Mysis mixta and
Mysis relicta were exposed to PS via food web transfer using prelabeled
copepods and Marenzelleria sp. larvae. The results demonstrated that
microplastics could be transferred via the food web from a lower trophic
level to a higher level. In another study, Cole et al. (2015) conducted
both 24-h and 9-d tests using unlabeled, additive-free PS beads
(20 μm) in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Ingestion was an-
alyzed in the 24-h test, and sub-lethal impacts (egg production rates,
egg size, hatching success, respiration rates, survival, and carbon bud-
get) were assessed in the 9-d test. C. helgolandicus exposed to PS for
24 h ingested 11% fewer algal cells and had 40% less carbon biomass
compared with control groups. The 9-d exposure groups showed a de-
crease in reproductive output as well as energetic depletion, but there
were no significant differences in egg production rates, respiration, or
survival. The study concluded that microplastics can impair feeding in
Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
copepods, which can cause sustained reductions in ingested carbon
biomass.
Hall et al. (2015) used polypropylene microplastics (10 μ–2 mm) to
evaluate the ingestion (over 48 h) and feeding rates (for 3 and 12 h) of
the scleractinian coral Dipsastrea pallida. Ingested microplastics were
found in mesenterial tissue within the coral gut cavity, indicating that
exposure to a high concentration of microplastics can damage the
health of corals. Nobre et al. (2015) evaluated the toxicities of virgin
PE granules and beach-collected stranded pellets on the sea urchin
Lytechinus variegatus at concentrations of 0 and 250 mL/L. Two test
models were used, an assay of the pellet–water interface in the intersti-
tial water and an elutriate assay using the water column. Both models
showed that virgin PE pellets were more toxic than were beach-collect-
ed pellets to the embryonic development of L. variegatus. The authors
concluded that plastics can be a vector of pollutants and that leached
chemicals from pellets can be toxic through various exposure pathways.
In a study by Watts et al. (2015), three-stranded blue PP rope was
cut to lengths of 500 μm. The crab Carcinus maenas was exposed to
these microfibers in its food (at concentrations of 0, 0.6, 1.2, and
2.0 mg per 2 g of food), and various indicators (food consumption,
fecal pellet organics, oxygen consumption, and ammonia excretion
rate) were analyzed in order to calculate the scope for growth. This
value is defined as the amount of energy left after all other metabolic
costs are subtracted (Wiser, 1986; Urbina et al., 2010; McGlaun and
Withers, 2012). After 4 weeks of chronic exposure, microfibers en-
tered the crab's body, passed through the foregut, and finally were
excreted in the form of distinctive balls. Ingested microfibers were
associated with reduced food consumption by crabs and caused a
significant reduction in the amount of energy available for growth
(also called scope for growth). The study provided evidence of the
biotransformation of microfibers and showed that they can adverse-
ly affect marine crabs.
 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Green et al. (2016) conducted mesocosm studies using polylactic
acid (PLA) (235.7 ± 14.8 μm), high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
(102.6 ± 10.3 μm), and PVC (130.6 ± 12.9 μm) microplastics to analyze
the feeding activity, bioturbation, nitrogen cycling, microphytobenthos,
and metabolic rate of A. marina for 31 d. The microplastics were exposed
at concentrations of 0.02%, 0.2%, and 2%, and A. marina produced fewer
casts in sediments that contained microplastics. The metabolic rate
was high and microalgal biomass was low in the high-concentration ex-
posure group. The study concluded that different microplastic materials
cause different effects on organisms. Green (2016) also conducted a
similar experiment using 0.8 and 80 μg/L of PLA (65.6 (0.6–363) μm)
and HDPE (102.6 (0.48–316) μm) in the European flat oyster, Ostrea
edulis, and its associated benthic community for 60 d. The respiration,
filtration rates, growth, macrofaunal abundance and diversity, and
macro- and micro-algal biomass were analyzed. The effects on O. edulis
were slight, but benthic assemblage structures and species richness and
the total number of organisms were affected by exposure. The study
proved that continuous exposure to a high concentration of
microplastics can reduce the abundance of benthic fauna and change
the species assemblage in an important marine habitat.
Setälä et al. (2016) used various invertebrates (Macoma balthica,
Mytilus trossulus, Gammarus sp., mysid shrimps, Monoporeia affinis,
and Marenzelleria sp.) to investigate the ingestion of fluorescent PS
beads (10 μm) for 24 h. Bivalves (M. balthica and M. trossulus) ingested
the greatest amount of PS beads, and free-swimming crustaceans
ingested more PS beads than did benthic animals. Therefore, the inges-
tion rate varies with the behavior and taxon of marine organisms.
Sussarellu et al. (2016) measured a number of endpoints (ingestion,
fate, algal consumption, absorption efficiency, growth, hemocyte
count, morphology and function, etc.) using fluorescent PS beads
(0.023 mg/L of 2 and 6 μm) in oysters. Microplastics caused feeding
modifications and reproductive disruption in oysters, as well as affect-
ing their offspring. Watts et al. (2016) investigated the effects on up-
take, oxygen consumption, and hemolymph function of the marine
crab C. maenas by neutral, carboxylated, and aminated PS microplastics
(8 μm). The microplastics caused a small but significant dose–response
effect after they were inhaled into the gills and entered the bodies of the
crabs. Two different microplastics containing carboxyl (COOH) and
amine (NH2) functional groups were differently distributed in the gill
surface but neither showed a significant impact.
N20 studies used marine species in simulated marine ecosystems.
Because there is greater interest in microplastics pollution in marine
ecosystems, studies using simulated freshwater environments were
not conducted until recently. Only three such studies have been pub-
lished, but active studies on the effects of microplastics on freshwater
ecospecies are ongoing and more studies will be undertaken soon,
owing to increasing concerns about the microplastics used in personal
care products such as facial scrubs and toothpaste and their disposal
into freshwater.
In the first study on microplastics in freshwater, Au et al. (2015) in-
vestigated the ingestion and effects of PE (fluorescent blue PE
microplastic particles, 10–27 μm) and PP (black polypropylene
microplastic fibers from marine rope, 20–75 mm in length) on the
growth and mortality of the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca. The
LC50 of PE and PP in H. azteca after a 10-d exposure were 4.6 × 104
and 71 microplastics/mL, respectively. The effects of chronic exposure
to PE and its influence on the reproduction of amphipods were ana-
lyzed. Chronic exposure of H. azteca to PP fibers, even at a low concen-
tration, significantly decreased growth and reproduction.
Lönnstedt and Eklöv (2016) used Perca fluviatilis, the European
perch, to investigate the effects of PS on hatching rate, activity rate,
growth, ingestion, and survival of fish. They proved that microplastic in-
gestion obtunded the olfactory function of fish and consequentially in-
creased mortality due to predation. Microplastics affected the
performance and development of P. fluviatilis larvae through chemical
and physical means. Rehse et al. (2016) exposed the water flea Daphnia
Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
5
magna to PE microspheres of two different sizes (1–4 μm and 90–
106 μm) and investigated the effect of PE on immobilization and behav-
ior. The 96-h–EC50 of immobilization caused by the smaller PE micro-
spheres was 57.43 (32.76–100.69) mg/L, whereas the larger PE
microspheres did not have significant effects on D. magna at the tested
concentrations and did not enter the bodies of water fleas.
Trophic transfer, one of the major routes of exposure to
microplastics, has been investigated in several studies. Farrell and
Nelson (2013) examined the trophic transfer of fluorescent PS micro-
spheres (0.5 μm) through a food chain consisting of M. edulis and C.
maenas. After C. maenas ingested the soft tissues of M. edulis exposed
to PS microspheres for 1 h, ingested PS spheres were found in the stom-
ach, hepatopancreas, ovary, and gills of C. maenas. This was the first
study on trophic transfer using micro-sized plastics, and the result indi-
cated that microplastics pose a risk to marine organisms and to human
health through food webs. Gutow et al. (2015) used macroalgae (Fucus
vesiculosus) and periwinkle (Littorina littorea) to investigate the trophic
transfer of microplastics of various shapes (10 μm of microbeads, 1–
100-μm fragments, and 90–2200-μm long fibers). L. littorea did not dis-
tinguish between algae with and without adherent microplastics, and
these microplastics were later found in the stomach and the guts of per-
iwinkles. The microplastics mostly depurated with the feces.
2.2. Microplastics as vectors for heavy metals and organic pollutants
Micro-sized plastics are vectors for chemicals and contaminants in
aquatic environments, delivering materials into the bodies of organisms
or to other places (Brennecke et al., 2016; Koelmans et al., 2016). Sever-
al studies investigated the adsorption and adherence of heavy metals
and organic and inorganic contaminants to microplastics and their tox-
icity to organisms in marine ecosystems (Table S3). Besseling et al.
(2013) analyzed the complex toxicity of PS microspheres (400–
1300 μm) and PCBs on A. marina for 28 d. Various congeners (PCB-18,
20, 28, 29, 31, 44, 52, 101, 105, 118, 138, 143, 149, 153, 155, 170, 180,
194, 204, and 209) were used, and survival, growth, activity, and inter-
nal PCB concentrations were analyzed. As the concentration of
microplastics increased, both uptake of plastic particles and weight
loss of A. marina increased. At a concentration of 1 g/L of microplastics
in the sediment, both bioaccumulations of ΣPCBs and several individual
congeners increased. In a study by Browne et al. (2013), A. marina was
exposed to PVC and sand containing nonylphenol, phenanthrene, triclo-
san, and PBDE-47. Ingested microplastics and sand transferred other
pollutants into the bodies of A. marina. PVC with nonylphenol reduced
the ability of coelomocytes to remove pathogenic bacteria by N 60%.
PVC with triclosan caused more serious mortality of A. marina (N55%)
than did PVC alone.
Oliveira et al. (2013) researched the toxicity of each PE (1–5 μm, 18.4
and 184 μg/L) and pyrene (20 and 200 μg/L), as well as their complex
toxicity, on Pomatoschistus microps that had been exposed for 96 h. Mor-
tality was assessed and several biomarkers were measured: acetylcho-
linesterase (AChE) activity, isocitrate dehydrogenase activity,
glutathione S-transferase activity, and lipid peroxidation. Exposure
to 200 μg/L of pyrene and 200 μg/L of pyrene with PE (18.4 and
184 μg/L) caused significant mortality. Pyrene and PE mixtures de-
creased the activities of AChE and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Chua et
al. (2014) used PE extracted from a commercial scrub product with
PBDEs (BDE-28, −47, −99, −100, −153, −154 and −183 mixtures)
to analyze PBDE uptake and assimilation of PBDEs in Allorchestes
compressa. Microplastics transferred PBDEs into the bodies of marine
amphipods and increased the assimilation of PBDEs. The amounts of as-
similated PBDEs varied for different congeners. Davarpanah and
Guilhermino (2015) used PE microplastics (1–5 μm) and copper as
test materials and the green microalgae Tetraselmis chuii as the test spe-
cies. The growth of T. chuii was significantly inhibited by a 96-h expo-
sure to copper only. ECx values for 96 h were higher when T. chuii was
6 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
exposed to copper + PE than when the organisms were exposed only to
copper.
Luís et al. (2015) exposed P. microps from the estuaries of Minho to
PE microplastics (1–5 μm) with heavy metal chrome (VI) for 96 h. The
toxic values (LC50) for PE and a PE + chrome (VI) mixture were 30.5
(23.31–62.16) mg/L and 25.8 (19.58–43.12) mg/L, respectively. The
toxic values (LC50) for PE and the PE + chrome mixture on P. microps
from the estuaries of Lima were 14.4 (4.30–51.01) mg/L and 20.9
(14.50–34.78) mg/L, respectively. The fish in both treatment groups
responded more slowly to predators; AChE inhibition in fish was ob-
served only when the animals were exposed to PE + chrome (VI).
Ferreira et al. (2016) evaluated the toxicity of three sizes of gold nano-
particles (5 ± 2 nm; AuNP) and PE microspheres (1–5 μm) on the fish
P. microps at two different temperatures (20 °C and 25 °C). A 96-h expo-
sure to PE did not influence the toxicity of AuNP, but the higher temper-
ature significantly increased the concentrations of Au in fish. In another
study, Paul-Pont et al. (2016) used PS beads (2 and 6 μm) and fluoran-
thene as test materials to evaluate the effects in a species of the mussel
Mytilus. PS beads caused direct toxic effects on Mytilus by regulating the
kinetics and toxicities of fluoranthene to mussels.
In freshwater ecosystems, the ecotoxicities of PE (10–106 μm) in as-
sociation with 1 μg/L silver ions on Danio rerio were investigated (Khan
et al., 2015). When PE coexisted with silver, there was no difference in
the uptake of silver by D. rerio, compared with when PE was absent.
However, PE aged with silver for 96 h decreased silver uptake and in-
creased the percentage of silver found in the intestines of fish. In anoth-
er freshwater study, Karami et al. (2016) examined the toxicity of low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) fragments with phenanthrene to the
freshwater African sharptooth catfish Clarias gariepinus. Various assess-
ment points were analyzed (i.e., consumption, liver histology and glyco-
gen storage, plasma biochemical determinations, gene transcription,
and degree of tissue change) after a 96-h exposure. As in the case of
other complex toxicity tests, the study concluded that microplastics
can modulate and adjust the toxicities of other pollutants to aquatic or-
ganisms. Wardrop et al. (2016) used the test method of Chua et al.
(2014) with a different test species (Melanotaenia fluviatilis) and also
concluded that microplastics can transfer adhered contaminants to
aquatic organisms more effectively.
Batel et al. (2016) used two types of microplastics (1–5-μm poly-
mers of undisclosed composition and 10–20-μm PE particles) and one
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). They
examined both the trophic transfer of microplastics and the trophic
transfer of BaP adsorbed to microplastics via an artificial food chain.
Both materials were transferred through the food chain, and
ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase assay confirmed the presence of trans-
ferred BaP in the intestinal epithelium and liver.
Several studies used complex contaminants such as organic com-
pounds containing PAH (phenanthrene, pyrene, fluoranthene, and
BaP), an organic chlorine compound (nonylphenol), an organobromine
compound (PBDE), and a chlorinated aromatic compound (triclosan)
and inorganic compounds like heavy metals (copper, chrome, silver,
and gold nanoparticles). Owing to their lipophilic characteristics, a vari-
ety of organic compounds were used with microplastics in these stud-
ies, but the studies using inorganic compounds are also meaningful.
Because there are various contaminants in marine and freshwater eco-
systems and these contaminants usually act simultaneously on species,
studies on complex toxicity are highly relevant approaches to investi-
gate the toxicity of microplastics in ecosystems.
3. The toxic effects of nano-sized plastics on organisms
3.1. Intrinsic toxicity of nano-sized plastics, as shown by trophic transfer
studies
Nanoplastics are much smaller than microplastics and can have
slightly different properties from microplastics. The ecotoxicity studies
Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
using nano-sized plastics in marine and freshwater ecosystems are
shown in Table S4. In one ecotoxicity study in a marine ecosystem,
Ward and Kach (2009) analyzed the toxicities of PS nanoplastics
(100 nm) on M. edulis and Crassostrea virginica after a 45-min exposure,
recording both ingestion and egestion of both species. The study con-
cluded that nanoplastics remain in the body longer than microplastics
and can be transported to the digestive gland. In another study, Chen
et al. (2011) used 10 and 100 ppb of non-fluorescent nanoparticles
and fluorescent PS engineered nanoparticles (both 23 nm) to analyze
the extraction of exopolymeric substances by three phytoplankton spe-
cies and the accumulation of these substances. Wegner et al. (2012) also
used PS nanoplastics (30 nm) to assess the effects of nanoplastics on the
production of pseudofeces and the weight of feces and pseudofeces in
M. edulis. M. edulis removed nanoplastics from the water and showed
a slight decrease in filtering activities in the presence of algae (food).
Della Torre et al. (2014) used PS nanoplastics with carboxyl (40 nm)
and amine (50 nm) functional groups in the sea urchin Paracentrotus
lividus. The organisms showed embryo toxicity and abnormal gene ex-
pression. Canesi et al. (2015, 2016) investigated various indicators (ly-
sosomal membrane stability, lysosomal enzyme release, phagocytosis,
extracellular oxyradical production, etc.) in an in vitro assay using
amino-modified polystyrene (PS-NH2) nanoplastics (50 nm) and
Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam. Bergami et al. (2016) also used carboxylat-
ed and amino-modified PS nanoplastics (40–50 nm) to investigate mor-
tality and sub-lethal effects on Artemia franciscana. Nanoplastics
adversely affected the feeding, motility, and multiple molting of A.
franciscana. These results indicate that nanoplastics affect not only the
organism and population but also the ecosystem.
To investigate the effects of nanoplastics in a freshwater ecosystem,
Kashiwada (2006) exposed Oryzias latipes to 39.4 nm PS nanoplastics
and assessed adsorption, accumulation, distribution, and mortality. In
another study, Bhattacharya et al. (2010) used 20 nm of positively and
negatively charged PS nanoplastics to evaluate adsorption, photosyn-
thesis, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Chlorella sp.
and Scenedesmus sp. Besseling et al. (2014) investigated the toxicity of
PS nanoplastics functionalized with carboxylic acid groups on
Scenedesmus obliquus and D. magna. Nanoplastics affected the photo-
synthetic capacity and biomass of algae and also affected the survival,
reproduction, body size, and physical formation of D. magna neonates.
Nasser and Lynch (2016) also conducted toxicity tests of functionalized
PS nanoplastics on D. magna, and Greven et al. (2016) investigated the
toxicities of PS and polycarbonates on phagocytosis and neutrophil
function of fathead minnows in in vitro assays.
Multi-battery assays using various marine and freshwater species, in-
cluding Vibrio fischeri, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, Thamnocephalus
platyurus, D. magna, and Corophium volutatoracute, as well as rainbow
trout gonadal cell lines (Casado et al., 2013; Booth et al., 2015), were con-
ducted. These studies investigated the effects of nanoplastics on immobili-
zation, survival, and growth and calculated toxic values. Because of their
smaller size and similarity to nanoparticles, which have been studied wide-
ly, nanoplastics have been used in several in vitro tests with mussels
(Canesi et al., 2015; Canesi et al., 2016) and fish (Casado et al., 2013;
Greven et al., 2016). With the exception of Ward and Kach (2009), all the
studies used the weight per volume as the unit of nanoplastics because of
the difficulty of calculating the number of particles. Due to the extremely
small size of nanoplastics, microstructures at the molecular and gene
level were also analyzed.
Trophic transfer assays of nanoplastics were conducted by Cedervall
et al. (2012) and Mattsson et al. (2014). Cedervall et al. (2012) analyzed
the trophic transfer of PS nanoplastics (24 and 28 nm) in a food chain
consisting of Scenedesmus sp., D. magna, and Carassius carassius and
measured the changes in cholesterol content in fish. Increased intake
of nanoplastics caused disturbances in lipid metabolism. Mattsson et
al. (2014) analyzed fish behavior and conducted NMR spectroscopy
using the same food chain. They concluded that PS nanoplastics affected
both behavior and metabolism of fish and that nanoplastics were
 Y. Chae, Y.-J. AnMarine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
definitely transferred to upper trophic levels via the food chain. Trophic
transfers of nanoplastics were also investigated in two studies.
Nanoplastics have a small volume and a relatively large surface area,
so the potential for them to penetrate the bodies and tissues of organ-
isms is high. Trophic transfer is one of the major route of pollutant expo-
sure and requires further study.
3.2. Toxicity comparison of micro- and nano-sized plastics
Several studies compared the toxicities and effects of microplastics
and nanoplastics (Table S5). Lee et al. (2013b) conducted a toxicity
test using both plain and fluorescent micro- and nanoplastics (50 nm,
500 nm, and 6 μm). Mortality, ingestion, sex ratio, and fecundity were
investigated in the test species Tigriopus japonicus. The 50-nm PS
beads did not affect the fecundity of T. japonicus, but all PS beads phys-
ically inhibited fertilization. Otherwise, there was no significant differ-
ence in toxicity between nanoplastics and microplastics. In another
study, Cole and Galloway (2015) used fluorescently labeled PS micro-
and nanoplastics (70, 160, and 870 nm; 1.84, 4.1, 7.3, 10.2, and
20.3 μm), fluorescently labeled and carboxylated PS (940 and
990 nm), and microplastic beads (1 and 10 μm). The consumption of
micro- and nanoplastics by Crassostrea gigas larvae were evaluated ac-
cording to the size of plastics, and the ingestion and growth were inves-
tigated using 1 and 10 μm microplastic beads. The ingestion during a 24-
h exposure varied by larval age, size of plastics, and surface properties of
plastics. Aminated plastics were more easily ingested and retained in
the bodies of larvae. There were no significant effects of plastics on feed-
ing and growth of C. gigas.
Jeong et al. (2016) investigated the fecundity and lifespan of
Brachionus koreanus in the presence of nonfunctionalized PS
microbeads (50 and 500 nm and 6 μm) and analyzed ingestion, eges-
tion, ROS induction, and antioxidant enzymatic activity using fluores-
cently labeled PS microbeads (50 and 500 nm and 6 μm). Exposure to
plastic beads was associated with increased oxidative stress and antiox-
idant enzymes and decreased growth rate, fecundity, lifespan, repro-
duction time, and body size. The study concluded that the toxicities of
micro- and nanoplastics are size-dependent and that smaller plastics
are more toxic than bigger ones.
Comparison studies were also conducted with freshwater species.
Manabe et al. (2011) exposed O. latipes embryos and yolk-sac larvae
to virgin fluorescent latex particles (50 and 500 nm) and to fluorescent
latex particles with a carboxyl-group surface coating (50 and 500 nm).
After exposure, the organisms' uptake, mortality, and excretion were
analyzed. Smaller nanoplastics were more easily ingested by O. latipes
than were bigger microplastics, and nanoplastics were excreted more
slowly than were the microplastics. However, there was no intrinsic
toxicity of fluorescent nanoplastics.
Lu et al. (2016) used D. rerio to assess the toxicities of PS micro- and
nanoplastics. The fluorescent PS particles (5 and 20 μm) with encapsu-
lated fluorescent dyes were used to investigate uptake and accumula-
tion, and virgin PS particles (70 nm and 5 μm) were used to measure
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity, histopatholo-
gy, and metabolomics of D. rerio. Small microplastics (5 μm) and larger
microplastics (20 μm) were distributed in different parts of the bodies of
D. rerio. Sjollema et al. (2016) analyzed the photosynthetic capacity and
the growth of Dunaliella tertiolecta exposed to three sizes (50 and
500 nm and 6 μm) of virgin PS beads. Their study concluded that de-
creasing particle size was associated with increasing adverse effects. In
general, smaller micro- or nanoplastics cause more toxic effects on or-
ganisms because of their relatively large surface area and other charac-
teristics, as shown by Jeong et al. (2016) and Sjollema et al. (2016).
However, several studies failed to find significant differences between
the toxicities of large microplastics and small nanoplastics. This finding
was attributed to the differences in the number of particles and other
factors that influence the toxicities of plastics.
Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070
7
4. Future studies and perspectives
The present paper constitutes an exhaustive review of the published
studies on the ecotoxicities of microplastics and nanoplastics. Since the
1970s, pollution of ecosystems by plastic wastes and debris has become
a concern (Carpenter et al., 1972; Colton et al., 1974). In the early 1990s,
several studies reported on the ecotoxicities of small plastics, and the
problem of pollution by plastic debris began to receive attention
(Dunlap and Scarce, 1991; Hart, 1991; Bolton and Havenhand, 1998).
In the 2000s, many more studies examined the ecotoxicities and effects
of microplastics and nanoplastics on aquatic organisms and ecosystems.
In the 2010s, several studies considered the effects of functional groups
of plastic debris, making a connection between the characteristics of
certain environments and the effects of these plastics, examining tro-
phic transfer via food webs or food chains, and analyzing generational
and whole ecological effects.
Many questions remain about the fate, degradation, interaction, and
invisible effects of micro- and nano-sized plastics. Although the charac-
teristics of plastic microspheres have been described and their effects on
a number of aquatic species have been assessed, these data are only a
small part of the whole story. Future studies on micro- and nanoplastics
should focus on the most urgent topics: i) the interactions between the
surfaces of micro- and nanoplastics and the environment, ii) trophic
transfer of micro- and nanoplastics that can harm human health by
transferring through the food chain, iii) the generational effects of
micro- and nanoplastics, and iv) the long-term effects of these small
plastics on aquatic organisms.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by
the Ministry of Science, ICT and future planning (2016R1A2B3010445).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070.
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Please cite this article as: Chae, Y., An, Y.-J., Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic ecosystems: Current research trends and perspectives,
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.070