A Simplified Model for Analyzing the Impact of a Natural Disaster

Adam Throne
May 29, 2017
 2

Introduction

One of the most influential external variables in an economy is severe weather.

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a natural disaster is a sudden and terrible event in

nature that usually results in serious damage and many deaths1. Each year, the United States

experiences a variety of natural disasters ranging from wildfires to hurricanes. The type of

disaster, severity, preparedness, and geography impact the amount of damage a natural disaster

causes. Although economies of all levels are hit hard initially by storms, in some cases severe

storms lead to more efficient rates of economic growth in the future. Reasons for this include

cheap real estate opportunities, entrepreneurship, and an increase in production. The following

paper develops a model to measure the damage of natural disasters and uses it to explain why the

economy of New Orleans has flourished after Hurricane Katrina.

Statistical Model

In order to understand the dynamics behind disaster recovery, it is essential to efficiently

estimate the total damage of a disaster. This model lays out the factors which contribute to the

total cost of damage from a natural disaster. The estimate from this model can be used for a

variety of general analysis purposes related to a specific disaster.

There are three stages in any natural disaster2. The first stage is the destruction of

infrastructure and initial damage. As the disaster hits, it will knock over buildings and kill

civilians. The second stage is indirect loss. Flooding, for example, will prevent employees from

getting to work and shut down production. Additionally, damaged infrastructure will not function

until it is fixed or replaced. The third stage is recovery and rebuilding. This is the stage in which

1
“Natural Disaster,” Merriam Webster, accessed May 30, 2017, https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/natural disaster.
2
Kevin L. Kliesen, “The Economics of Natural Disasters,” The Regional Economist (1994), accessed May 30, 2017.
 3

the long-term impact of a disaster will be determined through the distribution of recovery funds.

The following model outline assesses the costs of the first two stages to predict the outcome of

the final stage.

Initial damage costs are otherwise referred to as direct market costs. These are equal to

the sum of infrastructure damage plus the consumption value of the total number of eliminated

citizens3. The following formula can be used to calculate this cost:

D = id + GDP/Cap (Casualties + Displaced Workers)

Like GDP, infrastructure damage can be calculated in two ways. Insurance receipts measure the

amount of total physical damage, and real estate evaluations estimate the value of infrastructure

prior to a disaster. Time disparities and error impact these methods, but ideally they produce the

same value. Casualties in this case are local citizens who are either killed or disabled by a

disaster. Displaced workers are citizens who are forced to leave their local jobs due to a disaster.

Multiplying the sum of these figures by GDP per capita provides an estimate of the total human

value lost. Yes, this does not take into account the possibility of only the lower class being

displaced in essentially natural gentrification. The upper percentiles of a population sway GDP

per capita significantly. However, this equation does produce a suitable estimate of the total lost

value of physical infrastructure and human capital.

Indirect costs are more difficult to measure, because a prediction of lost production is

fairly ambiguous4. An economy could be on the brink of a downturn or boom shortly before a

disaster occurs. Also, it is tough to estimate the rate of growth for an individual firm, because

3
Eduardo Cavallo and Ilan Noy, “The Economics of Natural Disasters,” IDB 124 (2010), accessed May 30, 2017.
4
ibid.
 4

competition and replacement are important factors. As a result, this model uses the rate of GDP

growth prior to a disaster to predict how much capital will be lost:

T (Rate of GDP Growth) = I

In this case, T represents the amount of time government-sponsored recovery lasts. Often,

government aid stimulus will be utilized for several years or even decades after a natural disaster.

However, programs will only be supervised until the government believes proper infrastructure

is restored5. The outcome is a prediction of the total amount of capital lost over the course of the

recovery period.

Non-market costs are costs that cannot be measured numerically. Examples include

leisure time, culture, and emotional stability6. Although these are important, they are not

included in the model due to their lack of economic significance. The total damage from a storm

can be calculated by adding direct and indirect costs:

D+I=C

Literature explores more precise models for calculating the damage of a storm7.

Insurance companies, government agencies, and news sources require detailed and precise

models. Due to its assumptions and generalizations, this model should not be used for these sorts

of calculations. Instead, it should be used to produce an accurate and timely estimate using

5
Daniel Hoople, “The Budgetary Impact of the Federal Government’s Response to Disasters,” Congressional
Budget Office, accessed May 30, 2017, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/44601.
6
Kliesen, “The Economics of Natural Disasters.”
7
S. Hallegatte and Valentin Pryzluski, “The Economics of Natural Disasters: Concepts and Methods,” World Bank
Group (2010), accessed May 30, 2017, doi: 10.1596/1813-9450-5507.
 5

available information. This method successfully provides an estimate of total damage that can be

used to draw broader conclusions about macroeconomic dynamics related to natural disasters.

Hurricane Katrina

This application of the model focuses on Hurricane Katrina and its widely publicized

impact. Data related to this hurricane is easily accessible to the general public. According to

large news outlets, Katrina caused 67 billion dollars worth of damage to housing, 7 billion

dollars worth of damage to consumer durable goods, 20 billion dollars worth of damage to

business property, and 3 billion dollars worth of damage to government property8. There were

1,464 casualties in Lousiana, 238 casualties in Mississippi, and 14 casualties in Florida9. An

estimated 500,000 workers were displaced as well10. The GDP per capita at the start of 2005 was

around 40,000 dollars in Louisiana, 30,000 dollars in Mississippi, and 43,000 dollars in

Florida11. These values are incorporated into the equation for direct cost:

D = id + GDP/Cap (Casualties)
D = 97 billion + 500,000(40,000) + 1464(40,000) + 238(30,000) + 14(43,000)
D = 117,066,302,000
D ≈ 117 billion dollars.

The increase in regional GDP from 2003 to 2004 was 7.86 billion dollars12. The city of

New Orleans continues to rebuild to this day, but government sponsored recovery lasted for 4

years13. Here is the equation for Hurricane Katrina’s indirect cost:

I = T (Rate of GDP Growth)

8
“Hurricane Katrina Damage,” Fox News, http://www.foxnews.com/story/2006/08/29/fox-facts-hurricane-katrina-
damage.html.
9
ibid.
10
ibid.
11
“GDP Overview,” Department of Numbers, http://www.deptofnumbers.com/gdp/.
12
ibid.
13
Hoople, “The Budgetary Impact of the Federal Government’s Response to Disasters.”
 6

I = 4 (7.86 billion)
I = 31,440,000,000
I ≈ 31.5 billion dollars.

The total estimate of damage is calculated by combining direct and indirect costs:

C=D+I
C ≈ 117 billion + 31.5 billion
C ≈ 148.5 billion dollars.

The approximate total cost of regional damage from hurricane Katrina is 148.5 billion

dollars. Using a complex input-output model, Stéphane Hallegatte calculates a total damage of

149 billion dollars14. News outlets estimate damages between 140 and 240 billion dollars15.

Although my model is not designed to produce perfect results, its output is within the range of

more intricate models. Thus, it is suitable to use for analysis.

Analysis

As a center of commerce and culture for the Gulf Coast region, New Orleans serves as a

strong indicator of the regional economy as a whole. The large cost of damage calculated in the

model above caused politicians and economists to doubt the ability of New Orleans to recover.

Were this the case, there would have been serious implications for the regional standard of living

and national economy. However, twelve years after Hurricane Katrina struck, there is strong

evidence that the New Orleans economy has benefited from the hurricane.

14
Hallegatte and Pryzluski, “The Economics of Natural Disasters: Concepts and Methods.”
15
“Hurricane Katrina Statistics Fast Facts,” CNN, last modified August 23, 2016,
http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/23/us/hurricane-katrina-statistics-fast-facts/.
 7

Prior to Hurricane Katrina, the Louisiana economy was stagnant. The following graph

was formatted using data from the Saint Louis Fed16.

Following the 2001 recession, Louisiana’s GDP grew at a faster rate than the national average.

However, by the end of 2004, the rate of growth had slowed down. Michael L. Dolfman,

Solidelle F. Wasser, and Bruce Bergman summarize the 2004 distribution of local business by

sector in the following chart from a Bureau of Labor Statistics Monthly Review17.

16
“Total Gross Deomestic Product for Louisiana,” Economic Research Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, accessed
May 30, 2017, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LANGSP#0.
17
Michael L. Dolfman, Solidelle F. Wasser and Bruce Bergman, “The effects of Hurricane Katrina on the New
Orleans economy,” BLS Monthly Labor Review (2007), https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2007/06/art1full.pdf.
 8

Two concerning trends are evident in this graph. First, the majority of sectors experience a

negative percent change in employment from 2000-2004. There were few new businesses

looking to hire employees, and there were few incoming workers looking for new jobs. Second,

the largest business sectors limit long-term growth and fluctuate seasonally. According to the

review, the most successful subset of the private industry was oil extraction18. The oil market is

determined largely by external actors, has little room for entrepreneurship, and faces criticism

from customers with environment-friendly backgrounds. Lower classes in particular are

excluded from success in the oil market. Tourism and Accommodation services, the public

industries with the largest average monthly employment rates, fluctuate with weather, face heavy

competition from other regions, and are also influenced by markets. People are less likely to go

on vacation during a downturn in the economy. Lead by these sectors, the New Orleans economy

struggled to grow at a steady rate19. The response to hurricane Katrina imported new ideas and

created long-term growth potential that was necessary for the New Orleans economy to expand.

In most cases, regions impacted by severe storms have a difficult time recovering. The

regional economy falls behind the national rate of growth and fails to catch-up even once

infrastructure is rebuilt. This common trend is supported by Makena Coffman and Ilan Noy’s

economic analysis of Hurricane Iniki20. Prior to the hurricane, Kauai maintained a thriving

economy based off of tourism and farming. In 1992, the hurricane caused an estimated 7.4

billion dollars of direct damage. Over 18 years later, it seems that the island’s economy is still

recovering. Kauai’s population in 2011 was 12 percent smaller than standard population trends

predict. Personal income per person was lower than it was for other Hawaiian Islands. There are

18
Dolfman, Wasser and Bergman, “The effects of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans economy.”
19
“Total Gross Domestic Product for Louisiana.”
20
Makena Coffman and Ilan Noy, “Hurricane Iniki,” Environment and Development Economics 17 (2011),
accessed May 30, 2017, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X11000350.
 9

few private sector job opportunities to attract young employees with21. In this case, hurricane

damage had a lasting impact on the region it struck. Most other natural disasters have the same

effect. Yet, against the odds, Katrina had positive ramifications for Greater New Orleans.

Government aid implemented shortly after Katrina hit New Orleans stopped the

immediate financial shock of the disaster and made eventual growth possible. The following

graph illustrates the positive relationship between total cost of damage and amount of

government aid.

Hurricane Katrina generated the costliest direct damage to date, so the government was open to

providing substantial amounts of aid. By March 8, 2006, the government had committed over 88

billion dollars to rebuilding efforts22 The region received nearly 1 billion dollars in support from

United States foreign allies, and the largest Red Cross relief effort in history was prepared23.

Although they are often criticized for corruption and slow arrival, these funds amassed to over

half the cost of direct damage calculated by the model above. Additionally, over 7,000 national

guard troops were mobilized to assist survivors and prevent additional economic damage from

21
ibid.
22
United States Senate, “Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared,” Government Publishing Office,
https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-109srpt322/pdf/CRPT-109srpt322.pdf.
23
American Red Cross, “Hurricane Katrina Led to Largest Ever Red Cross Relief Response,” last modified August
28, 2015, http://www.redcross.org/news/article/Hurricane-Katrina-Led-to-Largest-Red-Cross-Relief-Response.
 10

looting24. The outcome of this quick response was an assurance that New Orleans was not alone

and that its economy was not isolated. Government oversight of funds lasted for four years, and

in this time New Orleans was able to rebuild infrastructure and reestablish its local economy25.

The importance of this government action is illustrated in the following graph from a natural

disaster model constructed by Stéphane Hallegatte and Valentin Pryzluski26.

Stopping the initial economic downfall caused by a disaster opens the possibility for long-term

gains. Relief funds presented the government of New Orleans flexibility to work on redeveloping

its economy during the recovery process. Allocated properly, government aid in New Orleans

stimulated the economy enough to encourage investment and regain consumer confidence.

Cheap real estate opportunities following Hurricane Katrina attracted young homeowners

and developed a foundation for enduring business success. A campaign known as Katrina

Cottages focused on providing citizens displaced by the disaster and recovery workers with

24
“Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared.”
25 Hoople, “The Budgetary Impact of the Federal Government’s Response to Disasters.”
26
Hallegatte and Pryzluski, “The Economics of Natural Disasters: Concepts and Methods.”
 11

cheap homes27. Only a few months after the hurricane occurred, properties were available for

less than 1,000 dollars each28. Former citizens were able to return to the city, new citizens were

attracted by cheap prices, and the construction industry boomed to support the unprecedented

demand for homes. This graph from the United States Census illustrates population growth

related to this trend29:

By 2014, the New Orleans population was nearly restored to its pre-Katrina levels. Many new

inhabitants were individuals looking for opportunity in a nation suffering through a recession and

housing crisis. The effect of this freshly imported generation is visible in the current regional

economy’s success.

The energy associated with reconstructing New Orleans led to more efficient output and

unprecedented entrepreneurship levels. A classic production curve shifts outwards when

27
Jaqueline McIntosh, “The Implications of Post Disaster Recovery for Affordable Housing,” InTech, accessed May
30, 2017, doi: 10.5772/55273.

28
Houseplans, “Katrina Cottages,” accessed May 30, 2017, https://www.houseplans.com/collection/katrina-cottages.
29
United States Census, “Hurricane Katrina 10th Anniversary,” last modified July 29, 2015,
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2015/cb15-ff16.html.
 12

technology and productivity increase. Following Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans experienced an

increase in each of these areas. Government-sponsored relief services introduced new business

models and training programs to previously poverty-stricken neighborhoods30. Stagnant

businesses were devastated and replaced by more progressive ones. Examples of new successful

sectors are construction, education, and startups31. The following graph shows the unparalleled

growth in small businesses following Katrina32.

Innovative firms provided the New Orleans economy with the long-term potential for growth it

had not possessed prior to the disaster. A key impact of Hurricane Katrina that cannot be

quantified is an overwhelming sense of unity. The city, nation, and world came together in

support of those impacted by the damage costs estimated in the model above. Individuals who

chose to stay in New Orleans or migrate to New Orleans were fully dedicated to rebuilding the

30
Mark Waller, “Hurricane Katrina eight years later, a statistical snapshot of the New Orleans area,” NOLA, last
modified September 3, 2013, http://www.nola.com/katrina/index.ssf/2013/08/hurricane_katrina_eight_years.html.
31
Dolfman, Wasser and Bergman, “The effects of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans economy.”
32
Allison Plyer, Elaine Ortiz, Ben Horwitz and George Hobor, “The New Orleans Index at Eight,” Greater New
Orleans Community Data Center (2013),
https://gnocdc.s3.amazonaws.com/reports/GNOCDC_NewOrleansIndexAtEight.pdf.
 13

city’s economy. Additionally, the initial drop in population, government monitoring, and sector

diversification boosted average wages33.

Individual income in New Orleans has increased compared to similar cities not impacted by the

storm34. Since workers produce more when they are paid more, the damage costs estimated in the

model above are offset by a significant boost in the capability of the average employee. Today,

the Louisiana GDP has surpassed the national average and continues to rise at a high pace35. As a

result of the constructive response to Hurricane Katrina, the New Orleans economy is now

diverse, growing, and attractive to young individuals.

Conclusion

The positive responses to Hurricane Katrina by the national and New Orleans

governments prove that any amount of disaster damage can be overcome if proper relief actions

are taken. The model introduced in the opening section is a simplified way for individuals to

calculate the direct and indirect costs of damage from a natural disaster. An estimate of each

33
ibid.
34
Allison Plyer, Nihal Shrinath and Vicki Mack, “The New Orleans Index at Ten,” The Data Center (2015),
https://s3.amazonaws.com/gnocdc/reports/TheDataCenter_TheNewOrleansIndexatTen.pdf.
35
“Total Gross Domestic Product for Louisiana.”
 14

variable used in the model can be surmised within days of a natural disaster occurring. With a

simplified understanding of a disaster’s impact, individuals have the ability to hold governments

accountable for providing enough disaster aid to initiate economic upturn. Each region struck by

a natural disaster should have the ability to recover as effectively as New Orleans has.
 15

Bibliography

Amadeo, Kimberly. “What Made Katrina So Devastating.” The Balance. Last modified February
9, 2017. https://www.thebalance.com/hurricane-katrina-facts-damage-and-economic-effects-
3306023

I stumbled across this source while looking for statistics to apply in my model. I did not
include this work because its website is fairly obscure, but I did note that some of its points
overlap with my own. This is especially true with regard to sector replacement and long-term
recovery.

American Red Cross. “Hurricane Katrina Led to Largest Ever Red Cross Relief Response.” Last
modified August 28, 2015. http://www.redcross.org/news/article/Hurricane-Katrina-Led-to-
Largest-Red-Cross-Relief-Response.

The American Red Cross knows more about itself than any media or government sources
do. I chose to include unbiased information directly from the source rather than skewed opinions
found in secondary sources.

Burton, Mark L. and Michael J. Hicks, “Hurricane Katrina: Preliminary Estimates of

Commercial and Public Sector Damages.” Marshall University Center for Business and
Economic Research (2005).

This paper included the most basic model related to storm damage that I found in
literature. Its damage categories allowed me to develop my own accurate model. I considered
simply using this model instead of developing my own, but I found that its variables did not fully
account for all types of damage. This paper would be useful for guiding a preliminary damage
estimate before public media data is available.

Cavallo, Eduardo and Ilan Noy. “The Economics of Natural Disasters,” IDB 124 (2010).
Accessed May 30, 2017.

Cavallo and Noy’s journal article helped me to understand the factors which influence
direct and indirect damage. Also, the complex model the authors assisted my own model in two
ways. I appreciated the use of multiple equations, and I realized that a simplified model would be
more useful for my argument than a precise one like this.

CNN. “Hurricane Katrina Statistics Fast Facts.” Accessed May 30, 2017.
http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/23/us/hurricane-katrina-statistics-fast-facts/.

CNN is a liberal-biased news source based in the United States. I chose to include this
source, because it contrasts with my Fox News article, provides quick facts which are easily read
by the public, and includes a damage estimate with a large range.

Coffman, Makena and Ilan Noy. “Hurricane Iniki.” Environment and Development Economics
17 (2011), accessed May 30, 2017, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X11000350.
 16

This article is widely cited and available through many secondary sources. I found its
analysis to be thorough and its points to be relatable. The authors prove my suspicions that the
widespread economic improvement demonstrated in New Orleans is an exception rather than a
norm.

Department of Numbers. “GDP Overview.” Accessed May 30, 2017.

http://www.deptofnumbers.com/gdp/.

The Department of Numbers stores raw data related to population size, growth, and
development. Here, I chose to format data for my own needs rather than seeking out a scholar
who did the analysis on his / her own. Population datasets similar to this are widely available for
anyone seeking to use my model.

Deryugina, Tatyana, Laura Kawano and Steven Levitt. “The Economic Impact of Hurricane
Katrina on its Victims: Evidence from Individual Tax Returns.” The International Disaster
Database, EM-DAT, http://www.emdat.be.

This is a very thorough analysis of the impact of Hurricane Katrina on each person’s
income. I appreciate how the authors use a control group to compare Katrina to other cities. I
use the United States economy as my control group in a few graphics. As this is a
macroeconomics course rather than a microeconomics course, I chose to keep my analysis
broader than the household level.

Dolfman, Michael L., Solidelle F. Wasser and Bruce Bergman. “The effects of Hurricane Katrina
on the New Orleans economy.” BLS Monthly Labor Review (2007).
https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2007/06/art1full.pdf.

This source provided me information about contrasts in the New Orleans economy before
and after Hurricane Katrina. With a different argument than the authors’ in mind, I primarily
used the article’s data to draw my own conclusions. The charts related to business sectors were
particularly useful.

Economic Research Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. “Total Gross Domestic Prdoduct for
Louisiana.” Accessed May 30, 2017. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LANGSP#0.

The GDP graph I show in my paper is in fact derived from the data of this set. Although
the graph was visually appealing, it worried me that it came from an online blog. I used this data
to ensure that the graph is accurate.

Fox News. “Hurricane Katrina Damage.” Accessed May 30, 2017.

http://www.foxnews.com/story/2006/08/29/fox-facts-hurricane-katrina-damage.html.
 17

Fox News is the most accessible and widely public news source. I created my model to
transform publicly available information, whether it is credible or not, into a useful estimate of
damage costs. My grandma is an avid follower of FOX News, so I chose this source with her
technical inability in mind.

Hallegatte, S. and Valentin Pryzluski. “The Economics of Natural Disasters: Concepts and
Methods.” World Bank Group (2010). Accessed May 30, 2017. doi: 10.1596/1813-9450-5507.

This paper pushed me to focus my argument on the potential long-term growth caused by
a natural disaster. Prior to deeply reading this paper, my argument centered around the inability
of the government to respond efficiently. Hallegatte and Pryzluski caused me to shift my timeline
outwards and appreciate long-term development in contrast to initial struggle.

Hoople, Daniel. “The Budgetary Impact of the Federal Government’s Response to Disasters.”
Congressional Budget Office. Accessed May 30, 2017. https://www.cbo.gov/publication/44601.

The Congressional Budget Office is a non-partisan analyst service for the U.S. Congress.
The graphics in this source were useful for determining how long the United States government
remained actively involved in Katrina redevelopment operations.

Houseplans. “Katrina Cottages.” Accessed May 30, 2017.

https://www.houseplans.com/collection/katrina-cottages.

The best way to find the price of a particular house is to nearly buy said house. This real-
estate site included valuable background information on the Katrina Cottages and allowed me to
sort cottages by regions of Louisiana and New Orleans.

Kates, R.W., C.E. Colten, S. Laska, and S.P. Leatherman. “Reconstruction of New Orleans after
Hurricane katrina: a research perspective.” PNAS 103 (2006). doi: 10.1073/pnas.0605726103.

Written soon after hurricane Katrina occurred, this widely cited article takes a very
pessimistic approach to Hurricane Katrina’s damage. This confirms my assumption in the first
paragraph of analysis that many economists and politicians did not expect New Orleans to
recover. This article initially distracted me from the long-term growth which has occurred over
the past 10 years.

“Katrina-related data.” The Data Center. Accessed May 30, 2017.

http://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/katrina/

Although I did not end up citing this source in my paper, it was useful for helping me
develop my analysis of New Orleans. Many scholarly sources related to Katrina were far too
advanced for an introductory course, so I chose to apply what I had learned to raw data.

Kellenberg, Derek and A. Mushfiq Mobarak. “The Economics of Natural Disasters.” Annual
Review of Resource Economics 3 (2011).
http://faculty.som.yale.edu/mushfiqmobarak/papers/disasters_annreview.pdf.
 18

This source was comprehensive and well-written. However, I found its model to be far
too advanced for the average person to utilize. This report inspired the varying levels of impacts
mentioned in my introduction and confirmed that long-term growth is possible due to a shift in
the production curve following a disaster.

Kliesen, Keven L.. “The Economics of Natural Disasters.” The Regional Economist (1994).
Accessed May 30, 2017.

Kliesen’s journal article precedes all modern theory related to the economics of natural
disasters. His breakdown of a natural disaster into three stages is at the core of my model. This
source was the key to developing my ideas and outlining my argument.

McIntosh, Jaqueline. “The Implications of Post Disaster Recovery for Affordable Housing.”
InTech. Accessed May 30, 2017. doi: 10.5772/55273.

I knew about the economic prospects of Katrina Cottages long before beginning my
research for this assignment. McIntosh’s article addresses my assumptions about Katrina
Cottages well and fills in some gaps regarding the program’s origins and funding.

Merriam Webster. “Natural Disaster.” Accessed May 30, 2017. https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/natural disaster.

This dictionary entry provides a simple yet accredited definition of a natural disaster.
Merriam Webster is a well known source and is easily recognized by most readers. This provides
initial credibility to my argument and attracts the attention of the reader as more complex
themes are introduced.

Plyer, Allison, Elaine Ortiz, Ben Horwitz and George Hobor. “The New Orleans Index at Eight.”
Greater New Orleans Community Data Center (2013).
https://gnocdc.s3.amazonaws.com/reports/GNOCDC_NewOrleansIndexAtEight.pdf.

The graphics from this article tie my analysis together nicely. I chose to only include two
graphics / statistical examples, because these are the most related to course content.

Plyer, Allison, Nihal Shrinath and Vicki Mack. “The New Orleans Index at Ten.” The Data
Center (2015).
https://s3.amazonaws.com/gnocdc/reports/TheDataCenter_TheNewOrleansIndexatTen.pdf.

This is the more updated version of the 2013 New Orleans Index. Many of the general
trends I discuss overlap these papers, but I chose to use the more recent values when possible.

United States Census. “Hurricane Katrina 10th Anniversary.” Last modified July 29, 2015.
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2015/cb15-ff16.html.
 19

The United States Census is the most credible source for statistical information related to
population. I was happy to separate the New Orleans population from the Louisiana population.

United States Senate. “Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared.” Government Publishing
Office. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-109srpt322/pdf/CRPT-109srpt322.pdf.

This is perhaps the most thorough report included in my research. Due to its breadth, I
chose to only use its statistical points related to the initial response to Hurricane Katrina. My
model will hopefully prevent the government idleness presented in this report by informing the
public and allowing more people to pressure their leadership into action.

Waller, Mark. “Hurricane Katrina eight years later, a statistical snapshot of the New Orleans
area.” NOLA. Last modified September 3, 2013.
http://www.nola.com/katrina/index.ssf/2013/08/hurricane_katrina_eight_years.html.

Written by an author from New Orleans, this article has detailed information related to
specific neighborhoods of the city. This personal touch helped me appreciate the long-term
impact of relief efforts more effectively.

Weakonomist. “What Will Sandy Do To The Economy?” Weakonomics. Last modified October
30, 2012, http://weakonomics.com/2012/10/30/what-will-sandy-do-to-the-economy/.

I found the visually appealing graph of Louisiana GDP on this blog via Google Images.
The website and writing are rather unconvincing, but the figures are highly effective. I used the
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Research database to ensure that the values shown
in the figures are correct.