22 TCN 262 - 2000

I. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

I.1. This specification is applied as surveying and designing the motorway sub-grade on the
soft ground, including the embankment for expressway and motorway at different classes.
Besides, it is referred for embankment design of airport on the soft ground.

This standard shall defines all regulations on topography survey, investigation and geotechnical
test of the soft ground crossed by the route; as well as other requirements and specifications
satisfied on designing embankment on the soft ground by the equivalent formation and
calculation methods and alternatives and applicable scope of these methods for embankment
work on the soft ground (except the other special methods such as soft ground treatment by
penetration electricity, limestone piles, cement piles, concrete piles, and sand piles, etc…).

I.2. Surveying and designing sub-grade on the soft ground shall not only conformed with the
regulations stated in this standard but other specifications and general regulations on sub-grade
design in TCVN 4054-1998 “Motorway – Design Requirements” and TCVN 5729-1997
“Expressway - Design Requirements”.

The specifications on plastic board drain and geo-textiles solutions stated in this standard are
same as the regulations in “Designing procedures for soft soil treatment by Plastic Board Drain
in sub-grade construction – 22TCN 244-98” and “Specifications for detailed design and
acceptance of geo-textiles in embankment work on soft ground – 22TCN 248-98”. Unless
otherwise required in surveying and designing embankment on the soft ground, this standard
shall be applied.

I.3. In this specification, the soft ground determined in Section I.4 is to indicate type of soil with
low shear strength and excessive deformation. Therefore, unless we do apply any measures,
embankment on the soft ground shall lead to unstable wholly and deep settlement, the long
duration settlement affects to the pavement, works on pavement and adjacent abutments. Hence,
the objectives of the regulations in this standard is to ensure the dimension and geometric
factors of the embankment on the soft ground (including sub-grade elevation) being as same as
in the design during construction and exploitation later.

I.4. Hang upon the formation causes, soft soil may become from mineral or organic matters

I.4.1. The types having origin of mineral are usually clay or foamy clay at littoral, gulfs, lakes, plains;
these types may be organo-mineral soils due to sediment period (the organic content may
amount to 10-12%), thus they are brown, black, gray and have odor. These types are identified
as soft soil at the physical status, their humidity shall be about or equal to the yield point, great
void ratio (clay e ≥ 1.5, foamy clay e ≥ 1), cohesive force C complying with the quick shear
result shall not discharge less than 0.15 daN/cm2, angle of internal friction φ from 0-10o or
cohesive force from the shear vane test at sit Cu ≤ 0.35 daN/cm2.

Moreover, in the valleys, soft soil may be under the form of sandy peat, fine sandy peat (void
ratio e > 1.0 and satiability G> 0.8).

I.4.2. The types having origin of organic matters are usually formed in lakes ditches where there are
stagnant water and high level underground water. Flora grows, decomposes and deposits, then it

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becomes organo-mineral matters. It is usually called peat soil with the organic content of 20-
80% in black or dark brown, coarse structure (due to flora remains). This type is determined as
soft soil if void coefficient and shear strength satisfy the values mentioned in Section I.4.1.

Soft soil of peat soil shall be classified based on its organic content:
- The organic content of 20-30%: Peaty soil
- The organic content of 30-60%: Peat soil
- The organic content of over 60%: Peat

I.5. Classification of soil physical state

For preliminary evaluation of soft soil characteristics, then consider the corresponding sub-
grade design alternatives, based on its physical state the soft soil is classified as follows;

I.5.1. Clay or sandy clay of soft soil shall be classified in accordance with consistency B:
W - Wd
B =
Wnh - Wd

In which:
- W, Wd, Wnh : Moisture content at the physical state, plastic limit, and pasty limit of soft soil
- If B>1, it shall be called peat
- If 0.75<B<1, it shall be extremely high plastic peat

I.5.2. In terms of natural condition, peat soil is classified into 3 types as follows:

Type I: Viscosity of the soil type is stable. Soil will be classified as type I if vertical excavation
is 1m in thickness and its stability is maintained in 1-2 days;

Type II: Viscosity of the soil type is unstable, so type II does not meet type I’s requirements,
but peat soil is not in very soft condition;

Type III: Peat is in very soft condition.

I.6. If the route goes through the area of very soft soil and clayey mud as mentioned in
Articles I.4.1, I.5.1; the area of sandy mud and fine sandy mud as mentioned in Article I.4.1;
the peat area as mentioned in Article I.5.2, it is necessary to prepare a correlative method of
investigation for design (mentioned next parts of this specification) in order to ensure sub-grade
stability in its strength and deformation, including non-soft soil layer under the soft soil one.

Especially for expressway works and other special construction works, if embankment height is
from 8m to 10m and more, all kinds of clay and soft clayey mud (with viscosity B within 0.5-
0.75) should apply methods for investigation for design as that in soft soil.

II. REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS ON DESIGN

OF EMBANKMENT ON SOFT SOIL

II.1. Requirements on embankment stability

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Embankment on soft soil should be stable, undamaged due to changes in the construction of
embankment (embankment is carried out in accordance with design or carried out with
elevation over the one in design for pre-loading) and in operation afterwards. To meet those
requirements, the following specific standards should be gained at the same time:

II.1.1. Forecasted stability following calculation results for each embankment stage (embanking and
pre-loading) and for designed embankment (regarding maximum vehicle loading) is equal or
over minimum stability as follows:

· In case of applying Stable Maths Method by classical splinter and circular displacement
surface bored deep in soft ground and calculation values determined by Item V.3, then
minimum stability coefficient Kmin = 1.20 (as for using laboratory testing results of
undrained accelerated shear for maths method, then Kmin = 1.10);
· In case of applying Bishop Method for Stable Maths Method, then minimum stability
coefficient Kmin = 1.40.

II.1.2. In the construction of embankment and pre-loading, data for vertical settlement monitoring and
horizontally movable monitoring of the soft soil at two side of embankment shall not exceed the
following value:

- At centerline, settlement velocity of the embankment bottom shall not exceed

10mm/calendar day.
- Horizontally movable velocity of monitoring piles in both sides of embankment shall not
exceed 5mm/calendar day.
- Arrangement of settlement monitoring and horizontally movable monitoring is clearly
stipulated in Articles II.3.1 and II.3.2.

II.2. Requirements and specifications for settlement calculation

II.2.1. Total settlement coefficient S shall be forecasted and calculated from the beginning of
embankment works until in full settlement in order to embank for settlement prevention
(embankment shall be extended towards sub-grade width compared with the one in design).
Extended width in both sides of sub-grade (bm) is determined in the following formula:
bm = S.m
In which: 1/m – slope of designed embankment
S is calculated in accordance with the method in VI.2 and II.3 regarding two coefficients
Si (instant settlement due to undrained transverse deflection, regarding unconfined
capacity of the soft soil under the embankment) and consolidation settlement Sc (due to
pore water and compressed soft soil under embankment loading)

II.2.2. In calculation of the captioned coefficient S, settlement loading consists of only designed
embankment loading including berm embanking (if any), excluding pre-loading (if any) and
does not examine vehicle loading.

II.2.3. After completion of sub-grade construction in soft soil, the remaining consolidation settlement
∆S at centerline of the sub-grade is as in the table II-1 below:

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Remaining consolidation settlement ∆S at centerline of the sub-grade

after construction completion
Table II-1

Embankment location on soft soil

Highway At the place of
At normal
classification Near abutment culverts or under
embankment
public highway
1. Expressway and
≤ 10 cm ≤ 20 cm ≤ 30 cm
highway class 80
2. Highway under
class 60 with ≤ 20 cm ≤ 30 cm ≤ 40 cm
surfacing class A1

Note (Table II-1):

- The remaining consolidation settlement ∆S is unfinished ones after wearing course

completion of embankment on soft soil. ∆S value is determined as in the formula (VI-9)
depending on consolidation U at the time of wearing course completion.
- Length of sub-grade near abutment is 3 times of abutment footing length of the other
abutment. Length of embankment with culverts and underpasses is 3 to 5 times of bedding
width or pavement width.
- If the remaining consolidation settlement ∆S exceeds the values in Table II-1, it is necessary
to have a method to decrease ∆S mentioned in items IV.3, IV.5, IV.6. If the values in Table
II-1 are satisfied, it is no need to apply treatment methods for accelerating consolidation.

II.2.4. For highway with grade of 20, 40 and highway using soft wearing course A2 and below, ∆S in
design is not mentioned.

II.2.5. Requirements on monitoring of settlement forecast

Besides forecast of settlement calculation mentioned in Article II.2.1 for proposing treatment
methods for embankment structure in soft soil, it is necessary to rely on settlement monitoring
results as in Articles II.3.1 and I.3.2 to compare and correct the forecast results to examine
allowable settlement and settlement velocity as in Articles II.2.3 and II.1.2, as well as to
determine soil mass or sand mass, actual settlement addition shall be done after completion of
the construction.

Requirements in details of settlement monitoring are as follows:

- To determine soil or sand mass that is settled in soft soil (compared with natural soil before
embanking).
- To prepare diagram of total settlement S and time (clearly stated period of each stage of
embankment and pre-loading). To rely on this diagram to separately handle instant
settlement (settlement that unexpectedly increases in each stage of embankment) and to
prepare diagram of consolidation settlement Sc regarding time t since the completion of
embankment and pre-loading.

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- To approximately describe St = f(t) in monitoring practice by using the following

mathematical function St = Sc (1 – αe-ßt) in which α and ß are recurrent values of settlement
monitoring data, and are the basic for forecasting the remaining consolidation settlement
mentioned in Article II.2.3.

II.3. Requirements on design and arrangement of settlement monitoring system during

embankment execution on soft soil

II.3.1. For construction works in soft soil, in all cases, settlement monitoring system shall be designed
in spite of applying whatever treatment methods, surveying or carefully calculating, except for
applying methods of dredging soft soil in full, decreasing embankment bottom into non-soft soil
layer. The system shall be arranged in accordance with the following regulations:

- Every section in embankment on soft soil is differently calculated and designed, or each
section that is separately constructed shall be separately monitored their settlement (which is
different in embankment height, soft soil types with different properties and thickness of
different soft soil layers).
- If length of each section is 100m or more, 3 settlement instruments shall be arranged at
center of cross section (1 in centerline and the rests in the edges of pavement), if it is more
than 100m, settlement monitoring of 2 cross sections shall be arranged in minimum, and
every extra 100m shall be arranged 1 cross section (at ones where settlement is abundantly)
- Elevation point system for settlement monitoring shall be arranged at unsettlement place
and shall be firmly fixed.
- Minimum dimension of settlement instruments is 50cm x 50cm with thickness of 3cm or
more, which shall firmly connect to their rods. The rods are made by steel, their diameters
are smaller than those of embankment casing (embankment soil shall not be contacted with
the rods): the casing shall not be connected to settlement instruments. Rod with diameter of
4cm or more should be used. Rods and casing should be done by each section of 50-100cm
for the convenience of connection to embankment height.
- Settlement instruments are placed at beginning elevation point of the embankment: they
shall be arranged where soft soil is already dredged and excavated; or arranged on sand mat
layer if any, or arranged on natural hard surface of soil layer if the surface is on soft soil
one, or arranged on surface of geo-textile if any. In case of arranging the instruments in soft
soil, the soil shall be excavated with a depth of 30cm within area of the instruments instead
of sand, then the instruments are arranged.
- The instruments shall be protected for a long time until they are handed over.

II.3.2. Settlement monitoring regulations shall be stipulated in design:

- To check elevation at the time of arranging settlement instruments and to measure

settlement once a day in embanking and pre-loading; if embankment and pre-loading are
done in several stages, each stage shall be daily monitored.
- At the time of embanking completion and 2 months after embanking, monitoring shall be
weekly, then monthly done until completion of warranty period and hand-over of
monitoring system to highway operation and management units (for their continuous
monitoring if necessary).
- Settlement in mm is required for accuracy.

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II.3.3. When applying treatment method for embankment on soft soil that requires controlling
embanking speed, it is necessary to prepare a horizontally movable monitoring system in order
to monitor stability in embanking as in Article II.1.2, the system is as the follows:

- In each section of settlement monitoring, a row of horizontally movable monitoring piles

shall be arranged outside the slope 1m that is perpendicular to centerline about 3-4 piles
with distance from 5m to 10m, piles or concrete piles with the section of 10x10cm are used
that deeply stake in soft soil with minimum depth of 1.2m and minimum height of 0.5m
over the soft soil (and more than 0.5m in case of excessive settlement and overflow);
monitoring points shall be marked at the top of the piles. All the piles are required strongly
driving in the soft soil.
- In construction of embankment and pre-loading (if any), it is necessary to daily check
horizontal moving (that is perpendicular to centerline) of the monitoring points at the top of
piles by Theolite in accordance with Triangle Measuring Method, with two fixed tops of the
triangle outside the impact scope of embankment loading. Simultaneously, elevations of pile
top are checked in order to see whether soft soil surface is emerged or not. After
construction of embankment, it is necessary to continue daily monitoring until sub-grade is
stable. The accuracy of Theolite must be ensured about interval errors of ± 5mm, about
angle measuring of ± 2.5’’.

II.3.4. For large-scale and important embankment on soft soil or embankment with complicated
geology conditions such as big embankment height, which make the big difference between
conditions in practice and conditions in stability and settlement calculation, pore pressure
monitoring system is additionally arranged (together with underground water monitoring
points) and settlement instruments at different depth (twist reeling equipment …). Owing to the
monitoring equipment system, requirements in Article II.2.5 shall be easily carried out and
therefore, construction period shall be shortened. In this case, design for installation
arrangement of the above monitoring equipment system is specially carried out by specialist
engineers and approved by employer.

II.4. Determination of calculated loads

II.4.1. Calculated loads in checking stability and forecasting settlement of embankment on soft soil
include loads of embanking and pre-loading, vehicle load, earthquake load, as mentioned in
Articles II.1.1 and II.2.2. Since calculation is converted to plane maths, calculated loads are
determined correlative to its distribution scope in every 1m sub-grade length.

II.4.2. Loads of embanking and pre-loading are determined in accordance with embanking shape in
practice (trapezium with design slope, which berms may be added or if soft soil is digged before
embanking, two lines of boundless berm loads at both side of embankment).

II.4.3. Vehicle loads is considered as loads of maximum weight of vehicles that fully park at the same
time in every 1m of highway length (formula II-1); the load is equivalently converted to
embankment soil layer with height of hx that is determined as follows:

n.G
hx = (II-1)
γ.B.ℓ

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In which:
G – Weight of one vehicle (the heaviest one), ton
n – Maximum number of vehicles parking in sub-grade width (as in vehicle
arrangement plan in II.1)
γ – Natural weight of embankment soil, T/m3
ℓ - Longitudinal distribution scope of vehicle loads, m (as in II.1)
If G = 13 tons, then ℓ = 4.2m; if G = 30 tons, then ℓ = 6.6m; if G = 80 tons, then ℓ = 4.5m.

Figure II.1. Vehicle arrangement plan to determination of vehicle load on soft soil

B is transverse distribution width of vehicle (m) determined as in figure II.1 in accordance with
the following formula:

B = n.b+(n-1)d+e (II-2)

In which normally b = 1.8m for all kinds of car, b = 2.7m for motorcycle; d is minimum
distance between vehicles (normally d = 1.3m); e is width of double-tyre or motorcycle track
(normally e = 0.5 – 0.8m); and n does not exceed its value limit but it must ensure that B
calculated in accordance with (II-2) is smaller than sub-grade width. Therefore, in case of
calculation regarding vehicle loads, embankment load is supposedly calculated to a higher value
as hx.

II.4.4. Earthquake loads in calculation and checking of embankment stability in soft soil is inertia
force due to earthquake of sliding block, the force is considered in direct ratio to the weight of
sliding block:

Wi = Kc.Qc (II-3)

In which:
Wi – Impact of earthquake force on a sliding piece i (or sliding block i) (tons), Wi’s
placed points is the piece’s gravity (or block’s gravity) and is transversal from sub-grade
to embankment’s slope;
Qi – Weight of sliding piece i (or sliding block i), Tons;
Kc – Depending on earthquake level as in Table II-2.

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Ratio coefficient Kc
Table II-2

Earthquake
7 8 9 10 11 12
Level
Coefficient
0.025 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5
Kc

Earthquake arrangement in Vietnam is shown on Specifications on Vietnam Construction. In

the area where earthquake is from 7th level and more, then earthquake force is considered in
calculation. Furthermore, calculation on earthquake force (for reference) is available in Industry
Specification 22 TCN 221-95.

III. REQUIREMENTS ON SURVEY FOR DESIGN OF SUB-GRADE

ON SOFT GROUND

III.1. General Requirements

III.1.1. Distribution scope of soft soil areas regarding distribution area, depth and cross slope of the
bottom of soft soil layer shall be investigated and determined to examine alternatives for bypass
or for alignment through soft soil layer that is in the least adverse areas. Causes for wet areas,
drainage, as well as location and operation capacity of soil quarry for embanking should be
determined.

III.1.2. Samples shall be taken, laboratory testing shall be carried out and necessary testing at site on
geo-textile shall be done in order to determine:

· Types and properties of soil as mentioned in Articles I.5.1, I.4.1 and I.5.2 to confirm go-
through alignment area be a soil area and to determine type of soft soil for treatment;
· Properties for calculation and checking embankment stability on soft soil in details as
follows: undrained resistance against shear that is determined by Vane Shear Test Method at
site (or by Accelerated Shear Test Method in laboratory, if vane shear equipment is not
available at site), natural weight γ and underground water level (to determine soft soil area
bearing buoyancy). Those properties shall be separately determined for different soft soil
layers. Besides, properties of cohesion C, angle of interior friction and natural weight of soil
for embankment (corresponding to wet and density condition of embankment soil) shall be
determined;
· Properties for forecast and calculation of total settlement and consolidation settlement
according to testing time determining settlement compression in unconfined compression
test, initial void coefficient eo, settlement compression Cr and Cc, vertical consolidation
coefficient Cv (cm2/ second) and pre-consolidation pressure σp. Those properties shall be
separately determined for different soft soil layers (please see sign explanation of the above
properties in Item VI).

III.2. Requirements on topographical survey

III.2.1. In preparation of feasibility project, plan with scale of 1:500 ÷ 1:1000 compared with difference
in contour line 0.5m along alignment alternatives through soft soil area shall be measured and

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made. In case of considerable distribution of soft soil area (such as lagoon area …), methods of
aeronautic measurement for topographical survey for the whole area shall be applied. In this
stage, profile and cross section for embankment calculation on soft soil for design are
determined by the topographical plan.

III.2.2. In preparation of technical design and design for working drawing stage, profile and cross
section along design alignment together with detailed piles with suitable distance in each stage
shall be measured, besides, piles at exploratory drilling location shall be added, samples on soft
soil shall be taken and monitoring system shall be arranged at expected locations (as mentioned
in Item II.3).

III.3. Requirements on geotechnical survey and tests

III.3.1. To meet requirements as mentioned in Articles III.1.1 and III.1.2, it is necessary to combine
exploratory drilling with sampling (carried out by drilling machine for undisturbed samples and
tested in laboratory) and that with not sampling (carried out by spiral drilling machine,
penetration or vane shear equipment at site) so as to be the most economic way. Due to
considerable exploratory area in feasibility study stage, taking full advantages of exploratory
methods for not sampling should combine with exploratory methods for sampling. In
preparation of technical design and detailed design stage, drilling methods for sampling should
be used, drilling methods for not sampling shall added when necessary (in case of expansion of
exploratory area or insufficiency exploratory for not sampling in feasibility study as mentioned
in Article III.3.2). Locations and quantities of exploratory areas shall be decided by project
manager after expected design alternatives is submitted.

In exploration by drilling, penetration or vane shear, it is necessary to refer to the following

specifications:

o Specification for Geological Exploratory Drilling 22 TCN 259 - 2000

o Vane Shear Test: ASTM D2573 and TCXD 205 – 1998
o Penetration Test: ASTM D1586

III.3.2.

o Feasibility project stage: After normal drilling, if soft soil is discovered, boreholes
shall be localized and arranged in centerline with the distance from 250m to 500m
(if necessary exploratory points shall be added such as: vane shear, penetration … in
order to discover soft soil area, but the additional exploration shall not be for
sampling). Drilling in cross section is proposed by consultant and approved by
employer.
o Technical design stage: Geological exploratory works is carried out by boreholes
which each borehole are normally arranged from 50m to 100m to each other in
centerline (including boreholes in the first stage).
+ In some special circumstances, the distance may be shortened.
+ Every 100-150m shall be arranged 1 geological cross section perpendicular to
centerline in which is 3 boreholes. There are at least 2 geological cross sections on
each soft soil area.

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+ Exploratory drilling depth should reach the bottom of the soft soil layer and 2
more meters on non-soft soil layer, if depth of the soft soil layer is considerable,
drilling should reach the impact area of embanking loads. The area is determined
correlative with its depth where stress is caused by embanking loads (or by
embankment or preloading if any) by 0.15 of the stress (pressure) due to soft soil (in
consideration of buoyancy in case of existence of underground water).
+ In case of carrying out vane shear test at site, this test shall be independently
carried out or in boreholes.
o Investigation stage for working drawing preparation is to use borehole or testing
results at site in technical design stage. Investigation quantity is an additional one for
on-going technical design stage. If extra soft soil area is discovered, then geological
investigation quantity may increase, which is proposed by consultant and approved
by employer; however, the quantity does not exceed 20% of the quantity in technical
design stage.

III.3.3. Section to vane shear exploratory and drilling for sampling shall be arranged in the relatively
highest embankment and in the most specific soft soil layer.

III.3.4. In each borehole mentioned in Article III.3.2, soft soil length depends on:

· If soft soil length up to 200m, every 1-2m soil in thickness shall be taken a disturbed
sample.
· If soft soil length is more than 200m, sample quantity is proposed by project manager and
approved by employer, but at least, soft soil between each layer shall be taken undisturbed
sample.
Methods for undisturbed sampling, packing, hauling and preservation are in accordance with
regulations in Vietnam Standards TCVN 2683-91

III.3.5. Testing for determination of soft soil’s physio-mechanical properties mentioned in III.1.2
should be carried out with all undisturbed samples in accordance with the following:

· Testing for determine resistance against shear properties (cohesion force C and friction
angle φ) is in accordance with methods and regulations in Vietnam Standards TCVN 4199-
95, in which method for accelerated shear and accelerated shear for consolidation is also
determined (accelerated shear properties are for determination of embankment stability in
embanking and the others are for determination of embankment in operation);
· Testing for determination of settlement compression in confined compression condition is
carried out in accordance with Vietnam Standards TCVN 4200-95. Determination of
pressure value for pre-consolidation σpz is carried out as instructions in Appendix I of this
Specification;
· Other properties are determined in accordance with equivalent Vietnam Standards.

III.3.6. Testing for determination of physio-mechanical properties of embankment soil and sand is
carried out in accordance with equivalent standards mentioned in Article III.3.5 with samples
by embankment material from soil quarries or sand pits which their density and moisture are as
that in practice. Resistance against shear properties shall apply accelerated shear method.

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III.3.7. For calculation of each property, at least 6 testing datum and calculation values shall be
determined as in the following formula:
∆t = ∆tb ± δ (III-1)
In which: ∆t – Calculation value of the property
∆tb – Arithmetic average value of testing data
δ – Average square declination

In which: Ai – Determined value of the property in each testing time

n – Testing time towards each property

In choosing calculation value of each property, it is necessary to carefully analyze actual

conditions having impacts on quality of soft soil samples before testing as well as adverse
impacts of these properties on calculation results.

Besides, geo-technical specialists’ experience should be considered in choosing calculation

value.

III.3.8. Testing data at site carried out by penetration or vane shear equipment is also processed towards
calculation value mentioned in Article III.3.7 (for more information, please refer to
Specifications and Standards mentioned in Article III.3.1, in combination with geo-technical
specialists’ experience).

IV. APPLICABLE ALTERNATIVES FOR DESIGN OF EMBANKMENT

ON SOFT GROUND

IV.1. General Requirements for embankment structure on soft ground

IV.1.1. Embankment structure on soft soil must mitigate adverse impacts from flood water and
underground water:

· soil for embankment must be a soil type with good water stability, it is unaccepted to use
those soil types (which are classified in TCVN 5747-1993);
· density, minimum embankment height in flood water and underground water levels as well
as other requirements of sub-grade structure (as talus embankment when sub-grade body is
sand ...) shall conform to specifications defined in TCVN 4054-1998 and TCVN 5729-1997.

IV.1.2. Within 20m from slope foot of embankment outwards each side, sag locations (ponds, lakes)
shall be fully filled up and it is strictly prohibited to carry out excavation for soil collection
within this area.

IV.1.3. An effort is made to reduce embankment height for creating easy conditions for soil
stabilization and settlement decrease; however, except for temporary roads, minimum
embankment height shall be from 1.2 – 1,5m away from the position connected to soft soil, or
0.8 – 1m away from surface of sandy buffer stratum (if any) so as to ensure effective area of sub

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grade excluding soft soil area. The former value of the above mentioned minimum height of
embankment shall be applied for embankments of expressway and roads for many heavy trucks,
the later one for embankment of other road types.

IV.2. Direct embanking on soft soil

IV.2.1. During calculation of stability and settlement of direct embankment on natural ground
(including soft soil under it) or on soft soil, we can apply alternative of direct embankment
(without using any other treatment measure) but it shall satisfy all requirements and conform to
specifications stated in II.1 and II.2. Method of stability calculation is defined in V, that of
settlement one in VI of this Specification.

In all cases, if direct embankment is conducted on soft soil, there should be a sandy buffer layer
at least 50cm in thickness and 0.5 – 1.0m wider than embankment toe.

IV.2.2. Direct embanking shall be applied for the cases as follows:

· On soft soil area, there is no soft soil as classified in I.4 and I.5 (it is actually called covering
layer on soft soil surface). If the covering layer is 1-2m, height of direct embankment might
be up to 2-3m, if it is 2m thicker, the height might be 3-4m;
· On grade I peat or soft and viscous soil area with peat thickness of less than 1-2m;
· On sandy mud or fine sandy mud area (normally, as this type has big consolidation
coefficient, settlement occurs quickly.

In addition, in case, an embankment is expected to be few and quick settlement but if the
embankment is filled up promptly until designed height, which shall not ensure the stability in
accordance with the specifications stated in Article II.1.1, can adopt alternative of direct
embankment together with method of filling speed control (filling is conducted in many times,
between each interval, there is waiting time for consolidation) so as to secure the stability
requirements (see Article II.1.2) except when the filling speed control leads to overtime lasting,
which does not ensure requirements of construction schedule for the whole road engineering, it
is necessary to consider other treatment measures.

IV.2.3. Filling method shall be conducted from natural ground of non-soft soil to soft soil ground for
direct embankment on soft soil.

During implementation of the filling method, the following conditions must be satisfied:

· Embanking banks, drying water on soft soil surface;

· Embankment materials shall be good water-reserving ones such as sand, cobbles, stones or
industrial scraps…
· Embankment section is situated under natural soft soil, so compaction shall be conducted by
using from light (bull dozer…) to heavy equipments (heavy-duty roller) until embankment
materials do not make any settlement into soft soil, i.e. until firm space is created for
construction on soft soil ground.
· Embankment from natural ground upwards must be filled up as layer by layer and
satisfactory with requirements of compaction.

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IV.2.4. For convenience of implementation of direct embankment on soft soil (good conditions for
traffic on soft soil and firm compaction of the first layer), geo-textile can be used to cover the
soft soil prior to embankment as instructed in Table IV.1 bellow:

Selection of geo-textile and structure of temporary roads

for traffic on soft soil area
Table IV.1

Required Properties for geo-textile

Structure
Materials Permeable Filter hole
of Stressing Tearing
for road Stretch coefficient diameter
temporary strength strength
embankment (%) m/s Φ95 (µm)
roads (kN/m) (kN)
m
1. One layer
of geo-
textile above ≥ 12 ≤ 25 ≥ 0.8 ≥ 0.1 ≤ 125
50cm
embankment
I. Sand, 2. Two geo-
mixture of textile layers
≥ 0.1
sand and above each ≥ 8 15 - 80 ≥ 0.3 ≤ 125
natural 25cm
gravels embankment
3. One layer
of geo-
≥ 0.1
textile above ≥ 16 15 - 80 ≥ 0.5 80 - 200
15cm
embankment
1. One layer
of geo-
≥ 0.1
textile above ≥ 25 ≤ 25 ≥ 1.2 ≤ 200
30cm
embankment
2. One layer
of geo-
II. Good
textile above ≥ 12 ≤ 25 ≥ 0.8 ≥ 5.10-2 ≤ 200
aggregate
50cm
embankment
3. Two geo-
textile layers
above each ≥ 20 15 - 80 ≥ 1.2 ≥ 5.10-2 ≤ 200
15cm
embankment

Note on Table IV.1:

· Permeable coefficient with s-1 as m/s per unit of trial geo-textile thickness;

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· Filter hole diameter is equivalent to the biggest material grain which can follow water to go
through the geo-textile; the grain size is equal to D95 (this is grain diameter that
composition of smaller grains obtains 95%);
· Geo-textile shall be horizontally laid (perpendicular to alignment) and overlapped at least
0.5m or sewed with 10cm overlap;

To ensure compaction quality, right at the first embankment layer, geo-textile with stressing
strength at least 25kN/m shall be selected.

IV.3. Partial or total excavation of soft soil

IV.3.1. This method has advantages such as stability increase, settlement and settlement time reduce;
thus, except that there is a hard crust on soft soil, for all other cases, designer must give priority
to consideration of application or combination of the partial excavation and other methods. Soft
soil, which has smaller thickness than affected area of embankment load, will be an especially
appropriate case. Using method of soft soil excavation by chained excavator, each excavated
section shall be filled up promptly; the depth of excavation might reach 2-3m. Major point is to
prepare properly construction lay-out for convenience of quick embankment after forming rows
of excavation; excavated soft soil shall be dumped on two sides of the embankment to create
berm. If necessary, the excavation depth can be defined by calculating as instructed in V.2.6
and meeting requirements stated in II.1 and II.2.

IV.3.2. Cross section of soft soil section shall be trapezium with small bottom under equal width of
sub-grade surface; the big bottom above equal closure width between embankment and soft soil
surface when it has not been dug (between two toes of embankment). It means that excavation
depth of soft soil can only fit sub-grade width, on two embankment toes, the depth can be
reduced gradually.

IV.3.3. The following cases are suitable for partial or total excavation of soft soil:

· Maximum thickness of soft soil is 2m (in this case, the whole soft soil section shall be dug
so that sub-grade bottom is closely contacted to firm soil stratum);
· Soft soil is grade I peat or clay, viscid sandy clay, very loose sandy clay; if thickness of soft
soil is more than 4-5m, partial excavation shall be conduced so as for maximum thickness
equal ½ - 1/3 of embankment height (including sub-merged embankment inside soft soil).

IV.3.4. In the case that soft soil has less than 3m in thickness and too low intensity, during excavation,
it is not enough time for embankment, such as grade II, grade III peat, clayey mud (viscosity
B>1) or fine sandy mud; method of filling stones down into soft soil bottom or combination of
stones and overloading filling so that the ground itself can settle down to the bottom of soft soil.
This option is especially suitable for extension of existing embankment during road
rehabilitation and upgrade on soft soil area.

Rocks with 0,3m diameter or bigger shall be used and dumped outwards so as to push soft soil
out, until rocks emerge on the soft soil surface, after that sand or small rocks shall be scattered
on and compacted from lightly to heavily. If rocks are small, barrels, steel or polyethylene
gabions can be used to put stones inside them for embankment.

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IV.3.5. Bamboo stakes shall be driven, 25 stakes/m2; this is an alternative to replace excavation of soft
soil within stake setting depth (the stakes can be set into 2 – 2,5m depth). Bamboo stakes should
be more than 7cm diameter for big end, 4cm for small end and will not be broken or out of
shape. After filling one soil layer of 30cm on bamboo stake tops, geo-textile (or equivalent geo-
grids) shall be laid on them (as described in IV.2.4) to arrange embankment load evenly on the
bamboo stakes.

Similarly, cajuput stakes with 12cm diameter of big end and 5cm of small end can be used, set
up 3-5cm in depth with the interval of 16 stakes/m2.

IV.4. Embankment of berm

IV.4.1. This option is only used when direct embankment on soft soil in order to increase stability of
sub-grade to prevent its displacement and swelling and to satisfy the requirements in II.1 during
both embankment period and long-term operation. If embankment and berm are done at the
same time, it is no necessary to control falling speed thus, construction can be implemented
quickly. However, this option is not only able to reduce consolidation settlement time but also
increase the settlement (due to added load of berms on both sides). Furthermore, its advantage
is large embankment mass and large land acquisition area. This option is also not suitable for
soft soil types such as grade III mud and clayey mud.

IV.4.2. Structure of berm

· Materials of berm are normal soils or sands; if there is a lack of these types, organic soil can
be used.
· Berm width on each side should exceed scope of the most dangerous displacement curve
from 1-3m (the most dangerous displacement curve shall be calculated in accordance with
the method described in V.1 and V.2). Top surface of berm must create horizontal slope 2%
outwards.
· Berm height shall not be too big so not to cause in swelling displacement (instability) for
berm embankment itself; when designing, it is expected that berm height is 1/3 – ½ of
embankment height and then calculation of stability shall be done according to method of
circular displacement surface as described in section V. If the calculation results satisfy the
requirements in Article II.1.1, they are accepted.
· Density of soil for berm embankment should be K≥0.9 (standard compaction).

IV.5. Buffering sand layer

IV.5.1. Buffering sand layer shall be arranged between soft soil layer and embankment in order to
increase consolidation drainage capacity under the soft soil layer upwards natural ground by
effect of embankment loading capacity.

The buffering sand layer should be adopted for direct embankment on soft soil (IV.2.1 and
IV.2.2) and it is obligatory to be applied for vertical consolidation drainage (in section IV.6).

IV.5.2. Sand used in buffering layer must satisfy the following requirements:

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Sand shall have organic content < 5%, more than 50% of 0,25mm grain, 5% of 0,08mm grain
size, and it shall satisfy one of the two conditions as follows:
D60
>6 (IV-1)
D10

(D30)2
1< < 3 (IV-2)
D10 . D60

In which:
D30 – grain size, content of its smaller grains obtain 30%.
D10 – grain diameter, content of its smaller grains obtain 10%.

IV.5.3. Thickness of buffering sand layer at least shall be equal to the total settlement S stated in II.2.1
but not less than 50cm. Its compaction density is required to obtain 0.9 of standard compaction
density (for construction equipments on upper layers).

IV.5.4. Width of buffering sand layer surface shall be at least 0.5 ÷1m wider than embankment bottom;
slopes and widening sections on both sides of the buffering sand layer shall be designed to have
vertical filtering layer so as not to drift sand out when consolidation water drains, especially
when being settled and submerged into soft soil, the water still can and, if required, the water
can be pumped out without damage of the buffering sand layer.

The vertical filtering layer can be normally designed (stone blinding with 20÷25cm in
thickness) or by geo-textile which should be laid on soft soil ground, and then embanked by
buffering sand layer, after that the geo-textile shall cover the slope and its widening section for
its function of vertical drainage. This geo-textile layer shall cover embankment bottom at least
2m. It should make use of the geo-textile for other functions such as enhancing stability during
embankment (see IV.7) or the functions described in IV.2.4.

IV.5.5. If geo-textile performs as the vertical filter layer as described in IV.5.4, filtering hole diameter
shall satisfy the conditions as follows:

Of ≤ C.D85 (IV- 3)
In which:
Of – filtering hole diameter to be selected (µm)
D85 – grain diameter of buffering sand layer, volume of its smaller grains obtains 85%
(µm)
C – Coefficient taken equally to 0.64

If the geo-textile performs plural functions, its technical properties shall meet the equivalent
requirements.

IV.5.6. Consolidated water from buffering sand layer through vertical filtering layer need to be drained
quickly out of the area adjacent sub-grade. It is necessary to design drainage pipes available and
a pump shall be used to dry water, if necessary (especially when buffering sand layer settles
down completely into soft soil).

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IV.6. Vertical consolidated water drainage (using sand drain or PBD)

IV.6.1. Thank to arrangement of vertical drainage means (sand pipe or PBD), consolidated water
deeply inside soft soil stratum shall be drained quickly by loading capacity of embankment
(horizontal drainage through sand pipes or PBDs, and then on natural ground). However, for
this effective drainage, minimum height of embankment should be 4m, and satisfactory with the
conditions stated in (IV-4a), (IV – 4b) as follows:
σvz + σz ≥ (1.2 ~1.5) σpz (IV – 4a)

lg (σvz + σz) - σpz

η= >6 (IV – 4b)
lg (σvz + σz) - σpz

In which:
σvz - Vertical strength (pressure) caused by weight of soft soil layers themselves at the
depth z (Mpa).

σvz = Σγi . hi (IV – 5)

γi and hi – volume weight and thickness of soil layer i within contact surface between soft soil
and embankment bottom (z=0) down to the depth z inside soft soil; note that for soil layers are
located lower than underground water level, γi shall use weight of emerging and pushing
volume (minus 1).

σz – Vertical strength (pressure) caused by embankment loading capacity (embankment and pre-
load (surcharge) embankment , if any, excluding embankment height hx converted from loading
capacity of vehicles) at the depth z inside soft soil from embankment bottom (MPa); σz shall be
calculated by mathematical model Osterberg as stated in Appendix I.

The conditions (IV-4a) and (IV-4b) shall be satisfactory with every depth z within embankment
bottom down completely to depth of sand piles or PBD installation.

If the abovementioned conditions are not satisfactory, a combination with pre-load method as
stated in IV.6.8.shall apply for an increase of σz.

IV.6.2. Vertical consolidated drainage method is normally adopted when soft soil layer is thick (its
thickness is excessive to width of embankment bottom) and embankment ground is high. Due
to high construction cost, this method is only applied when other methods cannot secure
standards on remaining consolidated settlement ΔS as stated in II.2.3 within required
construction period.

IV.6.3. When using the vertical consolidated drainage method, it is necessary to set up a buffering sand
layer in conformity to the requirements defined in IV.5.2, IV.5.3, IV.5.4, IV.5.5 and IV.5.6. if
using sand piles, its top shall contact directly buffering sand layer. If using PBD, it shall be
driven through the buffering sand layer and additional length shall be at least 20cm higher than
top upper surface of the buffering sand layer.

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IV.6.4. Sand used in sand piles shall satisfy the requirements defined in IV.5.2 as well as the conditions
of IV.2 and IV.3.

IV.6.5. PBD used for vertical consolidated drainage must satisfy the following requirements:

· Filtering hole size of PBD:

(in accordance with Specifications of ASTM D4571): O95 ≤ 75µm
· Permeable coefficient of filter cover (ASTM D4491) : ≥ 1.10-4 m/sec
· Drainage capacity of PBD with pressure 350kN/m2 (ASTM D4716): qw ≥ 60.10-6 m3/sec.
· Stretching Strength correlatively with less than 10% stretch (ASTM 4595) for
discontinuation resistance during installation of PBD: ≥ 1kN/PBD.
· Width of PBD (for its suitability with standardized PBD installation equipment): 100mm ±
0,05mm.

IV.6.6. It is advised to use sand piles with 35-45mm diameter arranged alternatively with the interval
equally to 8-10 folds of sand pile diameter. If using PBD, its arrangement shall be done the
same with the interval no less than 1.3m and no more than 2.2m.

IV.6.7. Decision on depth of sand drain or PBD is an economic-technical issue that requires designer to
take it in consideration. This depends on settlement range of soft soil layers’ depth under
impacts of embanking load for each specific design circumstance. It is unneccesary to arrange
sand drains or PBDs to reach the area that is under impacts of embanking load as mentioned in
Article III.3.2, but they need to arrange to a certain depth with consolidated settlement value of
soft soil layers; from this depth to upper, the ratio shall be gained compared with consolidated
settlement value Sc so that remaining consolidated settlement shall meet requirements as
mentioned in Article II.2.3 within construction period if consolidation velocity within
arrangement of sand drains or PBDs is accelerated.
Thus, the designer must provide alternatives for various arrangements of sand piles or PBDs (on
depth and interval). Depth alternative must satisfy requirements given in (IV-4a) and (IV-4b).

IV.6.8. When using vertical drainage method, it should be combined with pre-loading method and time
for embankment loading keeping should be not less than 6 months. Any soil types (even organic
soil) can be used for pre-loading embankment. Grade of pre-loading embankment shall be
1:0.75 and compaction density is required to obtain K = 0.9 (standard compaction).

IV.7. Using PBDs for strengthening embankment stability on soft soil

IV.7.1. When PBD is arranged between soft soil and embankment as shown in Figure IV.1, friction
between embankment soil and upper surface of geo-textile shall create a force to keep
displacement block (regardless friction soft soil and lower surface of geo-textile) so
embankment stability shall be increased.

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Figure IV.1

I- Active area (displacement block)

II - Passive area (geo-textile keeps a role of anchorage)
F- Stretching force that geo-textile bears (T/m)
Y- Momen arm of force F for the most dangerous displacement center.
Using this alternative, calculation for design must satisfy the following conditions:
F ≤ Fcp
In which:
F - Stretching force that geo-textile bears (T/m)
Fcp - Acceptable stretching force of geo-textile of 1m in width (T/m)

IV.7.2. Acceptable stretching force of geo-textile Fcp shall be determined in accordance with
requirements as follows:
· Durability of geo-textile:

Fmax
Fcp =
k
In which:
Fmax – Shear strength of geotextile with 1m in width. (T/m)
k – Safety coefficient; k = 2 if geo-textile is made of polyester and k = 5 if it is
polypylene or polyethylene.

· Conditions for acceptable friction force of geo-textile laid directly on soft soil:

In which:
l 1 and l 2 – length of geo-textile within active area and passive area (see Figure IV.1).
γd – natural weight of embankment soil;

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f’’ – acceptable friction coefficient between embankment soil and geo-textile for
calculation.
hi – embankment height on geo-textile (changes within l 1 and l 2 , from hi = h to hi = 0
(see Figure IV.1.);

The expression IV.8 and IV.9 are total friction on geo-textile within active and passive area:
2
f’ = k’ tgφ
3
In which:
φ – Internal friction angle of embankment soil shall be determined correlatively with
factual density of embankment foundation or sand buffering layer, if any;
k’ – reserve coefficient on friction, equally 0,66.

Determination of l 1 and l 2 shall be done at the same time with stability control as stated in V.1:
suppose that F force shall make minimum stability coefficient satisfy the requirements in II.1.1
and it is compared to the conditions (IV-7) whether it satisfies both (IV-7), (IV-8) and (IV-9) or
not; if it does, based on smallest value of Fcp according to the abovementioned relationships in
order to select geo-textile with equivalent Fmax.

IV.7.3. Geo-textile, which is used for stabilizing embankment on soft soil, can be arranged into one or
more layers (1-4 layers); a 15-30cm sand layer shall come between two geo-textile layers,
depending on compaction capability. Total shear strength of geo-textile layers shall be selected
equally to value of Fmax determined as in IV.7.2.

Note: upper geo-textile layers situated in sand (both upper and lower surface are in contact with
sand), value of Fcp shall be calculated by the expression (IV-8) and (IV-9) and then multiplied
with 2, from which the total acceptable friction force of geo-textile layers shall be found out.

IV.7.4. If adopting this alternative, it is advisable to select woven geo-textile with minimum shear
strength of 25kN/m as stated in IV.2.4 so as to ensure soil compaction efficiency on geo-textile
with purpose of creating high friction coefficient between soil and the geo-textile. For other
properties of geo-textile, refer to Table IV-1.

If geo-textile performs as filter layer, the filter hole diameter must satisfy requirements defined
in IV.5.5.

IV.8. Rules and procedures for selection of design alternatives

IV.8.1. Procedures:
To be base for proposal of design alternatives, firstly, the Consultant must evaluate stability
level and settlement development for direct embankment on soft soil (without applying any
other treatments) according to instructions stated V and VI. Calculation and evaluation shall be
conducted for specific section with various embankment dimension, structures as well as
technical characteristics of various soft soil types. If the calculation results realize that
requirements and specifications defined in II and IV.1 are not satisfactory, proposals of
treatment methods for that section shall be prepared, firstly they are the simplest methods
(including alternative of changing embankment dimensions in height and talus slope), or

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combination of some of the alternatives stated in IV and others unmentioned in this

specification (for example, alternative of approach road extension over soft soil ground…). For
each proposed alternative, it is necessary to calculate and evaluate stability and settlement as
well as analysis, calculation and comparison on economy and technique so as to select the
applicable alternative. During analysis, it should concern settlement affection of embankment
on the existing engineering works.

IV.8.2. In all cases, it is necessary to make use of the whole acceptable construction period:
Embankment on soft soil must be commenced earliest. If necessary, the last due in the general
schedule shall be maximum extended or embankment shall be divided into many times,
embankment shall be conducted while waiting for its consolidation. Such method is an option
that gains significant economic and technical efficiency, thus, it should be applied in
combination with other treatment measures at the same time.

IV.8.3. During actual construction, monitoring results shall be reviewed (II.3) and compared to
requirements of stability and deformation control stated in II.1.2 and II.2 so as to adjust
embankment speed, if necessary, and design alternative regarding technical and economic
benefits against the basic design. Especially, based on actual settlement monitoring as stated in
II.2.5, remaining consolidated settlement shall be forecasted when determining construction
time of work items related to requirements for settlement control of embankment on soft soil
(the forecast of settlement obtained by calculation is only used for proposing design
alternatives).

IV.8.4. If at least 500m route length with technical characteristics through soft soil ground, 30-50m trial
embankment should be constructed on site (no less than two folds of embankment bottom
width) with arrangement of monitoring instruments as stated in II.3. Based on the monitoring
results, design alternatives shall be made accurate before the whole construction. The trial
embankment must be conducted during technical design and adjustment after the trial work
shall be done during drawing design for detailed construction.

If the embankment height is low, it is more necessary to carry out the trial embankment.
Observation time for the trial work should be from 6-12 months.

V. CALCULATION FOR EMBANKMENT STABILITY ON SOFT GROUND

V.1. Calculation method

V.1.1. Classic or Bishop Method with circular displacement surface deepening down into soft soil
shall be adopted as the basic method for calculation of embankment stability on soft soil.

V.1.2. The classic method shall be calculated according to Figure V.1 and stability coefficient Kj
equivalent to one circular displacement with center Oj shall de determined by the formula V-1:

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Figure V.1. Stability Diagram according to the classic method with circular displacement;
(hx is height equivalent traffic loading capacity defined by the formula II.1)

In Figure (V.1), sliding piece i in width di is affected by load of Di , earthquake load Wi (if
required); furthermore, if geo-textile is used for stability improvement, the whole sliding block
shall be under affection of maintaining force F (see Figure IV.1 and Article IV.7.1). Wi shall be
determined in conformity to Article II.4.4, F is defined as specified in Article IV.7.1 and IV.7.2.
These forces have Yi (force Wi) and Y (force F) in comparison with sliding center Oi. For a
circular sliding surface with center Oi, Yi will change according center of gravity position of
sliding piece, Y shall not change.

l i – length of sliding curve within piece i.

n – Number of sliding pieces ramified within sliding block.
αi – angle between normal of l i and direction of force Qi (Figure V.1).
Rj- diameter of sliding curve

ci and φi unit adhesive force and internal friction angle of the soil layer containing sliding curve
l i of sliding piece i (if l i is within embankment area, using unit adhesive force and internal
friction angle of embankment soil). For soft soil areas, when using on-site Vane Shear Test
results, φi = 0, ci shall be equal to calculated shear strength Ciu (see V.3.2).

V.1.3. Calculated by Bishop Method, stability coefficient Kj correlatively to circular sliding surface
with center Oj (Figure V.1) shall be determined according to the formula below:

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With:

Symbols in (V.2) and (V.3) have the same meaning as in (V.1) on Figure V.1. The way to
specify them is totally as same as calculation according to the classic method. Only difference is
that the calculation by (V-2) and (V-3) is step by step one, as mi in (V-3) depends on Kj; thus if
using the Bishop method, it is obligatory to use computer software programs.

V.2. Attention should be paid when using the classic and Bishop Calculation methods

V.2.1. Width of sliding piece di shall not be more than 2m and length of sliding curve within each
piece l i must be located on the same soil layer.

Each sliding piece consists of all soil layers counted from sliding surfaces upwards (including
buffer sand layer, submerged embankment in soft soil, embankment of berm, preloading
embankment and embankment height with equivalent vehicle loading capacity).

V.2.2. Self-weight of each sliding piece Qi is determined as follows:

In which: hk is height of sliding piece i within various soil layers with various dry volume γk (N
is number of various soil layers within i). For soft soil layers are located under underground
water levels, values of γk shall be calculated by using volumetric weight of float minus 1.

Note that, for sliding pieces within sub-grade width, when Qi is calculated regarding equivalent
height of vehicle hx which is defined by the formula (II-1) shown in Figure V.1 and preloading
embankment height (if any).

V.2.3. Calculation of various circular sliding surfaces (Oj, Rj) shall be conducted to determine the most
dangerous sliding surface and smallest stability coefficient Kj min (Kmin for short). The
coefficient Kmin is used to evaluate requirements of stability against resurfacing as stated in
II.1). Note that, it must determine position of the most dangerous sliding surface forecasted by
calculation for the base of design alternatives of treatment measures such as width of berm
(Article IV.2.4), depth of vertical drainage arrangement (Article IV.6.7) or for determination of

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active area stabilized by PBD (Figure IV.1). If the soil is soft and thin, sliding surface may
consist of circular curve sections in combination with a straight section at the bottom of soft soil
(especially the bottom with grade more than 100).

V.2.4. If the most dangerous sliding surface is not calculated by computer model, it can be found out
by letting position of center Oj changed within area of “the most dangerous sliding center” as
shown in Figure V.2.

Figure V.2. Diagram to determine dangerous sliding center

(I is slope centerline, C is slope foot)

If embankment is made from sand (bondage force c = 0), cross point between the most
dangerous sliding surface and sub-grade width may change on the whole scope of AB, if the
bondage force is large, the point often passes through point A or near A (from A to the
centerline of embankment).

V.2.5. Computer models for determination of stability coefficient Kj and finding out Kmin must be able
to satisfy requirements of calculation defined in Articles V.1, V.2.1, V.2.3.

V.2.6. When evaluating embankment stability on soft soil, in addition to application of different
treatment measures as stated in IV.2, IV.3, IV.4, IV.6, IV.7, the methods described in V.1 and
requirements in V.2 (especially V.2.1 and V.2.2) shall be adopted. This requires that prior to
supposition of sliding surfaces and calculation, cross section of embankment must be drawn
with fully natural underground strata and structures as required by the equivalent treatment
measures (excavation depth of soft soil, buffer sand layer, berm in form of preload
embankment, arrangement of PBDs), the embankment height shall be added by equivalent
height of vehicles loading capacity.

V.2.7. If adopting embankment method divided into many times, acceptable embankment height shall
be determined as follows:
· To suppose a height of embankment.
· To calculate embankment stability at this height according to the methods stated in V.1 and
V.2 correlatively with different shear strength of soft soil for each embankment time (see
Part V.3). If results of mathematical model satisfies the requirements stated in II.1.1 and
Kmin value is not very high (Kmin = 1,2 should be adopted), the supposed height shall be
accepted for design height of each embankment time, if not, the supposition of height will
be repeated until the results of mathematical model provides Kmin = 1,2.

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It is acceptable to use mathematical models with availability of limited embankment height Hgh
or formulas for calculation of limited loading capacity Pgh, depending on characteristics of shear
strength, quickly find out values of the supposed embankment height. After that, it will be
tested by mathematical model as method of circular sliding surface stated in V.1 and V.1 (note
that Pgh = γd . Hgh with γd is natural weight of soil for embankment of sub-grade or preloading).

If using mathematical models available on computer, it can suppose 3-4 of embankment height
value and then run the program to determine value of Kmin equivalent to that height and by
relation between Kmin = f (Hembankment) to determine acceptable embankment height equivalent to
Kmin =1,2.

V.3. Calculation of stability and its correlative parameter

V.3.1. There are calculations of stability with requirement of using calculated shear strength at various
states as follows:

1. Case I: embankment is constructed when the soft soil has not been consolidated or
consolidated insignificantly as the following specific cases:
· Calculation and evaluation of stability for proposal of design alternatives as stated in Article
IV.8.1;
· Application of direct embankments, embankment with arrangement of PBDs (IV.2 and
IV.7), partial excavation of soft soil (IV.3), berm (IV.4);
· First sub-grade embankment time in the method of embankment in many times (IV.8.2 and
V.2.7), adopting method of Buffer sand layer (IV.5) and vertical drainage (IV.6).

2. Case II: After completion, embankment on soft soil is taken into operation; the soft soil’s
consolidation below has reached at least 90%.

3. Case III: if embankment is divided into many times, both embanking and waiting for soil’s
consolidation (IV.8.2), the consolidation of soft soil will increase regularly during the second or
third embankment.

If results of stability calculation according to the case I satisfy the requirements in II.1.1, height
in one embankment is equal to designed embankment height, whether any treatment measures
are adopted, it is not necessary to regard the calculation according to Case II and Case III.

V.3.2. For Case I, characteristics of shear strength serve calculation as follows:

· For embankment and sand buffer layer: values of bondage force c and friction angle φ shall
be determined by samples with factual density and moisture through fast shear test without
water drainage in lab. If the ground is in water the sample shall be at the most disadvantaged
moisture.
· For natural soft or non-soft soil layers under the embankment: using on-site vane shear test
results and calculated bondage force values Cu which are determined according to the
formula below (φ = 0):
Ciu = µ.Ss (MPa) (V- 5)
In which:
Ss – Undisturbed shear strength (MPa) without water drainage from on-site vane shear
test.

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µ - adjustment coefficient (according to Bjerum) regarding non-isotropous affection of

soil, shear velocity and continuous destruction of soil ground depending on soil plastic
index as shown in Table V-1.

µ depends on plastic index Ip

Table V-1

IP 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

µ 1.09 1.0 0.925 0.86 0.80 0.75 0.70

(The first class interpolate among intervals in the table)

· Only when there is no equipment for implementation of on-site vane shear test, it can use
the characteristics of shear strength according to fast shear test results in lab (ci , φi).

V.3.3. For Case II: characteristics of soft or non-soft soil layers under the embankment (C and φ) shall
be determined by undisturbed samples through consolidated fast shear test in lab; embankment
soil layers (including sand buffer layer, if any) shall be also defined as Case I.

V.3.4. For Case III: characteristics of shear strength of soil layers and embankment shall be
determined as Case I but Ss in the formula V-5 shall be replaced by Su as follows:
Su = U [0.22.σz + Ss (σpz /σvz)0.2] (V-6)
In which:
U – Forecasted consolidation level can be gained from the beginning of first
embankment until that of the second one: U is calculated by decimal number of … (e.g.
soil consolidated 50%, U = 0.5) and according to the method stated in Article VI.3.1.

Ss means the same as in the formula (V-5) with on-site fast shear test at the normal ground
(natural state of soil) σz ,σpz ,σvz have the same meaning and determination as in the formula
(IV-5 and IV-6) with loading capacity of the first embankment. With Su calculated according to
(V-6), from that bondage force (calculated shear strength) Ciu be found out by the formula (V-
5), depending on consolidation level of soft soil after the first embankment. The calculated
values of shear strength with U = 1 shall be less than shear strength values of Case II.
Su ≤ (σz + σvz ) . tgφi + ci (V-7)
In which:
ci and φi are determined by consolidated fast shear test as stated in V.3.3. If value of Cu
calculated by the formula (V-5 and V-6) is higher than values of the right side of the
formula (V-7), just use the values of the right side of the formula (V-7) for calculation.

If results of fast shear test in lab will be used for calculation, equivalent to gained consolidation
U, shear strength of soft soil i is considered to be added by Δci.
Δci = σz . U.tgφi (V- 8)
and bondage force coefficient calculated according to the formulas (V-1) or (V-3) will be ciu =
ci + Δci . Calculated shear strength values with φi and ciu must satisfy the requirements in (V-7).

V.3.5. Calculation of stability by determining shear strength as the abovementioned calculation only
serves design alternatives. In Case I and Case II, to ensure stable ground during embankment, it

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is necessary to conform sufficiently to all requirements of settlement and transversal

displacement as stated in II.3.

VI. CALCULATION OF EMBANKMENT SETTLEMENT ON SOFT GROUND

VI.1. Calculation of consolidation settlement Sc

VI.1.1. Consolidation settlement Sc is estimated according to the following formula:

In which:
Hi – Thickness of the i soil layer for settlement calculation (n layers with various
deformation characteristics), i from 1 to n layers; Hi ≤ 2.0m;
eio – void coefficient of the i soil layer at initial natural state (without embankment on
it).
Cio – settlement index or slope of settlement curve (under performance of e ~ lgσ) within
σi > σipz (as shown in Figure 1, Appendix 1).
σivz , σipz , σiz – Pressure (vertical compression strength) due to weight of natural soil
layers on the i layer, pre-consolidated pressure at the i layer and pressure caused by
embankment loading capacity on the i layer (determining these pressures correlatively
with the depth z in the middle of the soft soil i).

Note:
a) When σivz > σipz (soil at incompletely consolidated state under affection of weight
loading capacity) and when σivz = σipz (soil at normal consolidated state), the formula (VI-
1) only remains the following term (no existing of the term with Cir).
b) When σivz < σipz (soil at excessively consolidated state), calculation of consolidated
settlement Sc according to VI-1 with two cases:
§ If σiz > σipz - σivz , apply the formula (VI-1) with both of terms.
§ If σiz < σipz - σivz , apply the formula below:

VI.1.2. Determination of calculation parameters and values in the formula for calculation of pre-
settlement (VI-1)
· Parameters Cir , Cic and σipz shall be determined by confined compression test with
undisturbed samples which are representatives for the soft soil i in conformity to
Instructions in TCVN 4200 – 95 and supplementations in Appendix I of this Specification
and in Article III.3.5 and III.3.7.
· Strength value (pressure) σivz shall be determined as instructed in Article IV.6.1 (the
formula IV-6).

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· Strength value σiz shall be calculated according to mathematical model Osterberg in

Appendix II as mentioned in (IV.6.1), but it is only correlative to designed embankment
loading capacity (Article II.2.2) and concerning pre-settlement as mentioned in VI.2.3.

VI.1.3. Settlement depth of soft soil under affection of embankment loading capacity or scope of
affection by embankment loading capacity za shall be determined in accordance with the
conditions as follow:
σza = 0.15. σvza (VI-2)
In which:
σza – Stress caused by embankment loading capacity at the depth Za
σvza – Stress caused by weight of upper soil layers at the depth Za (with concerning of
pushing pressure if these layers are located under underground water level).

VI.2. Estimation of total settlement S and instant settlement Si

VI.2.1. Total settlement is estimated according to the following experience:

S = m.Ss (VI-3)
with m = 1.1 ÷ 1.4; if there are measures for prevention soft soil from transversal sliding by
embankment loading capacity (such as berm or PBD), m = 1.1 shall be used; in addition, the
higher embankment and the softer soil are, the bigger value of m is.

VI.2.2. Instant settlement Si mentioned in II.2.1 shall be estimated according to the relation below:
Si = (m-1).Sc (VI-4)
with meaning and determination of m is as same as in VI.2.1.

VI.2.3. Procedures of settlement calculation on soft soil

To calculate the total settlement S according to the formula (VI-3), results of consolidated
settlement Sc according to (VI-1) or (VI-1’) must be found out; e.g. coefficients and parameters
mentioned in VI.1.2 must be determined, σiz depends on embankment loading capacity, this
loading capacity consists of settlement embankment in soft soil S. As S is unknown, settlement
calculation is a repeated and trial calculation by the procedures as follows:
· Suppose that total settlement Sgt (Sgt = 5-10% of soft soil thickness or depth of soft soil
under settlement bearing za; if peat is excessive settlement, suppose that Sgt = 20-30% of the
abovementioned depth);
· Calculation of settlement distribution σiz is done by the mathematical model Osterberg, with
designed embankment height concerning settlement estimate H’tk = Htk + Sgt (H’tk is
designed embankment height: if it is direct embankment, the height is from natural ground
to margin of road shoulder; if there is excavation of soft soil, it is from elevation of soft soil
after excavation.
· With H’tk, we can calculate consolidated settlement Sc by the formula (VI-1) or (VI-1’), it
depends on each case:
Sgt
If Sc satisfies conditions in (VI-3), e.i. Sc = m , the result is accepted and Sc and Sgt are
determined; if it does not satisfy, S shall be supposed again and the calculation shall be
repeated.

VI.2.4. Designed embankment height with settlement estimate H’tk shall de determined by:
H’tk = Htk + S (VI-5)

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So, elevation of embankment on soft soil shall be designed higher than S for settlement
estimate. Embankment width at the elevation correlative with H’tk shall be equal the designed
embankment width.

VI.3. Consolidated settlement estimate by time in the case of vertical one-way drainage

VI.3.1. In this case, consolidation U, which is obtained after the time t since completion of
embankment of designed sub-grade and preloading (if any), shall be determined depending on
Tv as shown in Table VI-1.

Ctbv
Tv = t (VI-6)
2
H
In which:
Ctbv – average vertical consolidation coefficient of soft soil layers within settlement bearing
depth za (see its meaning in VI.1.3)

with hi is thickness of soft soil layers within za (za = Σhi) with different consolidation coefficient
Cvi.
Cvi shall be determined by unconfined compression test with undisturbed in accordance with
TCVN 4200-95 correlative with average pressure 2σivz + σiz from which the soft soil has to
bear during consolidation. 2
H is depth of vertical consolidated drainage, if there is only one drainage surface, H = za’ if
there are two on both above and below (under sand) H= 1/2za.

Consolidation obtained depending on Tv; Uv= f (T)

Table VI-1

TV 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.028 0.036 0.048

UV 0.080 0.104 0.125 0.160 0.189 0.214 0.247

TV 0.060 0.072 0.100 0.125 0.167 0.200 0.250

UV 0.276 0.303 0.357 0.399 0.461 0.504 0.562

TV 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.800 1.000

UV 0.631 0.650 0.698 0.764 0.816 0.887 0.931

TV 2.000

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UV 0.994

Note: if Cv is calculated in cm2/sec, hi and H shall be calculated in cm and t in sec (second).

VI.3.2. Consolidated settlement of embankment on soft soil shall be determined as follows:

St = Sc.Uv (VI-8)
In which: Sc is determined as instructed in VI.2.3, U done as in VI.3.1.
The remaining consolidated settlement after the time t, ΔS will be:
ΔS = (1-U).Sc (VI-9)

VI.3.3. Depending on relation (VI-6, VI-7) and Table VI-1, designer can determine the waiting time
after embanking (including wearing course construction) so that remaining consolidated
settlement after completion of wearing course construction shall be within the allowable scope
as mentioned in Article II.2.3, then considers whether methods for accelerating settlement
should apply or not.

VI.4. Estimation of consolidated settlement by time in case of two-way drainage system (with
application of sand drain or PBD)

VI.4.1. In this case, consolidation U by time t is determined by this formula:

U = 1 – (1 – Uv) (1 – Uh) (VI-10)
In which:
- Uv – Vertical consolidation is determined as mentioned in Article VI.3.1
- Uh – Transverse consolidation due to impact of sand drain or PBD (as stated in
Article VI.4.2)

VI.4.2. Transverse consolidation Uh is determined as follows:

In which:
- Th – Time by transverse direction:

ℓ is the distance between sand drains or PBDs:

+ If sand drain or PBD is arranged by square, then:
ℓ = 1.13D (VI-13)
+ If they are arranged by triangle, then:
ℓ = 1.05D (VI-14)
- D – The distance between drain centers or PBD centers

Transverse consolidation coefficient Ch (cm2/sec) is determined by means of compression test

for undisturbed samples by transverse direction in accordance with the Standard TCVN 4200-
95. If soft soil layer including soil layers with different Ch, the value for calculation is Ch
followed by depth of the captioned different layers.

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In feasibility study stage, the following formula is temporarily used to determine the value Ch:
Ch = (2 ÷ 5) Ctbv (VI-15)
In which Ctbv is determined as mentioned in Article VI.3.1.

F(n) which is the factor affected on the distance between sand drains or PBDs is determined
depending on n = ℓ/d (d is diameter of sand drain or equivalent diamater of PBDs) by the
following formula:

Fs – Factor that determines the impacts of soil area around the PBDs (that decrease permeability
coefficient in the area).
Fr – Factor that determines the impacts of PBDs’ obstruction.

In case of applying sand drains, the two factors shall not be determined (it means that Fs = 0 and
Fr = 0); and in case of applying PBDs, they shall be determined as mentioned in Article VI.4.3.

VI.4.3. In case of applying PBDs as vertical drainage system, then F(n), Fs and Fr in the formula (VI-
11) are determined as follows:

F(n) as in formula (VI-16) with equivalent diameter of a PBD d shall be determined as follows:
a+b
d= (VI-17)
2
In which:
a – Width
b – Thickness of PBD

Because d is small, normally n is considerable and n2 >>1, so F(n) is determined by the

following formula:
F(n) = ln(n) – 3/4 (VI-18)

· Factor determined oscillation:

Fs = (kh/ks – 1) . ln (ds/d) (VI-19)

In which kh and ks are vertical permeability coefficient of the soft soil before applying PBDs
(when soft soil are not oscillated) and after applying PBDs; ks < kh and normally ks = kh that kv
is vertical permeability coefficient of the soil. In practice, the following calculation is normally
applied:

kh kh Ch
= = = 2÷5 (VI-20)
ks kv Cr
Ch and Cv – Vertical and transverse consolidation coefficient of soft soil
ds/d – Ratio between equivalent diameter of the soil area around PBDs and equivalent diameter
of PBDs. In practice, the following calculation is normally applied:

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ds
= 2÷3 (VI-21)
d
· Factor determined resistance force of PBDs:

2 kh
2
Fr = πL (VI-22)
3 qw
In which:
L – Length of PBDs (m); if there is only one-way drainage at the top, L is equal to the
depth of PBDs; if there is two-way drainage (upper and lower), L is a half of the PBDs’
depth;
kh – Horizontal permeability coefficient of soft soil can be approximately determined
according to (VI-20) by vertical permeability coefficient kv or by direct permeability test
with horizontal samples (m/s).
qw (m3/sec) – PBD drainage correlative to hydraulic gradient = 1; this is from its
certificate at manufacture. In practice, it is allowed to obtain the ratio kh/qw = 0.00001 ÷
0.001 m-2 for clayey or loamy soft soil; kh/qw = 0.001 ÷ 0.01 for peat and kh/qw = 0.01 ÷
0.1 for sandy mud.

VI.4.4. In case of applying sand drain, it is possible to directly use the Abac (VI.1) in order to present
relation between (VI-11) and F(n) according to (VI-16) and Fs = Fr = 0.

Figure VI.1. Abac to determine horizontal consolidation Uh by Th and n.

VI.4.5. The obtained settlement St and remaining settlement ∆S after time t in case of two-way
consolidation drainage are also determined as in formulas (VI-8) and (VI-9), but Uv is replaced
by U to calculate (VI-10).

VI.5. Notice for settlement estimation

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VI.5.1. To examine the effects of construction period on settlement changes of the embankment on soft
soil, it is possible to use the method as in Figure VI.2 with the assumption that embankment
load increases linear.

· First, draw a consolidated settlement curve by time St = ScU in case embankment load is
immediately affected (discontinuous curve, line 2 in Figure VI.2).

Figure VI.2. Settlement changes by time with consideration of construction period

· Settlement at the end of construction period (at the time tc when being finished) is determined
by the settlement in line 2 at the time of half embankment tc/2. In FigureVI.2, from point 1/2tc
draw a vertical line that meets line 2 at H, then from H draw a horizontal line that meets the
vertical line from tc at E.
· Similarly, settlement at the time t is determined by point K (settlement at the time t/2 of the line
2), from the point, draw a horizontal line to get point N, connect ON to cut the vertical line from
t at M. As a result, settlement estimation curve with in consideration of construction period is
presented (curve 1 through OME in Figure VI.1).

VI.5.2. Because of some assumptions on theory and on input data, the result of settlement estimation
and consolidation is used as mentioned in Item II.2.5. In trial construction (VI.8.4) and
construction in practice, result of actual settlement monitoring shall be presented to evaluate,
correct methods and interpretation steps as mentioned in II.2.5 and IV.8.3.

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APPENDIX I

DETERMINATION OF PRE-CONSOLIDATION PRESSURE VALUE σPZ

AND COMPRESSION PROPERTIES OF SOFT SOIL

Procedures are as follows:

1. Test to determine confined compression of undisturbed soil samples in the depth z is carried out
in accordance with the Standard TCVN 4200-95, including unloading test after the final loading
level as mentioned in Article 4.9 of the Standard. Accelerated compression test shall not be
carried out.
2. Depending on testing result of drawing compression curve e – lgp (Figure 1), in which e is void
coefficient respectively with pressure levels p. This compression curve is also drawn as lge –
lgp.
3. Determination of pre-consolidation pressure value σp
a. In the curve e – lgp, point A is shown where the biggest curvature (with minimum
radius) exists. From point A, draw a horizontal line and a tangential line to compression
curve. Draw a bisector of an angle between the above horizontal line and tangential line
through A. Intersection point of the bisector and tangential line at the end of
compressive curve (the lengthened line) shall determine the point that is respectively
with pre-consolidation pressure value P (see Figure 1).
b. In the curve lge – lgp, if a broken point is formed, then it is the point that is respectively
with pre-consolidation pressure value (see Figure 2).
c. In two ways of determination of pre-consolidation pressure value, which value is higher
is the usage value.
4. Determination of compression values
Pre-consolidation pressure value divides compression curve e – lgp into 2 parts respectively
with σ < σp line (in the left) and σ > σp line (in the right). Then compression values are
determined as follows:
a. Compression value Cr in σ < σp line:
e1 - ep
Cr =
lg σp - lg σ1
In which: ep – Void coefficient respectively with pre-consolidation pressure
value.
e1 – Void coefficient correlative to compression pressure σ1. Selection of
the value 1 depends on loading in practice of soil layer i that needs to
calculate its settlement. σ1 = 0.1kG/cm2 is normally taken respectively
with pressure level in the first test in accordance with the Standard
TCVN 4200-95 for soft soil. Cr can also be calculated according to
unloading line in Figure 1.
b. Compression value Cr in σ > σp line:
ep – e2
Cc =
lg σ2 - lg σp
- The meaning of ep, σ2p are as (a) of this part and e2 is void coefficient respectively to
pressure value σ2. Selection of the value σ2 depends on loading in practice of soil

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layer i that needs to calculate its settlement and so that σivz + σiz in the formula (VI-1)
is between σp and σ2.
- In compression test, if the highest pressure level is selected as mentioned in Article
1.7 of the Standard TCVN 4200-95, then value σ2 is equal to the value of that level.
5. From the testing result to determine of pre-consolidation pressure at different soil layer i,
diagram σp – z (depth) can be drawn as in the Figure 3. Line σv.z – z (pressure due to weight of
soft soil layers themselves), line σz – z (pressure due to embankment loading) and line σv.z + σo
= f(z) shall be drawn in order to check (IV.5a) and (IV.5b) as in the Figure 3. If (IV.5a) and
(IV.5b) are not be satisfied, methods for vertical consolidation drainage (sand drain or plastic
board drain) should not apply.

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COMPRESSION TEST

Project: ……………………………………………………………………………………..
Borehole: …………………Sampling depth: …………………………………………. (m)
Sample No.: ………………Number of Test: ……………………………………………...

Pressure level – σ (kG/cm2)

Pre-consolidation pressure : σp = 0.620 (kG/cm2)

Initial void coefficient : eo = 1.188

Appendix 1 – Figure 1

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Pressure level – P (kG/cm2)

Pre-consolidation pressure : σp = 0.68 (kG/cm2)

Initial void coefficient : eo = 1.188

Appendix 1 – Figure 2. Determination of pre-consolidation pressure in the graph lge – lgp

(Testing data as in Figure 1)

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Stress (T/m2)

-------------------- Stress due to weight

_____________ Stress due to embankment load
………………… Maximum stress in the past
(Pre-consolidation pressure)

Appendix 1 – Figure 3. Condition checking (IV-5a)

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APPENDIX II

CALCULATION OF VERTICAL COMPRESSION STRESS (PRESSURE) σzi DUE TO

EMBANKMENT LOAD OR BERM LOAD UNDERGROUND
ACCORDING TO OSTERBERG ABAC

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a. The Abac is to determine vertical compression stress caused by underground embankment

b. Loading diagram and example of using Osterberg Abac (in case of rectangular load, it is
considered as trapezium with ratio a/z = 0 ≈ 0.01);
Dimension of number used in the Figure is stated in m.
For example: b’’= a = 2m; b’= b’’+ a + b1 + b2 = 8m

Example of Osterberg Abac:

1. Determination of stress σzi of M1:

a. For load in the left:
a 2 b1 1
= =1 and = = 0.5
z 2 z 2
According to the Abac: It = 0.397
b. For the load in the right:
a 2 b2 3
= =1 and = = 1.5
z 2 z 2
According to the Abac: If = 0.478
Then: σzi = (0.397 + 0.478)q = 0.875q

2. Determination of stress at M3:

σz3 = (It + If)q
a/z = 0 and b/z = 0.5, then It is determined; a/z = 0 and b/z = 1, then If is determined.
Then σz3 = (0.278 + 0.410)q = 0.688q

3. Determination of stress at M2 (for calculating stress due to berm block at central point
of the embankment at the depth z):
σz2 = (Ilmnk – Ilrsk)q
Ilmnk – Trapezium load at the right of M2
Ilrsk – Rectangular load at the right of M2

a. Calculating Ilmnk :
a 2 b 8
= =1 and = =4
z 2 z 2
In the Abac: Ilmnk = 0.5

b. Calculating Ilrsk :
a b b’’+ a/2 2+1
= 0 (rectangle) and = = = 1.5
z z z 2
In the Abac: Ilrsk = 0.46
Then: σz2 = (0.5 – 0.46)q = 0.04q

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