Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, To Evaluate Surface or Intermediate Temperatures:
convection, and radiation. Boiling and condensation are T2 = T1 − QR1 ; T3 = T2 − QR2
classified as convection.
CONDUCTION Conduction through a cylindrical wall is given by
Fourier's Law of Conduction
Q = − kA(dT dx ). , where
Q = rate of heat transfer.
Conduction Through a Plane Wall:
2πkL(T1 − T2 )
Q=
ln (r2 r1 )
ln r2 r1 )
(
R=
2πkL
Q = − kA(T2 − T1 ) L , where CONVECTION
k = the thermal conductivity of the wall, Convection is determined using a convection coefficient
A = the wall surface area, (heat transfer coefficient) h.
L = the wall thickness, and Q = hA(Tw − T∞ ) , where
T1, T2 = the temperature on the near side and far side of A = the heat transfer area,
the wall respectively. Tw = wall temperature, and
Thermal resistance of the wall is given by T∞ = bulk fluid temperature.
R = L/(kA) Resistance due to convection is given by
Resistances in series are added.
R = 1/(hA)
Composite Walls: FINS: For a straight fin,
Q = hpkAc (Tb − T∞ ) tanh mLc , where
h = heat transfer coefficient,
p = exposed perimeter,
k = thermal conductivity,
Ac = cross-sectional area,
Tb = temperature at base of fin,
T∞ = fluid temperature,
Rtotal = R1 + R2, where
m = hp (kAc ) , and
R1 = L1/(k1A), and
R2 = L2/(k2A). Lc = L + Ac /p, corrected length.
67
HEAT TRANSFER (continued)
68
HEAT TRANSFER (continued)
Heat exchanger effectiveness Heat-transfer for laminar flow (Re < 2,000) in a closed
actual heat transfer q conduit.
= =
max possible heat transfer q max 0.19Gz 0.8
Nu = 3.66 +
1 + 0.117Gz 0.467
C H (THi − THo )
ε= Heat-transfer for turbulent flow (Re > 104, Pr > 0.7) in a
C min (THi − TCi ) closed conduit (Sieder-Tate equation).
or
hiD
C (T − TCi ) Nu = = 0.023Re 0.8 Pr1 3 (µ b µ w )0.14 , where
ε = C Co kf
C min (THi − TCi )
µb = µ (Tb), and
Where Cmin = smaller of Cc or CH and C = mcp
µw = µ (Tw), and Re and Pr are evaluated at Tb.
UA For non-circular ducts, use the equivalent diameter.
Number of transfer units, NTU =
Cmin The equivalent diameter is defined as
At a cross-section in a tube where heat is being transferred 4 (cross - sectional area )
DH =
wetted perimeter
Q ⎡ ⎛ dt ⎞ ⎤
= h(Tw − Tb ) = ⎢k f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ For a circular annulus (Do > Di) the equivalent diameter is
A ⎣ ⎝ dr ⎠ w ⎦ fluid
DH = Do – Di
⎡ ⎛ dt ⎞ ⎤ For liquid metals (0.003 < Pr < 0.05) flowing in closed
= ⎢k m ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ , where
⎣ ⎝ dr ⎠ w ⎦ metal conduits.
2
Nu = 6.3 + 0.0167Re0.85Pr0.93 (constant heat flux)
Q A = local inward radial heat flux (W/m ),
Nu = 7.0 + 0.025Re0.8Pr0.8 (constant wall temperature)
2
h = local heat-transfer coefficient [W/(m ⋅K)], Heat-transfer coefficient for condensation of a pure vapor on
kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid [W/(m⋅K)], a vertical surface.
km = thermal conductivity of the tube metal [W/(m⋅K)], 0.25
hL ⎛ L3ρ 2 gλ ⎞
(dt/dr)w = radial temperature gradient at the tube surface = 0.943⎜⎜ ⎟
(K/m), k ⎝ kµ (Tsv − T )
s ⎠
⎟
Tb = local bulk temperature of the fluid (K), and Properties other than λ are for the liquid and are evaluated at
Tw = local inside surface temperature of the tube (K). the average between Tsv and Ts.
For condensation outside horizontal tubes, change 0.943 to
RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A TUBULAR HEAT 0.73 and replace L with the tube outside diameter.
EXCHANGER
For the equations below, the following definitions along HEAT TRANSFER TO/FROM BODIES IMMERSED
with definitions previously supplied are required. IN A LARGE BODY OF FLOWING FLUID
D = inside diameter In all cases, evaluate fluid properties at average temperature
between that of the body and that of the flowing fluid.
Gz = Graetz number [RePr (D/L)],
For flow parallel to a constant-temperature flat plate of
Nu = Nusselt number (hD/k),
length L (m)
Pr = Prandtl number (cPµ/k), Nu = 0.648Re0.5Pr1/3 (Re < 105)
A = area upon which U is based (m2), Nu = 0.0366Re0.8Pr1/3 (Re > 105)
F = configuration correction factor, Use the plate length in the evaluation of the Nusselt and
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2), Reynolds numbers.
L = heated (or cooled) length of conduit or surface (m), For flow perpendicular to the axis of a constant-temperature
circular cylinder
Q = inward rate of heat transfer (W),
Nu = cRenPr1/3 (values of c and n follow)
Ts = temperature of the surface (K),
Tsv = temperature of saturated vapor (K), and
λ = heat of vaporization (J/kg).
Q = UAF∆Tlm
69
HEAT TRANSFER (continued)
70
HEAT TRANSFER (continued)
1
c2 =
2
(T∞ , max − T∞ , min )
hAs
β =
ρc pV
Natural (Free) Convection Radiation Shields
For free convection between a vertical flat plate (or a
vertical cylinder of sufficiently large diameter) and a large
body of stationary fluid, One-dimensional geometry with low-emissivity shield
inserted between two parallel plates.
h = C (k/L) RaLn, where
L = the length of the plate in the vertical direction,
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
RaL = Rayleigh Number = Pr,
v2
Ts = surface temperature,
T∞ = fluid temperature,
2
β = coefficient of thermal expansion ( for an
Ts + T∞
ideal gas where T is absolute temperature), and
v = kinematic viscosity.
Range of RaL C n
104 – 109 0.59 1/4
109 – 1013 0.10 1/3
Q12 =
(
σ T14 − T24 )
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε 3,1 1 − ε 3,2 1 1 − ε2
For free convection between a long horizontal cylinder and + + + + +
a large body of stationary fluid ε1 A1 A1 F13 ε 3,1 A3 ε 3,2 A3 A3 F32 ε 2 A2
h = C (k D ) Ra nD , where
gβ(Ts − T∞ )D 3
Ra D = Pr
v2
Range of RaD C n
10–3 – 102 1.02 0.148
102 – 104 0.850 0.188
104 – 107 0.480 0.250
107 – 1012 0.125 0.333
71
HEAT TRANSFER (continued)
Reradiating Surface
Reradiating surfaces are considered to be insulated, or
adiabatic ( QR = 0 ).
Q12 =
(
σ T14 − T24 )
1 − ε1 1
+ −1
ε1 A1 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ 1 − ε2
A1 F12 + ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ +
⎢⎣⎝ A1 F1R ⎠ ⎝ A2 F2 R ⎠⎥⎦ ε 2 A2
72