Basic principles of marine echo-sounding equipment

What is an Echo Sounder, its principle, errors and corrective action?

Echo Sounder is a type of SONAR (originally an acronym for SOund Navigation And
Ranging) used to determine the depth of water by transmitting sound pulses into water.
The time interval between emission and return of a pulse is recorded, which is used to
determine the depth of water along with the speed of sound in water at the time.

Application of echo-sounding principles to submarine detection during World War II

resulted in the development of equipment to sound all ocean depths.

In the 1970’s, the dual-beam technique was invented, permitting direct estimation of fish
size in-situ via its target strength. The first portable split-beam hydroacoustic system
was developed by HTI (Hydroacoustic Technology, Incorporated) in 1991, and provided
more accurate and less variable estimates of fish target strength than the dual-beam
method. It also permitted tracking of fish in 3D, giving each fish’s swimming path and
absolute direction of movement. This feature proved important for evaluations of
entrained fish in water diversions as well as for studies of migratory fish in rivers. In the
last 35 years, tens of thousands of mobile and fixed-location hydro acoustic evaluations
have been conducted worldwide.

What is principle of Echo Sounder operation?

Echo sounder measures the depth of water by measuring the time for a pulse of energy
to travel to the sea bed and back and work on the principle of reflection of acoustic
energy.

Short pulse of sound energy is transmitted vertically down from the ship.

This pulse having been reflected from the sea bottom returns to the ship in the form of
an echo.

Travel time (t) taken for its return, depends upon the depth of water (d), and on the
velocity of sound (v) through the water.
Time taken (t ) = (2 x d) / v or d =(v x t)/2

Performance of a sonar system depends on the accuracy with which the velocity of
source propagation is measured.

The velocity of propagation is a function of temperature of water, pressure and salinity.

The velocity is usually taken as 1500 meters/second for sea water at 13°C and
atmospheric pressure.

Components of a single block diagram of a echo-sounder

The velocity of propagation is a function of temperature of water, pressure and salinity.

The velocity is usually taken as 1500 meters/second for sea water at 13°C and
atmospheric pressure.
echo sounder

Working of Echo Sounder

The recorder sends a signal to the pulse generator which triggers a pulse and
simultaneously starts the recorder trace.

The rate may be between 5-600 pulses a minute depending upon the depth to be
measured.

Lesser the depth scale, faster the Pulse Repetition Frequency.

The pulse from the Pulse Generator activated the transmitter which sends a powerful
electric pulse to the Transducer.

The transducer converts the electric energy into sound energy producing a pulse.

The sound energy travels to the bottom, hits the bottom and gets reflected back to the
transducer.

The transducer converts the received sound energy of the echo into an electric pulse
and sends it to the receiver.

In the receiver the received pulse is processed and then amplified and sent to the
Recorder.

At the recorder, the stylus which has been at a speed proportional to the speed of
sound, creates a physical mark on a paper or a visual blip or a digital signal for the
recorder.

Velocity of sound in sea water

Velocity of sound in sea water at - 0.3°C. over a distance of about 15,500 meters through the
waters of Block Island Sound, New York, was found to be 1,453 meters/second, by determining
the time for the sound wave produced by the explosion of a bomb to travel to each of five
hydrophones anchored at widely separated points, and the distance travelled in each case. The
time of detonation was transmitted by radio, and the times of arrival of the wave by cables from
the hydrophones to a string galvanometer whose deflections were photographically recorded,
together with timing lines at intervals of 1/100 second. The distances were determined by
triangulation from two bases on shore. The depth varied from 18 to over 50 meters. The results
from the five independent determinations for each of four bombs all lie within ± 0.2 per cent. of
the average, indicating that the sound wave had a uniform velocity. It is expected that further
studies will enable the effect of variations of temperature, depth, salinity and density on the
velocity to be determined.

Factors which affect the velocity sound in seawater

The factors that effect the speed of sound are not random effects based on a whim but exact
scientific principles that effect the speed of sound. The exact number 1,126 feet per second is
taken in some precise conditions: in dry air at 68% Fahrenheit. In other words in the most
“average” conditions possible. Therefore a great average, but it is variable.

Here are the factors that effect the speed of sound:

♦ Medium

Medium has a huge effect of the speed of sound. When most people discuss the “speed of
sound” they are talking about the propagation of sound waves through the medium of “Air”. For
anyone who has gone underwater and listen to people talking above it is likely that one would
notice the muted an “odd” way that voices sound underwater. This is because the “medium” of
water greatly bends, distorts and changes the speed of sound wave.

There is a whole aspect of science that measure and defines the effect of different mediums
(gaseous and liquid) on the speed of sound. This is called Fluid Dynamics. Underwater
communication is possible if you understand how this wave propagation as well as another
important factor (pressure).

Because of elasticity of materials sound will, as a rule of thumb, generally travel faster in solids
than in liquids and faster in liquids than in gases.
♦ Temperature

Temperature has a large effect on the speed of sound. Not as much as the “Medium” does, but
far more than anything else. Temperature affects the speed of sound because temperature can
affect the “elastic” qualities of different mediums. At the very basics lower temperatures will
decrease the speed of sound while higher temperatures will increase the speed of sound, all
other factors being equal.

♦ Pressure

Pressure is the final factor that has a significant impact on the speed of sound. The effect of
pressure on the speed of sound is due to the materials inertial properties. In short, the more
pressure that is applied to the material or medium the denser it becomes and the greater the
“inertia” becomes. This makes any interactions between particles slower. Therefore the speed
of sound throughout the medium is slowed due to the greater pressure.