ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

TERM PAPER
ON
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

SUBMITTED TO:
AMITY SCHOOL 0F ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
GUIDED BY: SUBMITTED BY:
Dr. ANJANA SRIVASTAVA PARAMJYOT S. CHADHA
CHEMISRY DEPARTMENT A4717009014
E&I
ASET

AMITY UNIVERSITY, UTTAR PRADESH

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I, Paramjyot S. Chadha, student of Amity University, Uttar

Pradesh, enrolled in the course B.TECH - Electronics &
Instrumentation (2009 – 2013), 3rd Semester (Section ECE-4)
(Enroll. No: A4717009014), hereby acknowledge and express my
gratitude for the constant support,encouragement and fairness of
Dr. Anjana Srivastava for carefully guiding me into the successful
completion of this Term Paper.It gives me immense pleasure to
place on record the esteemed faculty academics and my parents for
their invaluable and constructive comments that has given a great
impetus to the completion of this term paper.

NAMAN ARORA
B.Tech- E&I
3-ECE-4 (Y)
Enroll. No: A4717009025

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr.Naman Arora, student of B.Tech. in

Electronics & Instrumentation has carried out the work presented
in the project of the Term paper entitled "HELICOPTERS” as a
part of First year programme of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics & Instrumentation from Amity School of Engineering
and Technology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh under my
supervision.

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INDEX

Contents Page Number

Main page 1
Abstract 3
Introduction to AI 5
History 7
Branches of AI 9
AI in Our Lives 11
Artificial Intelligence & 14
Robotics:
AI! A Boon or a 16
curse……?
Conclusion 17
Bibliography 18

Abstract

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence may be defined as branch of Computer Science that is concerned

with the automation of intelligent behavior. The principles of AI includes the data
structures used in knowledge representation, the algorithms needed to apply that
knowledge and the languages and programming techniques used in their implementation.

AI has always been more concerned with expanding the capabilities of computer science
with defining its limits. Keeping this exploration grounded in sound theoretical principles
is one of the challenges facing AI researches at present.

Another early foray in to AI focused on the sort of problem solving that we do every day
often called ‘Common Sense Reasoning‘. To investigate this sort of reasoning, Newell,
Shaw and Simon built the general problem solver (GPS), which they applied to several
common tasks as well as to perform symbolic manipulations of logical expressions.
Artificial intelligence in its very direct
concern has been applied to all the areas
of legacy - medicine, psychology, biology,
astronomy, geology – and many problems
of scientific endeavors.

As AI research progressed and techniques

for handling larger amounts of world
knowledge were developed, some progress
was made on the tasks just described and
new tasks could reasonably be attempted.

Fig. 1

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

These include perception, natural language understanding and problem solving in

specialized domains such as medical diagnosis and chemical analysis

Due to AI in medicine, programs have been developed that analyze the disease
symptoms, medical history, and laboratory test results of a patient, and then suggest a
diagnosis to the physician. The diagnostic program is an example of so-called expert
systems—programs designed to perform tasks in specialized areas as a human would.
Expert systems take computers a step beyond straightforward programming, being based
on a technique called rule-based inference, in which pre-established rule systems are used
to process the data.

INTRODUCTION TO AI
AI is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs, which envisages the nature of human thoughts & sophisticated
computing systems.

AI coordinates and correlates psychological and physiological research in to the nature of

human thoughts and technological development of sophisticated computing systems.

Artificial Intelligence, a term that in its broadest sense would indicate the ability of an
artifact to perform the same kinds of functions that characterizes the human thought. The
possibility of developing some such artifact has intrigued human beings since ancient
time.

The revised version of AI can be defined as ‗AI is the study of the mechanisms
underlying intelligent behavior through the construction and evaluation of artifacts that
attempt to enact those mechanisms.’ On this definition, Artificial Intelligence is less a
theory about the mechanisms underlying intelligence and more on empirical methodology
for constructing and testing possible models for supporting such a theory. It must be
noted that our revised definition does not define intelligence; rather it proposes a coherent
role for Artificial Intelligence in exploring the nature and expression of intelligent
phenomena.

In the latter sense, the term AI has been applied to computer systems and programs
capable of performing tasks more complex than straightforward programming, although
still far from the realm of actual thought. The most important fields of research in this
area are information processing, pattern recognition, game-playing computers, and
applied fields such as medical diagnosis. Current research in information processing deals
with programs that enable a computer to understand written or spoken information and to
produce summaries, answer specific questions, or redistribute information to users
interested in specific areas of this information. Essential to such programs is the ability of
the system to generate grammatically correct sentences and to establish linkages between
words, ideas, and associations with other ideas.

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This robotic hand designed using the concept of AI is

capable of performing the delicate task of picking up and
holding an egg without breaking it. A tactile array sensor
located on the right half of its gripping mechanism sends
information to the robot's control computer about the
pressure the robotic hand exerts; given this information,
the control computer instructs the robotic hand to loosen,
tighten, or maintain the current gripping force. This
feedback loop repeats continuously, enabling the robotic
hand to stay in between the two extremes of dropping and
crushing the egg.

Fig. 2

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History

The history of artificial intelligence began in antiquity,

with myths, stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed
with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen;
as Pamela McCorduck writes, AI began with "an ancient
wish to forge the gods."

Fig. 3-Talos of Crete

The seeds of modern AI were planted by classical philosophers who attempted to

describe the process of human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols. This
work culminated in the invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s, a
machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning. This device and the
ideas behind it inspired a handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility
of building an electronic brain.

The field of artificial intelligence research was founded at a conference on the campus
of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. Those who attended would become the
leaders of AI research for decades. Many of them predicted that a machine as intelligent
as a human being would exist in no more than a generation and they were given millions
of dollars to make this vision come true.

American computer scientist John McCarthy coined the term "artificial intelligence" (AI).
In 1959 he developed LISP (List-oriented computer programming language), which
becomes the standard language for AI research.

Alan Turing, He was the first to decide that AI was best researched by programming
computers rather than by building machines. He put forward a test known as Turing Test;
for determining whether or not machine intelligence can converse like a human. The
Turing test measures the performance of an allegedly intelligent machine against that of a
human being, arguably the best and only standard for intelligent behavior, which he
mentioned as an Imitation Game.

During the World War II, the need for intelligent automated machines which can have a
niche of applications paved path for the field of AI and the research on intelligent
machines started.

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Once thinking had come to be regarded as a form of computation, its formalization and
eventual mechanization were obvious next steps. In the seventeenth century, Gottfried
Wilhelm Von Leibniz, with his Calculus Philosophicus introduced the first system of
formal logic as well as constructed a machine for automating its calculation. Euler in the
eighteenth century with his analysis of connectedness of bridges joining the river banks
and islands of the city Konigsberg introduced the study of representations that abstractly
capture the structure of relation ships in the world.

In the 1990‘s information scientists developed an AI computer program that allows non
experts to use their own natural language to retrieve information from databases that use
more complicated programming languages. This allowed more people to find information
—such as business data or medical records—that previously only a few computer experts
could retrieve.

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BRANCHES OF AI
Logical AI: What a program knows about the world in general the facts of the specific
situation in which it must act, and its goals are all represented by sentences of some
mathematical logical language. The program decides what to do by inferring that certain
actions are appropriate for achieving its goals.

Pattern Recognition: When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often

programmed to compare what it sees with a pattern. For example, a vision program may
try to match a predefined pattern of eyes and a nose in a scene in order to find a face.
More complex patterns, e.g. in a natural language text, in a chess position, or in the
history of some event are also studied. These more complex patterns require quite
different methods than do the simple patterns that have been studied the most.

Inference: From some facts, others can be inferred. Mathematical logical deduction is
adequate for some purposes, but new methods of non-monotonic inference have been
added to logic since the 1970s. The simplest kind of non-monotonic reasoning is default
reasoning in which a conclusion is to be inferred by default, but the conclusion can be
withdrawn if there is evidence to the contrary. For example, when we hear of a bird, we
man infer that it can fly, but this conclusion can be reversed when we hear that it is a
penguin. It is the possibility that a conclusion may have to be withdrawn that constitutes
the non-monotonic character of the reasoning. Ordinary logical reasoning is monotonic in
that the set of conclusions that can the drawn from a set of premises is a monotonic
increasing function of the premises. Circumscription is another form of non-monotonic
reasoning.

Learning from experience: Programs do that. The approaches to AI based on

connectionism and neural nets specialize in that. There is also learning of laws expressed
in logic. Programs can only learn what facts or behaviors their formalisms can represent,
and unfortunately learning systems are almost all based on very limited abilities to
represent information.

Ontology: Ontology is the study of the kinds of things that exist. In AI, the programs and
sentences deal with various kinds of objects, and we study what these kinds are and what
their basic properties are. Emphasis on ontology begins in the 1990‘s.

Epistemology: The development of AI has been shaped by a number of important

challenges and questions. Natural language understanding, planning, reasoning in
uncertain situations and machine learning are all typical of those types of problems that
capture some essential aspect of intelligent behavior. More importantly, intelligent
systems operating in each of these domains require knowledge of purpose, practice and
performance in situated and socially embedded contexts. To accomplish this we must
examine the epistemological commitment of a program that is intended to be

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―intelligent‖. In one sentence we can say that Epistemology is study of the kinds of
knowledge that are required for solving problems.

Heuristics: A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an idea embedded in a

program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic functions are used in some
approaches to search to measure how far a node in a search tree seems to be from a goal.
Heuristic predicates that compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is better than
the other, i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, and may be more useful.

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AI IN OUR LIVES:

•  Handwriting recognition in
millions of PDA`S (Personal
Digital Assistant); speech
recognition is widely deployed
in business applications.

•  A team of Robots beat

human`s in stimulated
financial trading.

•  Computer Giant IBM `S

BOTS made 7% more cash
than humans in trading
commodities such as pork
bellies and gold.
Fig.4- A team of Robots In business:
beat human`s in
stimulated financial
trading.

• Banks, brokerages and insurance companies have been relying on various

AI tools for over two decades.

Fraud Detection: AI is the Key technology in banking systems, Credit card providers,
telephone companies, mortgage lenders and banks employ AI to detect fraud. NASDAQ
stock market monitor will identify potential insider trading and fraud against investors.

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In Medical field:
•  Breakthrough for
Alzheimer`s patients

•  Alerts and
remainders: ECG or
Pulse Oximeter

•  Diagnostic
assistance:
diagnoses based on
the patient‘s data
presented to it.

• Prescribing decision support systemsFig. 5- AI Drug-drug

(PDSS): Helpmate interactions and
dosage error.
AI Helpmate robot will independently navigate through hospital corridors, delivering
meal trays, paperwork, and supplies. In the absence of doctor; even it behaves as a doctor
in some situations. The robot employs multiple sensors to safely navigate and work in
close proximity to people.

Game Playing:
You can buy machines that can play
master level chess for a few hundred
dollars. There is some AI in them, but
they play well against people mainly
through brute force computation--looking
at hundreds of thousands of positions. To
beat a world champion by brute force and
known reliable heuristics requires being
able to look at 200 million positions per
second. It can be best seen through the
animated figures in action battling with
brain and brawn. Doom, Duke Nukem,
Fig 6-Game playing robots
Grand PRIX, Half life are games that have
unique AI features.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Speech Recognition: In the 1990‘s, computer speech recognition reached a practical

level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight
information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city names. It is
quite convenient. On the other hand, while it is possible to instruct some computers using
speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the mouse as still more
convenient.

Understanding Natural Language: Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is

not enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with
an understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for
very limited domains.

Computer Vision: The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to
the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful programs
can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-
dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there
are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly, and they
are not as good as what humans evidently use.

Automated Reasoning and Theorem Proving: It is the one of the fruitful branch of the
field. Theorem-proving research was responsible for much of the early work in
formalizing search algorithms and developing formal representation languages such as
the predicate calculus and the programming language.

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Artificial Intelligence & Robotics:

Since the 1980‘s artificial intelligence (AI) has been the primary focus of research
activity for information scientists. Artificial intelligence refers to a machine's capacity to
mimic human thought and behavior. Using findings of information science research,
scientists have created Robots with AI that can understand spoken language and can
make logical decisions.

Perhaps the most dramatic changes in future robots will arise from their increasing ability
to reason. The field of artificial intelligence is moving rapidly from university
laboratories to practical application in industry, and machines are being developed that
can perform cognitive tasks, such as strategic planning and learning from experience.
Increasingly, diagnosis of failures in aircraft or satellites, the management of a battlefield,
or the control of a large factory will be performed by intelligent computers.

One of the most controversies of AI is that it will open the door to computers that think
faster than the human brain, giving machines a superior edge. As AI, robotics and
nanotechnology combine to relieve humans of doing tasks that machines can do better,
faster and cheaper, some believe we may be paving the way to our own destruction. Will
nations secretly create armies of AI-enhanced, nano-augmented (think bionic) super
soldiers to fight wars? Will politicians opt for AI-enhancements, Nano-augmentation?
Who will it be available to, and are we as a race headed towards total dependency on
machinery to the extent it becomes part of our biology? Will there be equity or will a new
class divide be created, similar to that depicted in ‗Gattica’? If we do not embrace AI-
enhancement and nano-augmentation will intelligent machines ultimately decide we are
unnecessary?

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Fig 7-An inventor plays a duet with his

robotic creation, Wabot-2, at the Tokyo
Exposition. Building this kind of robot is a
challenging task because the dexterity of
the human hand is perhaps the most
difficult function to recreate mechanically.
Although Wabot-2‘s performance may not
be emotional, with an electronic scanning
eye and quality components, the technical
accuracy will be extremely high.

AI! A Boon or a curse……?

There are probably as many opinions about the ultimate goal of artificial intelligence
research as there are AI researchers. The answer to this question has been controversial
for decades within the field of AI research. The ultimate answer to our question is that
there is no single answer. Each researcher—indeed, each observer of the field of AI
research—is likely to answer our question differently.

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There are those who believe—sometimes with great passion—that technologists will one
day be able to build a computer with all the cognitive, memory, and emotional
capabilities of the human brain. These people are sometimes called the ―strong AI
proponents. A few of these ―strong advocates believe that computers will someday be
more intelligent than human beings. It is common to hear such researchers say that this is
the ultimate frontier of science.

On the other hand, there are other AI researchers who think that research into how human
minds work can be useful in building better computer systems, regardless of whether we
pursue a goal of full machine intelligence. In other words, these ―weak‖ AI proponents
believe that human cognition and its applicability to computers is an interesting research
field in itself, and a field that may help make computers easier to use, more useful to
people, and better at what computers are good at doing. The products of this research
may not resemble human intelligence. Some ―weak‖ AI proponents say that computers
are obviously superior to human beings at some tasks, and it‘s the job of AI research to
figure out how to optimize those capabilities, instead of making computers more like
people.

Fig 8-Dr. Cynthia Breazeal

plays with Kismet, the robot
that mimics and responds to
human emotions. Some
roboticists study how humans
think, work together and
communicate so they can
apply that to robots. This new
field of human-robot
interaction is led mostly by
women.

AN AMAZING BREAKTHROUGH IN AI

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Robots Created That Develop

Fig 9-The first prototype robots
capable of developing emotions
as they interact with their human
caregivers and expressing a
whole range of emotions have
been finalised by researchers.
Emotions in Interaction With
Humans
Led by Dr. Lola Cañamero at the
University of Hertfordshire, and in
collaboration with a consortium of
universities and robotic companies
across Europe, these robots differ from
others in the way that they form
attachments, interact and express
emotion through bodily expression.
Developed as part of the
interdisciplinary project FEELIX
GROWING (Feel, Interact, eXpress: a
Global approach to development with
Interdisciplinary Grounding), funded by
the European Commission and
coordinated by Dr. Cañamero, the
robots have been developed so that they
learn to interact with and respond to
humans in a similar way as children
learn to do it, and use the same types of
expressive and behavioural cues that
babies use to learn to interact socially
and emotionally with others.

The robots have been created through modelling the early attachment process that human
and chimpanzee infants undergo with their caregivers when they develop a preference for
a primary caregiver.
They are programmed to learn to adapt to the actions and mood of their human
caregivers, and to become particularly attached to an individual who interacts with the
robot in a way that is particularly suited to its personality profile and learning needs. The
more they interact, and are given the appropriate feedback and level of engagement from
the human caregiver, the stronger the bond developed and the amount learned.
The robots are capable of expressing anger, fear, sadness, happiness, excitement and
pride and will demonstrate very visible distress if the caregiver fails to provide them
comfort when confronted by a stressful situation that they cannot cope with or to interact
with them when they need it.
"This behaviour is modelled on what a young child does," said Dr Cañamero. "This is
also very similar to the way chimpanzees and other non-human primates develop
affective bonds with their caregivers."
This is the first time that early attachment models of human and non-human primates
have been used to program robots that develop emotions in interaction with humans.
"We are working on non-verbal cues and the emotions are revealed through physical
postures, gestures and movements of the body rather than facial or verbal expression," Dr
Cañamero added.

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The researchers led by Dr. Cañamero at the University of Hertfordshire are now
extending the prototype further and adapting it as part of the EU project ALIZ-E, which
will develop robots that learn to be carer/companion for diabetic children in hospital
settings.
Within this project, coordinated by Dr Tony Belpaeme of the University of Plymouth, the
Hertfordshire group will lead research related to the emotions and non-linguistic
behaviour of the robots. The future robot companions will combine non-linguistic and
linguistic communication to interact with the children and become increasingly adapted
to their individual profiles in order to support both, therapeutic aspects of their treatment
and their social and emotional wellbeing.
The FEELIX GROWING project has been funded by the Sixth Framework Programme
of the European Commission. The other partners in the project are: Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique (France), Université de Cergy Pontoise (France), Ecole
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (Switzerland), University of Portsmouth (U.K.),
Institute of Communication and Computer Systems (Greece), Entertainment Robotics
(Denmark), and Aldebaran Robotics (France).

CONCLUSION

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We have now surveyed the major technique of AI. From our discussion of them, it should
be clear that there are two important classes of AI techniques:

• Methods for representing and using knowledge

• Methods for conducting heuristic search

These two aspects interact heavily with each other. The choice of a knowledge
representation framework determines the kind of problem-solving methods that can be
applied.

Knowledge serves two important functions in AI programs. The first is to define what
can be done to solve a problem and to specify what it means to have solved the problem.
We can call knowledge that does this essential knowledge. The second is to provide
advice on how best to go about solving a problem efficiently. We can call such a
knowledge heuristic knowledge. The goal of this has been to say enough about the use of
knowledge in problem solving programs and techniques to build a real and perfect
friendly AI.

‘ THE CONCLUSION NOW DIRECTLY COMES TO OUR MIND IS THAT; AI IN

COLLABORATION WITH NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ROBOTICS WILL CREATE
A COMPLEX IMPROVED REVOLUTION IN THE WORLD VERY SOON ’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Books – ―ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE By- Elaine Rich & Kevin Knight

―ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE By- George F Luger

Websites - www.wisegeek.com
www.encarta.msn.com

Web search - Artificial Intelligence

TV Channel - Discovery channel.

Magazine - Electronics for you

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