Euclid’s Elements Readings

Proposition 1: To construct an equilateral triangle on a given finite straight-line.

Proof:

1. ∵ C(𝐶𝐷𝐵) = 𝐴 ⟹ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 [D1.15]
2. ∵ C(𝐶𝐴𝐸) = 𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴 [D1.15]
3. But 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 (by 1), so 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 (by 2).
4. By C.N. 1 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵, ∴ 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶.
Proposition 2: To place a straight-line equal to a given straight-line at a given point (as an
extremity)
Proof:

1. ∵ C(𝐶𝐺𝐻) = 𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐺 [D1.15]
2. ∵ C(𝐺𝐼𝐽) = 𝐷 ⟹ 𝐷𝐺 = 𝐷𝐼 [D1.15]
3. 𝐷𝐴 = 𝐷𝐵 (Sides of equilateral triangle)
4. (3) ⟹ 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐵𝐺 (By C.N. 3; DG – DB = DI - DA)
5. But 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐺 (by 1), so 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐵𝐺, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐺.
6. By C.N. 1 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐵𝐶.
Proposition 3: For two given unequal straight lines, to cut-off from the greater a straight
line equal to the lesser.
Proof:

1. ∵ C(𝐼𝐽𝐾) = 𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶𝐼 = 𝐶𝐽 [D1.15]
2. But 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐼, so 𝐶𝐽 = 𝐶𝐼, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐼.
3. (2) ⟹ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐽 [C.N. 1]
Proposition 4: If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, and have the
angle enclosed1 by the equal straight lines equal, then they will also have the base equal to
the base, and the triangle will be equal to the triangle, and the remaining angles subtended
by the equal sides will be equal to the corresponding remaining angles.
Proof:
(1) if A is placed on D and AB is placed on DE and if mAB = mDE, then B coincides with E.2
(2) if AB coincides with DE and if angle BAC = angle EDF and if mAC = mDF, then C
coincides with F.
(3) B coincides with E and C coincides with F, so BC coincides with EF and so BC = EF [P1
and C.N. 4]
(4) So triangle ABC coincides with triangle DEF so triangle ABC is equal to triangle DEF
[C.N. 1]
(5) Similarly for the remaining two angles.

1
Angle enclosed by two sides of the same triangle which are equal to the two sides of the other triangle
2
The condition of being ‘placed’ and the extremities coinciding make sure the lines coincide, it is implied.
Proposition 5: For isosceles triangles, the angles at the base are equal to one another, and if
the equal sides are produced then the angles under the base will be equal to one another.
Proof:
1. Since AF = AG and AB = AC, so FA = GA and AC = AB.
2. Angle FAG is common to triangles FAG and GAB.
3. So FC = GB and angle AFC = angle AGB and angle ACF = angle ABG. [P4]
4. Since FC = GB and BF = CG and angle BFC = angle CGB and BC is common, so the
angle FBC = angle GCB and the angle GBC = angle FCB. [P4]
5. Angle ACF = angle ABG within which angle GBC = angle FCB so the remainder angle
ABC = angle ACB. [C.N. 3]
Proposition 6: If a triangle has two angles equal to one another then the sides subtending3
the equal angles will also be equal to one another.
Proof:
1. If AB ≠ AC, then let AC < AB
2. Let DB = AC [P3] (We now have triangles DBC and ACB)
3. DB = AC, BC = CB, and angle DBC = angle ACB  DC = AB and triangle DBC =
triangle ACB [P4], which is absurd [C.N. 5] (How can DC = AB when DC = AC and AC
< AB; the whole is greater than its part and DC is part of AB)

3
Side AB subtends the angle ACB
Proposition 7: On the same straight line, two other straight lines equal, respectively, to two
(given) straight lines, which meet, cannot be constructed meeting at a different point on the
same side of the straight line but having the same ends as the given straight lines.

The red straight lines are the given straight lines meeting at C
Proposition 8: If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, and also have
the base equal to the base, then they will also have equal the angles encompassed 4 by equal
straight lines.

4
Encompassed by equal straight lines of the same triangle
Proposition 9: To cut a given rectilinear angle in half
Proof:
1. DA = EA
2. FD = FE
3. AF is common to triangles DAF and EAF
4. (1), (2), and (3)  DAF = EAF (Pr8)
Proposition 10: To cut a finite straight line in half.
Proof:
1. AC = CB
2. CE is common
3. Angle ACE = angle BCE
4. (1), (2), (3)  AB = BE (Pr4)
Proposition 11: To draw a straight line at right angles to a given straight lines from a given
point on it.
Proof:
1. DF = EF
2. CF is common
3. DC = CE
4. (1), (2), (3)  angle DCF = angle ECF (Pr8) and they are adjacent
5. FC stands upon AB makes adjacent angles which are equal and so each is a right angle
(D1.10)
Proposition 12: To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given infinite straight line
from a given point which is not on it.
Proof:
1. CE = CF
2. CI is common
3. EI = IF
4. So angle EIC = angle FIC (Pr8) and they are adjacent
5. By Def 1.10, EIC and FIC are right angles.
Proposition 13: If a straight line stood on another straight line makes angles, it will
certainly either make two right angles, or angles whose sum is equal to two right angles.
Proof:
1. If angle CBA = angle ABD, then each is a right angle (By D1.10)
2. If angle CBA ≠ angle ABD, then angle CBE and angle EBD are right angles
3. Since angles DBA + ABE = DBE, DBA + ABE + EBC = DBE + EBC [C.N.2]
4. Since angle CBA = CBE + EBA, CBA + ABD = CBE + EBA + ABD [C.N.2]
5. So DBE + EBC = DBA + ABE + EBC and CBA + ABD = DBA + ABE + EBC
6. So DBE + EBC = CBA + ABD [C.N.1]
7. But DBE + EBC is the sum of two right angles, so also is CBA + ABD
Proposition 14: If two straight lines, not lying on the same side, make adjacent angles
whose sum is equal to two right angles with some straight line, at a point on it, then the two
straight lines will be straight-on with respect to one another.5
Proof:
1. Since AB stands on the straight line CBE (supposing CB is straight-on to BE rather than
with BD), the sum of the angles CBA and ABE is two right angles. [Pr13]
2. But CBA and ABD are also two right angles.
3. So CBA + ABE = CBA + ABD [C.N.1]
4. Subtracting CBA from both sums, the remainder ABE is equal to the remainder ABD
[C.N.3]
5. But ABD > ABE, so ABD = ABE is absurd [C.N.5]
6. Thus BE is not straight-on to CB and it can be shown that neither is any other straight line
except BD.

5
If two straight lines, not lying on the same side, make adjacent angles whose sum is equal to two right angles with
some straight line, at a point on it, then the two straight lines will be straight-on with respect to one another.
HOWEVER, supposing that they are not will lead us to a contradiction.
Proposition 15: If two straight lines cut one another then they make the vertically opposite
angles equal to one another.
Proof:
1. AE stands on DE, so DEA and AEC are two right angles [Pr13]
2. DE stands on AB, so AED and DEB are two right angles [Pr13]
3. So DEA + AEC = DEA + DEB [C.N.1]
4. If DEA is subtracted from both sums, the remainder AEC = remainder DEB [C.N.3]
Proposition 16: For any triangle, when one of the sides is produced, the external angle is
greater than each of the internal and opposite angles.
Proof:
1. AG = CG and BG = HG and angle BGA = angle CGH [Pr15]
2. Therefore, BA = CH and triangle BAG = triangle CGH and angle BAG = angle GCH and
angle ABG = angle GHC [Pr4]
3. But angle ACD > angle GCH, so angle ACD > angle BAG
4. Similarly, if BC is cut in half, it can be shown that angle ABC < angle BCI (= ACD)
Proposition 17: For any triangle, the sum of two angles taken together in any possible way
is less than two right angles.

Proof:

1. Angle ACD is external to triangle ABC, so angle ACD > angle ABC (which is internal and
opposite) [Pr16]
2. If we add angle ACB to both angles, then ACD + ACB > ABC + ACB.
3. Since AC stands on BD makes two adjacent angles ACD and ACB, ACD + ACB is two
right angles [Pr13]
4. So ABC + ACB < sum of two right angles
5. It can be similarly shown for the any other combinations of angles of the triangle.
Proposition 18: In a triangle the greater side subtends the greater angle

Assuming that in the triangle ABC, AC > AB and so angle ABC > angle ACB.

Proof:

1. Angle ADB is external to triangle BDC, so angle ADB > angle ACB [Pr16]
2. But angle ADB is equal to angle ABD since AB = AD, so angle ABD > ACB [Pr5]
3. And angle ABC > angle ABD6, so angle ABC >> angle ACB.

6
Angle subtended by part of the straight-line is less than the angle subtended by whole of the straight-line,
possibly an additional postulate. An equivalent statement of this postulate would be: the arms, which are finite
straight-lines, of the angle subtended by a part of the straight line are contained within the arms of the angle
subtended by the whole straight line (this statement is easier to apply to Pr16).
Proposition 19: In any triangle, the greater angle is subtended by the greater side.

Proof: Assuming that angle BAC is greater than angle ACB and so BC is greater than AB.

1. If BC is not greater than AB, then either BC = AB or BC < AB.

2. If BC = AB, then angle BAC = angle ACB [Pr5], but that is not true, so BC is not equal to
AB.
3. If BC < AB, then angle BAC < angle ACB [Pr18], but that is not true either, so BC is not
less than AB.
4. BC is neither less, nor equal to AB, so it must be greater than AB.
Proposition 20: In any triangle, (the sum of) two sides taken together in any (possible way)
is greater than the remaining side.

Proof: Particularly, BA + AC > BC

1. As AC = AD, angle ACD = angle ADC, so angle BDC < angle BCD7
2. So BD > BC [Pr19]
3. But BD = BA + AD, so BA + AD > BC, but AD = AC, so BA + AC > BC. This can be
shown for any other combination.

7
Since angle BCD > angle BDC because angle subtended by part of a straight line is less than that subtended by the
whole of the straight line