AZETECS EMPIRE

The Aztec Empire, or the Triple Allian, began as an alliance of

three Nahua "altepetl" city-states: Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.
These three city-states ruled the area in and around the Valley of Mexico from
1427 until the combined forces of the Spanish conquistadores and their native
allies under Hernán Cortés defeated them in 1521.
The Triple Alliance was formed from the victorious faction in a civil war fought
between the city of Azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces.[1] Despite the
initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed city-
states, Tenochtitlan quickly became dominant militarily.[2] By the time the Spanish
arrived in 1519, the lands of the Alliance were effectively ruled from Tenochtitlan,
while the other partners in the alliance had taken subsidiary roles.
The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded rapidly after its formation. At
its height, the alliance controlled most of central Mexico as well as some more
distant territories within Mesoamerica, such as the Xoconochco province, an
Aztec exclave near the present-day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been
described by scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect".[3] The Aztecs left rulers of
conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the
Alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts.
In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability, and
facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had
significant local autonomy.
The state religion of the empire was polytheistic, worshiping a diverse pantheon
that included dozens of deities. Many had officially recognized cults large enough
so that the deity was represented in the central temple precinct of the capital
Tenochtitlan. The imperial cult, specifically, was that of Huitzilopochtli, the
distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica. Peoples in conquered provinces were
allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions, so long as they
added the imperial god Huitzilopochtli to their local pantheons.

ETYMOLOGY
The word "Aztec" in modern usage would not have been used by the people themselves. It has variously been used
to refer to the Triple Alliance empire, the Nahuatl-speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or
specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking peoples.[4] The name comes from a Nahuatl word meaning
"people from Aztlan," reflecting the mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples.[5] For the purpose of this article,
"Aztec" refers only to those cities that constituted or were subject to the Triple Alliance. For the broader use of the
term, see the article on Aztec civilization.

HISTORY
BEFORE THE AZTEC EMPIRE
Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the early 13th
century.[6] According to the pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history, the place of origin was
called Aztlán. Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of
independent city-states. These early Nahua cities were ruled by petty kings called tlahtohqueh (singular, tlatoāni).
Most of the existing settlements, which had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Nahua
migration, were assimilated into Nahua culture.[7]
These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other, but due to shifting alliances, no individual city
gained dominance.[8]The Mexica were the last of Aztlan migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They entered the Basin
of Mexico around the year 1250 AD, and by then most of the good agricultural land had already been claimed. [9] The
Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan to allow them to settle in a relatively infertile patch of land
called Chapultepec (Chapoltepēc, "in the hill of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served as hired mercenaries for
Culhuacan.[10]
After they served Culhuacan in battle, the king appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. According to
mythological native accounts, the Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her skin, on the command of their god Xipe
Totec.[11] When the king of Culhuacan learned of this, he attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from
Tizaapan by force. The Mexica moved to an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where an eagle nested on
a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign from their god and founded their new city, Tenochtitlan, on this
island in the year ōme calli, or "Two House" (1325 AD).[1]
The new Mexica city allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its king, Tezozomoc.[12] With Mexica
assistance, Azcopotzalco began to expand into a small tributary empire. Until this point, the Mexica ruler was not
recognized as a legitimate king. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a
daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their son, Acamapichtli, was enthroned as the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in
the year 1372.[13]
While the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their kingdom with help from the Mexica, the Acolhua city
of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states,
and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Texcoco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city and
was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs by receiving Texcoco as a tributary province.[14]

Tepanec War
In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died, and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between
potential successors.[14] The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir, Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned as
king. But his son, Maxtla, soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the
Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla. [9]
The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla; he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute
payments.[15] Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl, fled into exile.
Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the king of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the support of a dissident
Tepanec city, Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against
Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.[15]
After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and the three remaining cities formed a treaty known today as the Triple
Alliance.[15] The Tepanec lands were carved up among the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in future
wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests was to be held by the three cities together. Tribute was to be
divided so that two-fifths each went to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco, and one-fifth went to Tlacopan. Each of the three
kings of the alliance in turn assumed the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", often translated as "Emperor"). In this
role, each temporarily held a de jure position above the rulers of other city-states ("tlatoani").[16]
In the next 100 years, the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan came to dominate the Valley of
Mexico and extend its power to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. Tenochtitlan gradually became the
dominant power in the alliance. Two of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-
brothers Tlacaelel and Moctezuma, nephews of Itzcoatl. Motecuzoma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as the
Mexica huetlatoani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created title of "Cihuacoatl", equivalent to something
between "Prime Minister" and "Viceroy".[15][17]

Imperial reforms
Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state
and religion. It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books,
claiming that they contained lies and that it was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings". [18] Even if he
did order such book-burnings, it was probably limited primarily to documents containing political propaganda from
previous regimes; he thereafter rewrote the history of the Aztecs, naturally placing the Mexica in a more central role.
After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more reforms were instigated to maintain control over
conquered cities.[19]Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute
system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population directly, bypassing the authority of local
dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in
lands far from their capitals.[20] This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king
rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by calpixqueh, or
appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers.[20]
Moctezuma issued new laws that further separated nobles from commoners and instituted the death penalty for
adultery and other offenses.[21] By royal decree, a religiously supervised school was built in every
neighborhood.[21] Commoner neighborhoods had a school called a "telpochcalli" where they received basic religious
instruction and military training.[22] A second, more prestigious type of school called a "calmecac" served to teach the
nobility, as well as commoners of high standing seeking to become priests or artisans. Moctezuma also created a
new title called "quauhpilli" that could be conferred on commoners.[19] This title was a form of non-hereditary lesser
nobility awarded for outstanding military or civil service (similar to the English knight). In some rare cases,
commoners that received this title married into royal families and became kings. [20]
One component of this reform was the creation of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars.
Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized by a strong preference for capturing live prisoners as opposed to
slaughtering the enemy on the battlefield, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars are a potent
manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of
experienced Aztec warriors as well as a steady, healthy supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to the gods.
Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity
collecting prisoners for sacrifice.[23] According to native historical accounts, these wars were instigated by Tlacaelel as
a means of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of Mexico from 1450 to
1454.[24] The flower wars were mostly waged between the Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-
enemy Tlaxcala.

Early years of expansion

After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl rapidly consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and
began to expand beyond its borders. The first targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexico
and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos.[26] These conquests provided the new
empire with a large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods.
On the death of Itzcoatl, Motecuzoma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was
briefly halted by a major four-year drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to
be re-conquered after the drought subsided.[27] Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east
towards the Gulf of Mexico and south into Oaxaca. In 1468, Motecuzoma I died and was succeeded by his
son, Axayacatl. Most of Axayacatl's thirteen-year-reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his
predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled. [9]
At the same time as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in West
Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their king Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca
Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl. [28] In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the
region and successfully defended it from Purépecha attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major
invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers. [28] The Purépecha met them just across the border with
50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army. Axayacatl himself
was wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in battle again.[29]
In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of Texcoco.[30] This was
followed by the death of Axayacatl in 1481.[29] Axayacatl was replaced by his brother Tizoc. Tizoc's reign was
notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Apparently due to his
incompetence, Tizoc was likely assassinated by his own nobles five years into his rule.[29]

Later years of expansion

Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the first part of Ahuitzotl's reign was
spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule. [29] Ahuitzotl then began
a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valleyand the Soconusco Coast. Due to increased border skirmishes
with the Purépechas, Ahuitzotl conquered the border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost. [31] The
population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process.[28] The Purépecha subsequently established
fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion.[28] Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the Pacific
Coast of Guerrero.
By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple
Alliance.[32] Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use
the title "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan. [29] Even
though the alliance still technically ran the empire, the Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority.
Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Motecuzoma II in 1502. Motecuzoma II spent most of his reign consolidating
power in lands conquered by his predecessors.[31] In 1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general
Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire once again.[33]The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was mostly
restricted to raiding. The Purépechas defeated them and the army withdrew.
Motecuzoma II instituted more imperial reforms.[31] After the death of Nezahualcoyotl, the Mexica Emperors had
become the de facto rulers of the alliance. Motecuzoma II used his reign to attempt to consolidate power more closely
with the Mexica Emperor.[34] He removed many of Ahuitzotl's advisors and had several of them executed. [31] He also
abolished the "quauhpilli" class, destroying the chance for commoners to advance to the nobility. His reform efforts
were cut short by the Spanish Conquest in 1519.

Spanish conquest
Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed with
only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the expedition's commander by the governor of
Cuba, Diego Velásquez, but had stolen the boats and left without permission. [35] At the island of Cozumel, Cortés
encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between
Spanish and Mayan. The expedition then sailed west to Campeche, where after a brief battle with the local army,
Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter, Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second
translator, a bililngual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known also as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi],
Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina] ). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan and La Malinche
translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Once Malinche learned Spanish, she became Cortés's translator for both language
and culture, and was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers. An important article, "Rethinking Malinche"
by Frances Karttunenexamines her role in the conquest and beyond.[36]
Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a tributary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded
the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor, Motecuzoma II. When the
ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. After the
Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an
imperial tribute collector.[37] Cortés subsequently released the tribute collector after persuading him that the move was
entirely the Totonac's idea and that he had no knowledge of it. Having effectively declared war on the Aztecs, the
Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala. [38] At this time several of Cortés's
soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor
to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba.[39]
The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek the latter's alliance against the Aztecs. However, the
Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to be hostile, and attacked. After fighting several close
battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their general to stand down. Cortés then secured
an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala, and traveled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller company of
5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs, in addition to the Spanish soldiers.[39] During his stay in the city of Cholula,
Cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the Spanish.[39] In a pre-emptive response, Cortés
directed his troops attack and kill a large number of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the main square of the city.
Following the massacre at Cholula, Hernan Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were
greeted as guests and given quarters in the palace of former emperor Axayacatl. [40] After staying in the city for six
weeks, two Spaniards from the group left behind in Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord named
Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to take Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of
force.[39] For several months, Motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Hernan Cortés. Then, in
1520, a second, larger Spanish expedition arrived under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego
Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Before confronting Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded
Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and join Cortés.[39]
While Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, his second in command Pedro de
Alvarado massacred a group of Aztec nobility in response to a ritual of human sacrifice
honoring Huitzilopochtli.[39] The Aztecs retaliated by attacking the palace where the Spanish were quartered. Cortés
returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to
ask his subjects to stand down. However, by this point the ruling council of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose
Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor.[40] One of the Aztec soldiers struck
Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone, and he died several days later – although the exact details of his death,
particularly who was responsible, are unclear.[40]
The Spaniards and their allies, realizing they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following
Moctezuma's death, attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the "Sad Night" or La Noche Triste.
Spaniards and their Indian allies were discovered clandestinely retreating, and then were forced to fight their way out
of the city, with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded down with gold. [41]They
retreated to Tlacopan (now Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala, where they recovered and prepared for the
second, successful assault on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hit Tenochtitlan. As the
indigenous of the New World had no previous exposure to smallpox, this outbreak alone killed more than 50% of the
region's population, including the emperor, Cuitlahuac. [42] While the new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox
outbreak, Cortés raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec rule. With a
combined army of up to 100,000 warriors,[39] the overwhelming majority of which were indigenous rather than Spanish,
Cortés marched back into the Basin of Mexico. Through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, he captured
the various indigenous city-states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains, including the other
capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco. Texcoco in fact had already become firm allies of the
Spaniards and the city-state, and subsequently petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the
conquest, just as Tlaxcala had done.[43]
Using boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships, Cortés blockaded and laid siege to
Tenochtitlan for a period of several months.[39] Eventually, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both by boat and
using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. Although the attackers took heavy casualties, the Aztecs
were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process. Cuauhtémoc was
captured as he attempted to flee the city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years
before finally executing him in 1525.[44]

GovernmenT
The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it
was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more a system of tributes than a single unitary
form of government. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J.
Motyl the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authority over its
tributary provinces; it merely expected tributes to be paid.[45] The empire was also territorially discontinuous, i.e. not all
of its dominated territories were connected by land. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were
not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen
in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered and the
Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made. [46]
Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were
organized as city-states (individually known as altepetl in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small
polities ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plural tlatoque) from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early Aztec
period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme. Even after the empire was formed in 1428 and began
its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level.
The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's
hegemonic form of control.[47]
It should be remembered that the term "Aztec empire" is a modern one, not one used by the Aztec themselves. The
Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl-speaking city states in the densely populated Valley of
Mexico. Over time, asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states, Tenochtitlan, above the other two. The
"Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic
and cultural diversity. Administration of the empire was performed through largely traditional, indirect means.
However, over time something of a nascent bureaucracy may have been beginning to form insofar as the state
organization became increasingly centralized.

Central administration
Before the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation along
traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by tlatoani (lit., "speakers"), who supervised village
headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey
Tlatoani (lit., "great speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a
somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming
replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply
replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility. [48]
Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with
the external issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview
of the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the Cihuacoatl to govern the city of Tenochtitlan itself. The Cihuacoatl was
always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title
"Cihuacoatl", which means "female snake" (it is the name of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat
analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Minister, reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither the
position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, yet both did have important ritual tasks. Those of
the former were associated with the "female" wet season, those of the latter with the "male" dry season. While the
position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position also existed the nearby altepetl
of Atzcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and Tenochtitlan's ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser status of the position, a
Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, as in the case of Tlacaelel. [49][50]
Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a four-member military and advisory Council which assisted
the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl;[51] and the tlillancalqui.
This design not only provided advise for the ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, as
henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the Council. Moreover, the actions of any one member of the
Council could easily be blocked by the other three, providing a simple system of checks on the ambition higher
officials. These four Council members were also generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the
members were not equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two
Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and
the otontin ("Otomies").

Provincial administration[edit]
Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system evolved
further and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials.The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has
already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular calpixqui, plural calpixque) were sometimes imposed
on altepetl instead of the selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the
organization of the state into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary
provinces fell under the supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque, whose authority extended over the lower-
ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of the provincial tribute system
which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the huetlatoani, but rather by a
separate position altogether: the petlacalcatl. On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as
particularly restive, a military governor, or cuauhtlatoani, was placed at the head of provincial supervision.[54] During
the reign of Moctezuma I, the calpixque system was elaborated, with two calpixque assigned per tributary province.
One was stationed in the province itself, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in
Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Tribute was drawn from commoners, the macehualtin, and
distributed to the nobility, be they 'kings' (tlatoque), lesser rulers (teteuctin), or provincial nobility (pipiltin).[55]
Tribute collection was supervised by the above officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec military, but
also upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute)
and the hereditary class of merchants known as pochteca. These pochteca had various gradations of ranks which
granted them certain trading rights and so were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played an important role
in both the growth and administration of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The power, political and economic,
of the pochteca was strongly tied to the political and military power of the Aztec nobility and state. In addition to
serving as diplomats (teucnenenque, or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, higher-ranking
pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to certain degree autonomous corporate groups, having
administrative duties within their own estate.