Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Ricardo - a history of investment in world-class automotive technology concepts. Recent demonstrators include:
i-MoGen diesel mild-hybrid concept Lean Boost Direct Injection demonstrator HyTrans micro-hybrid diesel delivery
demonstrator, delivering leading edge showcasing the performance & emissions van concept, delivering up to 21% fuel
emissions & fuel efficiency performance, benefits of a down-sized, lean operating efficiency savings on a ‘real world’ urban
using Ricardo advanced supervisory con- Gasoline powertrain. delivery cycle.
trol strategies.
Direct gasoline injection & turbocharging strategies that assist in reducing engine out emissions and decreasing
One concept to provide both high specific output and low specific catalyst light-off times. The addition of turbo charging can be used
fuel consumption is the combination of turbocharging and gasoline to create engines with high specific output. Turbocharging allows
direct fuel injection. This is an attractive concept for the North the down-sizing of these engines while still meeting the power
American market where sport utility vehicles, light trucks and sports objectives. The downsized engine will operate in its most efficient
cars of all sizes are in demand from consumers. range for a greater proportion of its running time thereby decreasing
consumption.
In contrast to this are consumers’ vehicle performance and capability
demands. Sport utility vehicles, cross-over vehicles, light duty trucks
and both mid and full size passenger cars continue to be a significant The DI Boost project
portion of vehicles sold in North America. Consumers expect
The objective of the DI Boost project was to demonstrate the
these vehicles to have good driveability characteristics regardless of
benefits of a downsized, turbocharged direct injection concept on a
their size and mass. These vehicles require relatively large engines
full scale application. The benefits of direct injection in combination
with moderate to high output to achieve the desired driveability
with turbo charging have been demonstrated several times on
characteristics.
smaller displacement 4-cylinder engines, as a viable alternative to
One method of improving fuel economy is to shift the operation medium displacement 6-cylinder engines.
of the engine to areas of higher thermal efficiency and to reduce
The DI Boost project was undertaken to demonstrate the same
pumping losses. This can be accomplished by decreasing the
downsizing benefits apply to a medium displacement 6-cylinder
engine’s displacement, either by using cylinder deactivation or
engine as a viable alternative to a large displacement V8 engine.
downsizing. However, downsizing alone leads to lower output
and a driving experience that no longer meets the consumers’ The key deliverables from the project were to demonstrate:
expectations. The combination of downsizing and forced induction •N
egligible change in performance compared with the larger
regains the lost performance but with some limitations associated displacement, Naturally Aspirated V8 baseline power train
with each method. Turbo charging counteracts the power lost
from downsizing without the parasitic losses associated with • Improved fuel economy compared with the baseline (target
supercharging. 15% improvement)
The combination of gasoline direct injection and turbo charging is an • SULEV emissions potential
ideal combination for both reducing fuel consumption and emissions.
The direct injection allows for high compression ratios, which
improve engine efficiencies while also allowing fuelling
Full-hybrid diesel demonstrator vehicle Advanced X-Axle Torque VectoringTM 2/4 stroke switching concept based on
emitting 99 g/km CO2 (equivalent to 3.75 demonstrator that allows redistribution an innovative combustion system design,
liters per 100km or over 75 mpg) based of drive torque to dramatically influence combined with advanced valve train and
on a fully featured Citroen Berlingo the handling response and safety of the control technologies. Targeting up to 30%
Multispace family car. vehicle. fuel economy improvement.
10% improvement
in combined cycle
fuel economy
Outstanding
performance
characteristics
SULEV emissions potential
Intake System
The intake manifold design was changed from the The induction system for the DI Boost vehicle
naturally aspirated engine. The manifold volume consisted of a single airbox and air meter, twin
was reduced by approximately 25% to ensure induction paths merging into a single throttle
good transient response. An electronic throttle body. The existing air box was retained; however
was sized for the turbocharged application. a Bosch digital mass airflow (MAF) sensor was
The crankcase ventilation system was modified installed. Pressure pulsations between banks
for operation under boosted conditions and to can cause compressor surge under certain
cope with the increased levels of blow-by. Both conditions. Twin intercoolers were used to keep
high and low load circuits were implemented. the induction paths separated. By keeping the
When under low loads, crankcase air is induction paths separated until near the throttle
reintroduced upstream of the compressors. body, compressor surge was prevented.
Exhaust system
The exhaust manifold design was challenged by
extremely tight packaging constraints resulting in
a design that was not optimum for performance
and assembly. Considerations as to the impact
of bank-to-bank differences were important and
every effort was made to minimize bank-to-
bank backpressure differences.
The prototype exhaust system and rapid-
prototyped D5S cast steel manifold was
developed in-house by Ricardo, using the
expertise of the Ricardo Prototechnik product
group.
Turbocharger system
Two Borg Warner single scroll K04 the Ricardo WAVE simulation software. The
turbochargers, with water-cooled bearing turbochargers selected represent the state of
housings were chosen for the application. In this the art for low-cost, high volume production
scenario a twin scroll design offered no advantage technology and offered a good match for
over a single scroll design, as the even firing order the application’s performance requirement.
already provided the optimum pressure pulse Conventional materials were selected for turbine
separation. wheel and housing offering a maximum turbine
The compressors and turbines were sized using inlet temperatures 9800 C.
Simulation activities
The initial development stages of the project Transient response is critical with any turbo
focused on simulating the engine concept using application, particularly with DI Boost
Ricardo’s 1-D ‘WAVE’ simulation software. The where any perceivable turbo lag would be
primary tasks in this phase of the project were unacceptable.
to develop: WAVE has the ability to run under transient
- Intake and exhaust system specification conditions as well its more conventional steady
state conditions. With rotating inertia values for
- Turbocharger selection the turbocharger provided by the supplier, time
- Camshaft profile selection to reach 95% of maximum torque or maximum
boost was predicted following a snap throttle
- Intake and exhaust manifold design
manoeuvre. Modelling was performed to
Initial performance estimates for intake further improve the transient response through
restriction were set at a depression of 7kPa @ optimization of cam profiles and timing.
rated power, this restriction being measured at
Camshaft profiles were selected to provide
the entrance to the compressor.
optimum transient response. In this particular
The exhaust system back-pressure of the V8 application it was decided to leave the naturally
vehicle was measured at 35 kPa. Backpressures aspirated intake cam profile unchanged while
up to 70kPa were studied during the simulation the exhaust cam duration was reduced by 10
phase of the project in-line with the expected degrees crank angle (CA) from the naturally
restriction imposed by the target SULEV aspirated variant.
aftertreatment solution.
Intake and exhaust manifold designs were
Turbocharger selection was made using the studied in a similar manner to cam profiles. The
results of the WAVE simulation. The WAVE geometry of the exhaust and intake manifold
simulation provides a mass flow rate to reach was optimized to give the best balance between
desired power at each rpm set point. The mass transient response and wide-open throttle
flow combined with the estimate of pressure pumping losses.
ratio was used to select a suitable compressor
match.
Calibration development
The base engine parameterization was The DoE used was at eight discrete speeds
developed using Design of Experiment (DoE) in the stoichiometric region of operation.
methods. DoE methods are an effective and At each speed the design was an optimal
established solution for isolating the influence of Latin Hypercube design with 60 test points.
each variable under consideration. Traditional This approach results in testing a total of
mapping methods are not feasible given the approximately 480 individual test points. The
large number of variables in a gasoline direct variables included in the DoE were:
injection with dual independent cam phasing. Mass air flow, Intake cam timing (IVT) , Exhaust
Of the available advanced modelling methods cam timing (EVT), Fuel Pressure and Injection
available the Stochastic Process Models (SPM) Timing.
methodology was chosen as the most suitable
for this application. Stochastic process models Spark timing was not included as a variable
are a development of the statistical method because a response of optimum spark timing
known as Kriging; an SPM response interpolates would be created.
between data points after adjustments for any
noise on the data.
0.25 5
Residuals
0.10 0
0.05
0.02
20
18
-5
Smoke levels at WOT were initially higher on
the DI Boost project than would be recorded
0.01 12
11 -10
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
500
DI BOOST V8 3.0
450
2.5
BSFC [g/kWh]
400 2.0
350
1.5
1.0 Improved through
300 combustion and
0.5
calibration development
250 0.0
260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330
200
0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 Injection Timing [degBTDC]
Torque (Nm)
Figure 12: Example of Smoke at 2000 rpm / WOT
Figure 10: Fuel Consumption Curve at 2000 rpm.
Performance results
600 525 Results from the Engine performance of 5.68 seconds. The quarter mile performance
550 450
development show the DI Boost engine was also quite similar, but the power deficit of
surpassed the target on torque and was just the DI Boost was evident in the top speed at the
500 375
short of the target on power. Enhanced low- end of the quarter mile. The production CTS-V
C. Brake Torque (Nm)
450 300 end torque is one of the synergies that the ran a best quarter mile of 13.97 seconds at 107.6
combination of direct injection and turbo mph. The DI Boost vehicle ran a best quarter
400 225
charging provides. When combined with dual mile of 14.20 seconds at 102.6 mph. The results
350
PFI V8 Torque (Nm) 150 independent cam phasing an exceptional torque of the testing are shown in figure 14 / Table 1.
300
DI Boost Torque (Nm)
75
curve shape can be realized.
PFI V8 Power (kW)
110
250
DI Boost Power (kW)
0
Throughout the development of DI Boost a 100
500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 challenge to the project was developing a fuel 90
80
Speed (mph)
Engine Speed (rpm)
system capable of delivering sufficient fuel at 70
60
Figure 13: Final DI Boost torque curve rated power conditions. The engine, whilst 50 Cadillac CTS-V 1/4 mile: 13.97s @
achieving the low to mid speed torque targets, 40 107.6 mph
30
was not able to achieve the peak power target. 20 CTS-V6 twin turbo 1/4 mile:
14.201s @ 102.6 mph
10
Packaging limitations also resulted in a higher 0
than desired intake restriction, being close to 9 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
Time (s)
KPa at rated power.
Figure 14: Quarter mile performance run
Cadillac
During test bed development, brake mean
Summary DI Boost CTS-V effective pressure (BMEP) levels well in excess The torque characteristics of the two engines
of 2000 kPa were recorded; however the peak are quite different. In an effort to illustrate the
Acceleration
0-60 mph
5.68 sec 5.65 sec
value was limited to 1990 kPa in order to achieve torque differential, top gear acceleration from
acceptable durability of both the prototype 50-70 mph was tested. The V8 powered
Acceleration
14.20 sec 13.97 sec vehicle took 10.0 seconds to accelerate from
1/4 mile engine and vehicle driveline components. There
Top Gear was also a conscious decision to maintain a high 50 to 70 mph in 6th gear. It only took the DI
8.7 sec 10.0 sec Boost powered vehicle 8.7 seconds to
50-70 mph geometric compression ratio (10.5:1) to preserve
Table 1: DI Boost acceleration performance part load fuel economy. perform the same manoeuvre. The results are
shown in figure 15.
Figure 13 shows the final developed torque curve
compared to the benchmark LS6 engine that was 50 - 70 mph Acceleration: Top Gear
70
original equipment in the CTS-V.
DI Boost
The final vehicle performance figures 65
Speed (mph)
CTS-V
demonstrate the excellent results achieved by
60
the DI Boost demonstrator vehicle. The baseline
V8 production vehicle was tested to establish the 55
objectives both in terms of acceleration and fuel
50
economy performance.
0 2 4 6 8 10
The acceleration testing was performed at the Time (s)
Figure 15: 50-70 mph Acceleration
Bosch test facility in New Carlisle, Indiana. The
surface of the test track is aged bituminous Transmission gear ratio optimization for the
asphalt not typically used for acceleration testing. DI Boost vehicle was not possible before the
This may explain why the baseline numbers for acceleration and fuel economy testing was
the V8 are slightly higher than other published conducted. The DI Boost engine has a lower
sources have reported. maximum engine speed than the V8 engine.
The acceleration testing from a standstill showed During the 0-60 acceleration testing, the lower
nearly equivalent results for both powertrains. engine speed necessitated an additional gear shift
The production vehicle with the V8 ran a best to reach 60 mph.
0-60 mph time of 5.65 seconds. The DI Boost
vehicle ran nearly equal with a best 0-60 time
17.7 18.3
15 16.0 15.0%
The initial three test average on the DI Boost
14.4%
vehicle yielded a more than 10% improvement 10 10.0%
of 17.7 mpg for the city cycle and a 1.3% 10.6% 9.9%
8.0%
improvement on the highway cycle of 31.5 mpg. 5
2.3%
5.0%
0.6%
Further development testing was undertaken 0 0.0%
using revised transmission ratios and an optimised City Highway Combined
HPSS: 1st
production today Injec.
BOSCH
Table 2: SULEV targets vs. achieved results Figure 17: HPSS strategy
www.ricardo.com
Contacts