About the Philippines

Bodies of Water

The Philippines boast of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as bays, rivers, lakes falls, gulfs, straits, and
swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the country's coastline, if laid end-to-end, would measure around 17.5 thousand
kilometers. The Philippines is blessed with excellent natural harbors for ports like Manila Bay. Other excellent harbors
with port potentials are found in Ilocos, Pangasinan, Visayas, and Mindanao. The three largest rivers in the country are the
Cagayan River in Northern Luzon, the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the Agusan River, also in Mindanao. Also
noteworthy in terms of size are the Agno, Pasig, Angat Pampanga, and Bicol rivers in Luzon. Most popular among tourist
is the famous underground river in Palawan. Aside from rivers, the country also abounds with lakes. Easily the most
famous is the heart-shaped Laguna de Bay. Other famous lakes are Taal in Batangas, Sampaloc in Laguna, Buhi and
Bulusan in Bicol, Naujan in Mindoro oriental, and Lanao and Mainit in Mindanao. Generating power for the Nation’s
growth are the magnificent waterfalls that serve as tourist attractions, as well. The biggest is waterfalls is the Maria
Cristina falls, it can be found in the North Western part of Lanao province in Mindanao, while the most popular is
Pagsanjan falls in Laguna, where tourist came in droves.

Natural Resources

The Philippines is rich in natural resources. It has fertile, arable lands, diverse flora and
fauna, extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits.

Our Land

The Philippines’ primary source of livelihood is its fertile land. Rich, wide plains
suitable for farming are found in the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, South western
Bicol, Panay, Negros, Davao, Cotabato, Agusan and Bukidnon. The country ‘s six
major crops are rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca and tobacco. Except for rice and
corn, all these products are exported, along with bananas and pineapples.

Our Forests

The Philippines also boasts of wide tracts of lush, green forests. In fact, almost half of
the country’s total land area is forested. Sixty percent of these forests are found in
Mindanao.

Mineral resources

Except for petroleum and a number of metals, mineral resources abound in Philippine soil. The country’s mineral deposits
can be classified into metals and non-metals. Our metal deposits are estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons, while non-metal
deposits are projected at 19.3 billion metric tons. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size, it is found in Surigao del
Norte, Davao, Palawan, Romblon and Samar. Iron is found in Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija, Camarines Norte and Cotabato.
While copper in Zambales, Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and Negros. Among non-metal deposits, the most abundant are
cement, lime, and marble. Other non-metals include asbestos, clay, guano, asphalt, feldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon,
phosphate, and marble.

Fishery Resources

With its territorial waters measuring as much as 1.67 million square kilometers and located in the worlds fishing center,
the Philippines is definitely rich in marine resources. Of the 2,400 fish species found in the country. 65 have good
commercial value. Other marine products include corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds. Some of the countries best salt water
fishing area’s are found in Sintangki Island in Sulu Estancia in Bohol, Malampaya in Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in
Pangasinan, San Miguel lake in Camarines Norte, Bantayan Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon and Sorsogon.

On the other hand, among our biggest fisher water fishing areas are Laguna de Bay, Bombon Lake in Batangas, Bato Lake
in Canmarines Sur, Naujan Lake in Mindoro and Mainit lake in Agusan del Norte.

The First “Filipinos”

Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of the Philippine islands emerged during the Pleistocene
period. There are two theories on where the inhabitants (first Filipinos) came from namely: Beyer’s “Migration Theory”

1
and Jocano’s “Evolution Theory”. Noted social scientist Henry Otley Beyer believes that Filipinos descended from
different groups that came from Southeast Asia in successive waves of migration. Each group had a distinct culture, with
it’s own customs and traditions. While Jocano believes that Asians, including Filipinos are the result of a lengthy process
of evolution and migration.

Migration Theory

The first migrants were what Beyer caked the “Dawnmen” (or “cavemen” because they lived in
caves.). The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, Peking Man, and other Asian Home sapiens who existed
about 250,000 years ago. They did not have any knowledge of agriculture, and lived by hunting and
fishing. It was precisely in search of food that they came to the Philippines by way of the land bridges
that connected the Philippines and Indonesia. Owing perhaps to their migratory nature, they eventually
left the Philippines for destinations unknown.

The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called “Aetas’ or “Negritoes”. About 30,000 years
ago, they crossed the land bridged from Malaya, Borneo, and Australia until they reached Palawan, Mindoro and
Mindanao. They were pygmies who went around practically naked and were good at hunting, fishing and food gathering.
They used spears and small flint stones weapons.

The Aetas were already in the Philippines when the land bridges disappeared due to the thinning of the ice glaciers and the
subsequent increase in seawater level. This natural events “forced” them to remain in the country and become its first
permanent inhabitants.

Because of the disappearance of the land bridges, the third wave of migrants was necessarily skilled in seafaring. These
were the Indonesians, who came to the islands in boats. They were more advanced than the Aetas in that: they had tools
made out of stone and steel, which enabled them to build sturdier houses: they engaged in farming and mining, and used
materials made of brass; they wore clothing and other body ornaments.

Last to migrate to the Philippines, according to Beyer, were Malays. They were believed to have come from Java,
Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula more than 2,000 years ago. Like the Indonesians, they also traveled in boats.

The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight black hair and flat noses. Their technology was said
to be more advanced than that of their predecessors. They engaged in pottery, weaving, jewelry making and metal
smelting, and introduced the irrigation system in rice planting.

Jocano’s Theory

Renowned Filipino anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano disputes Beyer’s belief that Filipinos descended from Negritoes
and Malays who migrated to the Philippines thousands of years ago. According to Jocano, it is difficult to prove that
Negritoes were the first inhabitants of this country. The only thing that can positively concluded from fossil evidence, he
says is that the first men who came to the Philippines also went to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and Australia.

In 1962, a skullcap and a portion of a jaw-presumed to be a human origin-were found in the Tabon Caves of Palawan by
archaeologist Robert Fox and Manuel Santiago, who both worked for the National Museum. Carbon dating placed their
age at 21,000 to 22,000 years. This proves, Jocano argues, that man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay
Peninsula; therefore, the first inhabitants of our islands could not have come from the region. The “Tabon Man” is said to
resemble Java Man and Peking Man. He gathered fruits, leaves and plants for his food. He hunted with weapons made of
stone. Although further research is still being done on his life and culture, evidence shows that he was already capable of
using his brain in order to survive and keep himself safe.

Instead of the Migration Theory, Jocano advances the Evolution Theory, as a better explanation of how our country was
first inhabited by human beings, Jocano believes that the first people of Southeast Asia were products of a long process of
evolution and migration. His research indicates that they shared more or less the same culture, beliefs, practices an even
similar tools and implements. These people eventually went their separate ways; some migrated to the Philippines, the
others to New Guinea, Java and Borneo. Proof, Jocano says, can be found in the fossils discovered in different parts of
Southeast Asia, as well as the recorded migrations of other peoples from the Asian mainland when history began to
unfold.

2
 Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish crown, was looking for a westward
route to the to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. On March 16, 1521, Magellan's expedition landed on
Homonhon island in the Philippines. He was the first European to reach the islands. Rajah
Humabon of Cebu was friendly with Magellan and embraced Christianity, but their enemy, Lapu-
Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan to kill Lapu-Lapu while Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into
Christianity. On April 17, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and ensuing battle killed Magellan by the natives lead by
Lapu-Lapu. Out of the five ships and more than 300 men who left on the Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the
Victoria) and 18 men returned to Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522. Nevertheless, the said expedition was considered
historic because it marked the first circumnavigation of the globe and proved that the world was round.

Juan Sebastian de Elcano, the master of ship "Concepcion" took over the command of the expedition after the death of
Magellan and captained the ship "Victoria" back to Spain. He and his men earned the distinction of being the first to
circumnavigate the world in one full journey. After Magellan's death in Cebu, it took 16 more months for Elcano to return
to Spain. The Magellan expedition started off through the westward route and returning to Spain by going east; Magellan
and Elcano's entire voyage took almost three years to complete.

Spain sends other expedition

After the Spain had celebrated Elcano’s return, King Charles I decided that Spain should conquer the Philippines. Five
subsequent expeditions were then sent to the Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre Loaisa (1525), Sebastian Cabot
(1526), Alvaro de Saavedra (1527), Rudy Lopez de Villalobos (1542) and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564). Only the last
two actually reached the Philippines; and only Legazpi succeeded in colonizing the Islands.

The Villalobos Expedition

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico on November 1, 1542. He followed the route
taken by Magellan and reached Mindanao on February 2, 1543. He established a colony in Sarangani but could not stay
long because of insufficient food supply. His fleet left the island and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas, where they were
captured by the Portuguese.

Villalobos is remembered for naming our country “Islas Filipinas,” in honor of King Charles’ son, Prince Philip, who later
became king of Spain.

The Legazpi Expedition

Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to Villalobos had succeeded in taking over
the Philippines, King Charles I stopped sending colonizers to the Islands. However, when Philip II
succeeded his father to the throne in 1556, he instructed Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to
prepare a new expedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who would be accompanied by Andres de
Urdaneta, a priest who had survived the Loaisa mission.

On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After a short struggle with the natives, he proceeded to
Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There Legaspi made a blood compact with the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of
friendship. Legaspi was able to obtain spices and gold in Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna. On April 27, 1565,
Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and establish a settlement. On orders of the King Philip II,
2,100 men arrived from Mexico. They built the the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading outpost
and stronghold for the region.

Hearing of the riches of Manila, an expedition of 300 men headed by Martin de Goiti left Cebu for Manila. They found
the islands of Panay and Mindoro. Goiti arrived in Manila on May 8, 1570. At first they were welcomed by the natives
and formed an alliance with Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but as the locals sensed the true objectives of the
Spaniards, a battle between the troops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because the Spaniards are more heavily
armed, the Spaniards were able to conquer Manila. Soon after Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila.
Legaspi built alliances and made peace with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571, Legaspi ordered the
construction of the walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as the seat of government of the colony and the capital of
3
the islands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin Church in Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed
the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de España" (Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II of
Spain.

Why the Philippines was easily conquered

Through largely outnumbered, the Spaniards who came to colonize the Philippines easily took control of our country.
How did this happen?

The best possible explanation is that the natives lacked unity and a centralized form of government. Although the
barangays already functioned as units of governance, each one existed independently of the other, and the powers that
each Datu enjoyed were confined only to his own barangay. No higher institution united the barangays, and the Spaniards
took advantage of this situation. They used the barangays that were friendly to them in order to subdue the barangays that
were not.

The Spaniards as Colonial Masters

Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from 1565 to 1898. since Spain was far from the
country, the Spanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy of Mexico, which was then
another Spanish colony. When Mexico regained its freedom in 1821, the Spanish king ruled the
Philippines through a governor general. A special government body that oversaw matters,
pertaining to the colonies assisted the king in this respect. This body became known by many
names. Council of the Indies (1565-1837), Overseas Council (1837-1863), and Ministry of the
Colonies (1863–1898). It is implemented the decrees and legal codes Spain promulgated although
many of its provisions could not apply to condition in the colonies. It also exercised legislative and judicial powers.

The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was composed of a national government and
the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. With the cooperation of the local
governments the national government maintained peace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public
works.

The Governor General

As the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines, the governor general saw to it that royal
decrees and laws emanating from Spain were implemented in the Philippines. He had the power to appoint and dismiss
public officials, except those personally chosen by the King. He also supervised all government offices and the collection
of taxes.
The governor general exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issued proclamations to facilitate the
implementation of laws.

The Residencia
This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a governor general who was about to be replaced.
The residencia, of which the incoming governor general was usually a member, submitted a report of its findings to the
King.

The Visita
The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called the Vistador General to observe conditions in the
colony. The Visitador General reported his findings directly to the King.

The Royal Audiencia

Apart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisory body to the Governor General and had the
power to check and a report on his abuses. The Audiencia also audited the expenditures of the colonial government and
sent a yearly report to Spain. The Archbishop and other government officials could also report the abuses of the colonial
government to be Spanish king. Despite all these checks, however, an abusive governor general often managed to escape
stiff fines, suspension, or dismissal by simply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.

The Provincial Government

The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country’s administration. There were two types of local
government units – the alcadia and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that
4
had been fully subjugated: the corregimiento, headed by corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely
under Spanish control. The alcalde mayors represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their respective
provinces. They managed the day-to-day operations of the provincial government, implemented laws and supervised the
collection of taxes. Through they were paid a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such as the indulto de comercio, or the
right to participate in the galleon trade.

The Municipal Government

Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadordcillos, whose main concerns were
efficient governance and tax collection. Four lieutenants aided the Governardorcillo: the Teniente Mayor (chief
lieutenant), the Teniente de Policia (police lieutenant), the Teniente de Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the
Teniente de Ganados (lieutenant of the livestock).

The Encomienda System

Spain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who valiantly and loyally served the Spanish
crown. To hasten the subjugation of the country, King Philip II instructed Legazpi to divide the Philippines into large
territories called encomiendas, to be left to the management of designated encomenderos.

To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the first encomenderos in the colony. As the King’s
representatives in their respective encomiendas, the encomenderos had the right to collect taxes. However, the
encomiendas were not there to own. The encomenderos were only territorial overseers who had the duty to: 1) protect the
people in the encomienda; (2) maintain peace and order; (3) promote education and health programs; and (4) help the
missionaries propagate Christianity.

The Galleon Trade

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors were already trading with China, Japan,
Siam, India, Cambodia, Borneo and the Moluccas. The Spanish government continued trade relations
with these countries, and the Manila became the center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards
closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico. Thus, the Manila–Acapulco Trade, better
known as the "Galleon Trade" was born. The Galleon Trade was a government monopoly. Only two
galleons were used: One sailed from Acapulco to Manila with some 500,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 120 days at
sea; the other sailed from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of goods spending 90 days at sea.

It also allowed modern, liberal ideas to enter the country, eventually inspiring the movement for independence from
Spain. And because the Spaniards were so engrossed in making profits from the Galleon Trade, they hardly had any time
to further exploit our natural resources.

Basco’s Reforms

Filipino farmers and traders finally had a taste of prosperity when Governor General Jose Basco y Vargas instituted
reforms intended to free the economy from its dependence on Chinese and Mexican trade. Basco implemented a “general
economic plan” aimed at making the Philippines self sufficient. He established the “Economic Society of Friends of the
Country”, which gave incentives to farmers for planting cotton, spices, and sugarcane; encouraged miners to extract gold,
silver, tin, and copper; and rewarded investors for scientific discoveries they made.

Tobacco Monopoly

The tobacco industry was placed under government control during the administration of Governor General Basco. In
1781, a tobacco monopoly was implemented in the Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra,
Nueva Ecija, and Marinduque. Each of these provinces planted nothing but tobacco and sold their harvest only to the
government at a pre-designated price, leaving little for the farmers. No other province was allowed to plant tobacco. The
government exported the tobacco to other countries and also part of it to the cigarette factories in Manila.

The tobacco monopoly successfully raised revenues for the colonial government and made Philippine tobacco famous all
over Asia. Continue to Secularization of Priests During the Spanish Period.

5
 The Secularization of Priests during Spanish Period
The Opening of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal, which connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, was inaugurated in 1869. It was built by a
French engineer named Ferdinand de Lesseps. By passing through the Canal, vessels journeying between Barcelona and
Manila no longer had to pass by the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa. Thus, they were able to shorten
their traveling time from three months to 32 days.

Thanks to the Suez Canal, trading in the Philippines became increasingly profitable. More and more foreign merchants
and businessmen came to the colony, bringing with them a lot of progressive ideas. The Filipinos not only gained more
knowledge and information about the world at large; they also gained the desire for freedom and improvement in their
lives.

The Secularization Controversy

Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. These were the regulars and the seculars. Regular
priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task was to spread Christianity. Examples were the Franciscans,
Recollects, Dominicans, and Augustinians. Secular priests did not belong to any religious order. They were trained
specifically to run the parishes and were under the supervision of the bishops.

Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes that were being run by regular priests. It was their duty,
they argued, to check on the administration of these parishes. But the regular priests refused these visits, saying that they
were not under the bishop’s jurisdiction. They threatened to abandon their parishes if the bishops persisted.

In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the diocese’s authority over the parishes and accepted the
resignations of the regular priests. He assigned secular priests to take their place. Since there were not enough seculars to
fill all the vacancies the Archbishop hastened the ordination of Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also issued on
November 9, 1774, which provided for the secularization of all parishes or the transfer of parochial administration from
the regular friars to the secular priests.

The regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos unfit for the priesthood. Among other reasons they
cited the Filipinos’ brown skin, lack of education, and inadequate experience.

The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to the Philippines. They had been exiled from the country
because of certain policies of the order that the Spanish authorities did not like.

The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouring their own regular priest over Filipino priests.

Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with the Filipinos. Unfortunately, he died in an
earthquake that destroyed the Manila Cathedral in 1863. After his death, other priests took his place in fighting for the
secularization movement. Among them were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora.

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jocinto Zamora (Gomburza),
all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on charges of subversion. The
charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora was their alleged complicity in the uprising
of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of Gomburza awakened strong feelings of anger
and resentment among the Filipinos. They questioned Spanish authorities and demanded
reforms. The martyrdom of the three priests apparently helped to inspire the organization of the
Propaganda Movement, which aimed to seek reforms and inform Spain of the abuses of its
colonial government.

The illustrados led the Filipinos’ quest for reforms. Because of their education and newly
acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular grievances. However, since the illustrados themselves
were a result of the changes that the Spanish government had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push
very hard for the reforms it wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the Filipinos; but from
6
this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. The intelligentsia also wanted reforms; but they were more
systematic and used a peaceful means called the Propaganda Movement.

Goals of the Propaganda Movement

Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They worked inside and outside the
Philippines. Their objectives were to seek:
▪ Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain
▪ Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards
▪ Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Secularization of Philippine parishes.
▪ Recognition of human rights

The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its members believed that once Spain
realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards would implement the changes the Filipinos were seeking.

The Propagandists

The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila. They could be divided into three
groups: The first included Filipinos who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicated in the
Cavite Mutiny. After two many years in the Marianas, they proceeded to Madrid and Barcelona because
they could no longer return to the Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the Philippines
who had been sent to Europe for their education. The third group was composed of Filipinos who had fled
their country to avoid punishment for a crime, or simply because they could not stand Spanish atrocities
any longer. Still, not all Filipinos living in Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose Rizal,
Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent members.

Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray Botod," "Esperanza," and "La Hija del
Fraile," which all criticized the abuses of Spanish friars in the Philippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker
who put up the newspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most popular writings
included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was a
pamphlet answering the criticisms received by Jose Rizal’s novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan…" was parody of the prayer
books used by the Church, while "Ang Sampung Kautusan…" was a satirical take on the Ten Commandments, which
highly ridiculed the Spanish friars.

Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was the first Filipino become famous for
his written works. He wrote a poem entitled “Sa Aking mga Kababata” when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli
Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted the sufferings of the Filipinos and the rampant abuses committed by
the friars in the colony. Because of his criticisms of the government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was
executed at Bagumbayan (later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.

The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and other radicals to establish the
Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in place.

La Liga Filipina

In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y Alonzo) returned to the Philippines and proposed the
establishment of a civic organization called “La Liga Filipina.” On July 3, 1892, the following were elected as its officers:
Ambrosio Salvador, president: Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary.
Rizal functioned as its adviser.

La Liga Filipina aimed to:

▪ Unite the whole country

▪ Protect and assist all members
▪ Fight violence and injustice
▪ Support education
▪ Study and implement reforms

7
La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government; but the Spanish officials still felt
threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days after La Liga Filipina’s establishment, Jose Rizal was secretly arrested. The
next day, Governor General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal’s deportation to Dapitan, a small, secluded town in
Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, they began to drift apart. The rich members wanted
to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement; but the others seemed to have lost all hope that reforms could still be
granted. Andres Bonifacio was one of those who believed that the only way to achieve meaningful change was through a
bloody revolution.

La Solidaridad

In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its own newspaper, called La Solidaridad. The Soli,
as the reformists fondly called their official organ, came out once every two weeks. The first issue saw print was
published on November 15, 1895.

The Solidaridad’s first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilar took over in October 1889. Del Pilar
managed the Soli until it stopped publication due to lack of funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. The colonial government did not agree to any of its
demands. Spain itself was undergoing a lot of internal problems all that time, which could explain why the mother country
failed to heed the Filipino’s petitions. The friars, on the other hand, were at the height of their power and displayed even
more arrogance in flaunting their influence. They had neither the time nor the desire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although they still failed to maintain a united front. Because
most of them belonged to the upper middle class, they had to exercise caution in order to safeguard their wealth and other
private interests. Personal differences and petty quarrels, apart from the lack of funds, were also a hindrance to the
movements success. Lastly, no other strong and charismatic leader emerged from the group aside from Jose Rizal.

The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution

The Katipunan is born

Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soon lost hope in gaining reforms though peaceful
means. This feeling was especially heightened when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifacio
became convinced that the only way the Philippines could gain independence was through a
revolution.

Bonifacio then founded the “Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuanan ng mga Anak ng

Bayan” (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M. Recto), in Tondo
Manila.

The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member’s loyalty, they performed the
solemn rite of sanduguan (blood compact), wherein each one signed his name with his own blood..

The members agreed to recruit more people using the “triangle system” of enlistment. Each original member would
recruit tow new members who were not related to each other. Each new member would do the same thing, and so on
down the line. Members were also asked to contribute one Real (about 25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for
the association.

The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

▪ The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring the country’s independence.
▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine morals, and how to guard themselves
against religious fanaticism..
▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor oppressed.

The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of the Katipunan. It was headed by a
supremo, or president. Each province had a “Sangguaniang Bayan” (Provincial Council) and each town had a
“Sangguniang Balangay” (Popular Council).

8
The Leaders of the Katipunan:

▪ Deodato Arellano -Supremo

▪ Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
▪ Teodora Plata -Secretary
▪ Valentine Diaz -treasurer
▪ Andres Bonifacio -controller

Jose Rizal and the Katipunan

Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization and activities of the Katipunan; but the Katipuneros still looked up
to him as a leader. In fact, Rizal’s name was used as a password among the society’s highest-ranking members, who were
called bayani.

Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although Rizal did not know Bonifacio
personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal’s intelligence and talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio
Valenzuela to Dapitan to seek Rizal’s advice on the planned revolution.

Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. The people were not yet ready and they did not have
enough weapons. He suggested that the Katipunan obtain the support of wealthy and influential Filipinos first, in order to
gain financial assistance. He also recommended Antonio Luna as commander of its armed forces, since Luna had much
knowledge and expertise in military tactics.

Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizal’s advice to Bonifacio, who admitted that it would indeed be
fatal for the Filipinos to fight without enough weapons. However, there was no stopping the Revolution. Bonifacio
ordered his men to prepare for battle. He directed them to store enough food and other supplies. Battle plans were made
with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was suggested that the revolutionary headquarters be located near the seas or mountains
to provide for an easy retreat, if necessary.

The Katipunan is Discovered

Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no solid evidence could be found to
support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came on August 19, 1896 when a KKK
member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing
press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage’s Mother Superior, Sor Teresa de Jesus, what her
brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek the advice of Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several Guardias Civiles immediately searched
the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the Katipunan’s existence. The governor general was quickly
informed. The printing press was padlocked and hundreds of suspected KKK members were arrested.

The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread to Manila and nearby suburbs, and Andres Bonifacio
immediately called for a general meeting. Various wings of the Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan
Ramos in Pugadlawin on August 23, 1896. Ramos was the son of Melchora Aquino, also known as
“Tandang Sora” and was later acknowledged as the Mother of the Katipunan."

Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fight to the bitter end. Everyone shouted their approval, except for
Teodoro Plata, who though that it was too soon for a revolution. Heartened by his men’s response, Bonifacio then asked
them to tear their cedulas (residence certificates) to pieces, as a sign of their defiance and determination to rise against the
Spaniards. The men immediately tore up their cedulas, shouting, Mabuhay ang Pilipinas (long live the Philippines) -
known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

9
The Katipunan in Cavite
Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros there divided themselves into the Magdalo and
Magdiwang factions. Baldomero Aguinaldo, brother of Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the Magdalo
group, which was stationed in Kawit. General Mariano Alvarez led the Magdiwang group, which
was stationed in Noveleta.

The two groups fought in separate battles. Emilio Aguinaldo overran Kawit on August 31, 1896,
while Alvarez attacked Noveleta. In Bacoor, Aguinaldo tried to intercept Spanish reinforcements
coming from Manila; but he was repulsed and forced to retreat to nearby Imus. Here, on the
morning of September 5, he defeated the Spanish troops under the command of General Aguirre. A
hundred Spaniards were killed and 60 weapons were confiscated. Aguinaldo was hailed as a hero.
The adoring Caviteños referred to him as “General Miong” and no longer “Kapitan Miong.”

General Aguinaldo’s numerous victories in the battlefield made him the acknowledged revolutionary leader in Cavite. He
issued a proclamation on October 31, 1896 enjoining the people to take courage and continue fighting for Philippine
independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replaced Ramon Blanco as governor general on
December 13, 1896. Polavieja was more successful than his predecessor and slowly regained one-third of the province.

Andres Bonifacio's Execution

While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifacio was recognized as the leader of the
Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An assembly was held in Imus, Cavite on December 31, 1897 to settle the
leadership issue but was not successful. Then on March 22, another assembly was held at Tejeros (known as the Tejeros
Convention) to elect officers of the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as president while Bonifacio was relegated
as the Director of the Interior. Bonifacio rejected the elections and declared it void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic
Military Agreement, essentially creating a government contending Aguinaldo's. Soon after, Bonifacio was captured, stood
trial, and was sentenced to death by a War Council of Aguinaldo's government. Aguinaldo initially commuted the
sentence to deportation but later reversed the commutation upon pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers. On orders
from General Mariano Noriel, Andres Bonifacio was executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by Major Lazaro Makapagal
on May 10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacio’s death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish government, for its part,
doubled its efforts in trying to control Cavite, which was considered the seat of the Revolution. When Governor General
Primo de Rivera replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, he immediately marched to Naic, Cavite to persuade the
Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved to Batangas, where they temporarily set up
camp in the town of Talisay. However, Spanish soldiers were able to pursue them there. Thus, they retreated to Morong
on June 10, 1897 and proceeded to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan.

The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. The news immediately spread
throughout the country, and the revolutionaries were once more in high spirits. General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija,
declared his support for Aguinaldo. In July 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic and issued a
proclamation stating the following demands:

▪ Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos
▪ Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Freedom of the press and of religion
▪ Abolition of the government’s power to banish Filipinos
▪ Equality for all before the law.
10
A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho. It was signed on
November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided for the establishment of a Supreme council that would serve
as the highest governing body of the Republic. It also outlined certain basic human rights, such as freedom of religion,
freedom of the press, and the right to education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano Trias were elected Supreme Council
president and vice president, respectively.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the Philippines volunteered to act as negotiator

between Aguinaldo and Gov. Primo de Rivera in order to end the clashes. Paterno’s
effort paid off when on, December 15, 1897, the Pact he sign the Pact as the
representative of the revolutionaries, and de Rivera as the representative of the Spanish
government. The Leaders are: Emilio Aguinaldo-President, Mariano Trias-Vice
President, Antonio Montenegro-Secretary, Baldomero Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio
Riego de Dios.

On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet of the Spanish army arrived in Biak-na-Bato and
became hostages of the rebels. A ceasefire was declared by both camps and an agreement between Aguinaldo and the
Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will grant self-rule to the Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went
to exile and surrender his arms. In exchange, Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) as remuneration to the
revolutionaries and an amnesty. After receiving a partial payment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on
December 27, 1897. Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the sincerity of the Spaniards. They refused to
surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te Deum was still sung on January 23, 1898.

The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

The Filipino’s and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodic clashes between the two groups still took
place even after Aguinaldo’s departure from the country. The Spanish did not pay the entire agreed amount.

The Spanish-American War

The US Helps Cuba

One year before the historic Cry of Pugad Lawin, a revolution broke out in Cuba -another Spanish Colony that rose
against the rampant abuses of the Spaniards. It became independent in 1898 after three years of revolt, with the help of
United States. The Americans were supportive of the Cubans for various reasons:

▪ First- the US is a free country and Advocated democracy and freedom.

▪ 2nd- the US wants to protect its huge economic interest in Cuba, in the amount of $50,000,000.
▪ 3rd- a lot of stories reached the United States about Spanish maltreatment of Americans living in Cuba and this greatly
angered the US citizens.
▪ Finally, since Cuba was located very near the US it was deemed covered by the protective mantle of the Monroe
Doctrine.

The US interest in the Philippines

At that time, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, wanted a war to erupt between
the US and Spain so he could strengthen and expand the US Navy, he immediately put his plan into
place. On February 25, 1896, he ordered Commodore George Dewey to make Hong Kong the
headquarters of the American Asiatic Squadron. He also directed Dewey to attack Manila Bay and
destroy the Spanish fleet, the moment hostilities between Spain and US break out.

11
 The Spanish-American War

Spain did not relish American intervention in its affairs. However, with the Philippine and Cuban revolutions going on, it
could not afford to add the Americans to its enemy list, especially since the United States had more advanced technology
and weaponry. In the face of Spain’s declining power, it tried to repair its rift with the US in order to avoid a disastrous
war. On February 15, 1898, how ever a fateful event accrued in Cuba. The American warship Maine was blown up in
Havana harbor, resulting in the death of its 260 officers and crewmembers. Although it was not proven that the Spaniards
had sunk the Maine, the Americans called for war against Spain. Roosevelt was one of many US officials who considered
the destruction of the Maine as act of treason and supported the declaration of war.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 23, 1898. The United Sates declared war against Spain on April 25,
1898. On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy lead by Commodore George Dewey crushed the Spanish squadron in
Manila Bay and the Spanish naval base at Sangley Point in Cavite. By June, 1898, the American had control of portions of
the Philippine islands. The Spanish-American War ended with the Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898. The
treaty conferred ownership of the Spanish colonies of Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. In turn,
the U.S. paid Spain US$ 20 million.

The Battle of Manila Bay

George Dewey, then a Commodore United States Navy’s Asiatic Squadron was waiting in Hong
Kong when He received a cable from the then secretary of Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, stating that
the war had begun between the US and Spain. Dewey sailed from Hong Kong on board his flagship
Olympia with six other heavily armed ships. He brought with him a report on the location of the
Spanish ships in Corregidor and Manila at dawn of May 1, 1898. Dewey entered Manila Bay almost
undetected. When he saw the Spanish ships, which were under the command of General Patricio
Montoya, he ordered his men to fire. The battle began at 5:41 in the morning and by 12:30 of the
same day, the Spaniards were raising the white flag in surrender. Although The Spanish ships
outnumbered those of the Americans; the weapons of the Americans were far more superior to those of the Spaniards. The
battle proved to be too costly for the Spaniards, who lost 167 men and had 214 others wounded. As for the Americans, no
ships were destroyed, and no soldier was killed or injured. The Battle of Manila Bay is considered one of the easiest
encounters ever won in world history.

The Siege of Manila

By June 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo had captured the whole of Luzon and was ready to storm Manila with the help
of Gregorio del Pilar, Artemio Recarte, Antonio Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and many other able generals. At that
time, the term “Manila” referred to the walled city of Intramuros. Aguinaldo’s men surrounded the walls of Intramuros.
Nearby areas like Tondo, Sta. Cruz, San Juan, and Caloocan were likewise secured. The Spaniards stubbornly hoped for
the arrival of reinforcements from the Spanish mainland, but none ever came. Aguinaldo on the other hand, was firmly
convinced that it just was a matter of days before the Spaniards surrendered. Therefore, he started planning for the
declaration of Philippine independence.

The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898 asking for the election of delegates to the revolutionary congress,
another decree was promulgated five days later, which declared that Aguinaldo would appoint representatives of congress
because holding elections is not practical at that time. He appointed 50 delegates in all (but this number fluctuated from

12
time to time). In accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo assembled the Revolutionary Congress at the Brasoain
Church in Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898.

The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the national anthem. After Aguinaldo had read his speech
congressional elections were held among the delegates present. The following were among the most important
achievements of the Malolos Congress:

1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898

2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks for government expenses

3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools

4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution

5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899

Malolos Constitution
A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by Cayetano Arellano, the constitution was drafted, for the first time
by representatives of the Filipino people and it is the first republican constitution in Asia. The constitution was inspired by
the constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Brazil, Belgium and France. After some minor revisions (mainly due
to the objections of Apolinario Mabini), the final draft of the constitution was presented to Aguinaldo. This paved the way
to launching the first Philippine Republic. It established a democratic, republication government with three branches - the
Executive, Legislative and the Judicial branches. It called for the separation of church and state. The executive powers
were to be exercise by the president of the republic with the help of his cabinet. Judicial powers were given to the
Supreme Court and other lower courts to be created by law. The Chief justice of the Supreme Court was to be elected by
the legislature with the concurrence of the President and his Cabinet.

First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan on January 21, 1899. After being
proclaimed president, Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath of office. The constitution was read article by
article and followed by a military parade. Apolinario Mabini was elected as a prime minister. The
other cabinet secretaries were: Teodoro Sandico, interior; Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano
Trias, finance & war; Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio Gonzaga for welfare, Aguedo
Velarde, public instruction; Maximo Paterno, public works & communication; and Leon María
Guerrero for agriculture, trade & commerce.

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite province was asked to write an an instrumental march for
the proclamation of independence ceremony. The original title was "Marcha Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed to
"Marcha Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in August 1899 based on the poem titled "Filipinas" by Jose Palma.
The original lyrics was written in Spanish, then to English (when the Flag Law was abolished during the American
period) then later, was translated to Tagalog, which underwent another change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the
Philippine National Anthem.

Filipino-American Hostilities

Emilio Aguinaldo agreed to hold a peace conference between Filipino and American leaders. The conference lasted from
January 9 to 29 in 1899. It ended without definite results, because the Americans were actually just biding time, waiting
for more reinforcements to arrive from the US. Hostilities finally exploded between the Filipinos and Americans on
February 4, 1899 in San Juan. An American soldier named Robert Grayson, saw 4 armed Filipino men on San Juan Del
Mote Bridge and ordered them to stop, but they ignored him. This prompted Grayson to fire at the men, who immediately
fired back. The following day MacArthur ordered his troops to openly engage the Filipinos in battle. The Filipino
American War was on. From San Juan, American soldiers marched on to Pasig and nearby areas. In a matter of days, they
were able to overrun Guadalupe, Pateros, Marikina, and Caloocan.
13
General Antonio Luna and his men showed great heroism when they attacked Manila on the night of February 24, 1899.
They burned the living quarters of the Americans in Tondo and Binondo, and reached as far as Azarraga Street (now
Claro M. Recto Avenue), where they met by formidable American troops. Luna was forced to retreat to Polo, Bulacan two
days later. When American reinforcements arrived in the Philippines, General Elwell Otis immediately attacked the
northern part of Manila, while General Henry Lawton went to the south. General Arthur MacArthu, Jr. marched to
Malolos, which was then the capital of the Philippine Republic. Malolos was taken on March 31, 1899. By this time,
however, Aguinaldo had already moved his headquarters to San Fernando, Pampanga. General Fredrick Funston crossed
the Pampanga River in April 1899 and entered San Fernando. On May 5, the Americans had gained control of Pampanga.
Fortunately, Aguinaldo was able to flee to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.

The death of Antonio Luna.

A significant event that greatly weakened Aguinaldo’s forces was the death of General
Antonio Luna, acknowledged as the best and most brilliant military strategist of the
Philippine Revolution. He was brave, intelligent, and well educated; but he also had a fiery
temper, and was a strict disciplinarian. His harsh and rough manner earned him a lot of
enemies, who latter plotted to kill him. In June 1899 Luna was at his command post in
Bayambang, Pangasinan when he received a telegram allegedly sent by Aguinaldo. The
telegram instructed him to proceed to Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija.
On June 5, Luna arrived at the headquarters, a convent on the town plaza in Cabanatuan, but
was told that Aguinaldo left for Tarlac. Angry, Luna went out of the convent and was met and killed by Captain Pedro
Janolino with Kawit, Cavite troops. General Luna was buried at the nearby churchyard. Aguinaldo's role on his death is
not clear and his killers were never charged or investigated.

Aguinaldo Flees. Philippine military strategies began to fail with the death of Antonio Luna. The generals started to
disagree among themselves, and the Filipinos began losing battles. On November 13, 1899, General Emilio Aguinaldo
fled to Calasiao, Pangasinan with his wife, son, mother sister, and some Cabinet members. The Americans followed in hot
pursuit; but Aguinaldo still managed to elude them. However, he soon realized that being constantly on the run put the
women in his group at great disadvantage. So, on December 25, 1899, he surrendered them to the American Aguinaldo
then continued his march from Pangasinan to Palanan, Isabela. There he stayed for some time, since the place was
mountainous and difficult to approach. Aguinaldo’s loyal men guarded all roads leading to the area.

End of the Philippine Revolution

Aguinaldo is Captured

Gen. Funston plotted the capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. On the night of March 6, 1901, He boarded the American
warship Vicksburg and docked at Casiguran Bay on March 14. From Palanan Funston group reached Aguinaldo’s
headquarters in Palanan on March 23, 1901. The Macabebe Scouts pretended to have been sent by Lacuna, with the
American officials as their prisoners. Thus Aguinaldo have no idea of his impending capture until Tal Placido of the
Macabebe Scouts embraced him. The Americans then declared the arrest of Aguinaldo and his men in the name of the
United States government. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila and presented to then military Governor-General Arthur
MacArthur, Jr. (father of General Douglas MacArthur) at Malacanang Palace. On April 19, 1901 he finally pledged
allegiance to the United States.

The Philippine Revolution Ends

The first to yield to the Americans was by General Simion Ola. He surrendered to Colonel Harry
Bandoltz in Guinobatan Albay on September 25.1903. Other revolutionaries soon followed.

Military Government

14
General Wesley Merritt was the highest-ranking American official in the Philippines after Spaniards surrendered Manila
on August 13, 1898. He established a military government and became the first American Military governor of the
Philippines. The objectives of the Military government are: 1) to establish peace and order to the Philippines, and 2) to
prepare Philippines for civil governance. The government in the Philippines can be classified into opposition and
collaboration. The Americans used propaganda and other means to win the Filipinos to their side.

The Schurman

The first commission was chaired by Dr. Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University. Thus it became known as
the Schurman Commission. Their group arrived on the Philippines on February 4, 1899. The commission proposed the
following:

1. Establish civil governments in areas were peace and order had been restored
2. Set up a bicameral legislature with members of the lower house to be all elective
3. Appoint American and Filipino member of the Upper house to head the cabinet
4. Preserve Philippine natural resources
5. Create a civil service system
6. Assign highly qualified Filipinos to important government positions

The US Congress adopted all the recommendation of the Schurman commission.

The Taft Commission

On March 16, 1900, United States President William McKinley appointed the then Judge William
Howard Taft to head the second Philippine Commission, which would also be known as the Taft
Commission. Taft would become Governor-General of the Philippines and later, the president of
the U.S.

McKinley wanted to hasten the transition of the Philippine military government into a civil one.
The Taft Commissions was given executive and legislative powers it could use to achieve the
President’s objective.

The Commission arrives in the Philippines on June 3, 1900. It began legislative work on
September 1, the first law it passed set aside P2 million for the construction of treads and bridges. From September 1900
to August 1902, the Commission was able to enact 440 pieces of legislation for the Philippines. Some of these laws
included the Municipal and Provincial codes, which established municipal and provincial governments all over the
country, and laws organizing the Philippine Constabulary and the countries judicial system. Aside from enacting laws the
commissions also visited various provinces and help it in the government peace efforts.

The Spooner Amendment

The modification sponsored by Senator John C. Spooner, allowed the US president to fully administer the Philippines.
Thus, the military government of the Philippines was replaced with a civil one albeit temporary pending the legislation of
permanent colonial government by the United States.

Civil Government under Taft

The Philippine civil government was inaugurated on July 4, 1901, with William Howard Taft as its first governor, the
powers and duties of a governor were passed on to Taft. The Taft Commission continuing functioning as legislative body.
Cayetano Arellano was the first Filipino to hold a high position of government he was named Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court on May 28, 1899. Gregorio Araneta was appointed as Secretary of Justice and finance. Trinidad Pardo de
Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzuriaga were selected as members of the Philippine Commissions.

The Philippine Commonwealth Era

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in
preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under the Philippine Independence
Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law. The Commonwealth era was interrupted
when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth government, lead
by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of tuberculosis
while in exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same time, the Japanese forces installed a
puppet government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. This government is known as the Second Philippine

15
Republic. On October 20, 1944, the Allied forces led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on the island of Leyte to liberate
the Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally surrendered in September 2, 1945.

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened in its first regular
session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the people’s representatives have assembled since their
election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was elected Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was
chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad became
speaker pro Tempore. The first law of this congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672, organized the
central bank of the Philippines. The commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of collaboration. In
September 1945 the counter intelligence corps presented the people who were accused of having
collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included were prominent Filipinos who had been active
in the puppet government that the Japanese had been established. ”A Peoples Court" was created to
investigate and decide on the issue.

Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23, 1946. Sergio Osmeña and
Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus becoming the last president of the Philippine Commonwealth. The
Commonwealth era formally ended when the United States granted independence to the Philippines, as scheduled on July
4, 1946.

Important legislations and events during the American period that made the Philippines a commonwealth of the United
States:

The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act

United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902, also known as the Cooper Act.
The bill proposed the creation and administration of a civil government in the Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt
signed it into law in July 2, 1902.

Here are some of the more important provisions of the Cooper Act:
▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine government by the president of the U.S., such as the
establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the civil governor and the Supreme court
▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos except the right of trial by jury
▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house and a still-to-be-elected
Philippine Assembly as the Lower House
▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was also president of the Philippine Commission
▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating authority for non-Christian tribes
▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other lower courts
▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would represent the Philippines in the US Congress but would
not enjoy voting rights
▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources

The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before the Philippine Assembly could be establishing these
were the:
▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines
▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census

The Philippine Assembly

The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the Manila Grand Opera House, with US secretary of War William
Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio Osmeña was elected Speaker while Manuel Quezon was elected Majority Floor
leader. The Recognition of the Philippine Assembly paved the way for the establishment of the bicameral Philippine
Legislature. The Assembly functioned as the lower House, while the Philippine Commission served as the upper house.

Resident Commissioners

Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first commissioners. Other Filipinos who occupied this position included
Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, Teodoro Yangco, Isaro Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.

The Jones Law

To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S. Congress enacted the Jones Law on August 29, 1916. It
was the first official document that clearly promised the Philippine independence, as stated in its preamble, as soon as a
16
stable government was established. The Jones Law or the Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of 1902 as
the framework of the Philippine government. It provide for the creation of the executive powers. The vice governor
general, assisted by his Cabinet, would exercise executive powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the
Secretary of Education.

Creation of the Council of State

Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Governor General Francis Burton Harrison issued
an executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first Council of State in the Philippines. It was the Council’s duty to
advise the governor general on matters such as the creation of policies for administering government offices.
The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the governor general called for one. It was composed of the
governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of the Lower House, and the Senate president. During Harrison’s
term, the executive and legislative branches of government worked harmoniously with each other.

The Os-Rox Mission

One delegation, however, that met with partial success was the Os-Rox Mission, so called because it was headed by
Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox group went to the United States in 1931 and was able to influence the
U.S. Congress to pass a pro-independence bill by Representative Butter Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso
Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a 10-year transition period before the United States would recognize
Philippine independence. U.S. President Herbert Hoover did not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified it.
When the Os-Rox Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to the Philippine Legislature, it was rejected by a the
American High Commissioner representing the US president in the country and the Philippine Senate, specifically the
provision that gave the U.S. president the right to maintain land and other properties reserved for military use. Manuel
Quezon was tasked to head another independence mission to the united States.

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to the Philippines from the United States with a slightly amended version
of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill authored by Senator Milliard Tydings and representative McDuffie. President Franklin
Delano Roosevelt, the new U.S. president, signed it into law on March 24, 1934. The Tydings-McDuffie Act (officially
the Philippine Independence Act of the United States Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more popularly known as the The
Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth government for a period of ten years
preparatory to the granting of Independence.

Salient provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie Law:

1. The organization of constitutional Convention that draw up the fundamental law of the land.
2. The election of the leaders of Philippine Commonwealth
3. The recognition of Philippine independence on July 4, 19646.
4. The right of United States to establish military bases in the country
5. Granting the United States president the power to call on all military forces of the Philippines into service.
6. Reclassifying all Filipinos as aliens and limiting immigration to the United Sates to 50 persons per year.
The Tydings-McDuffie law also specified that the Philippines would practice neutrality. Meaning, it could not go to war
without permission of the United States except when it had to protect itself.
The Philippine Legislature ratified the Tydings-McDuffie law on May 1, 1934. From the on, Filipinos busied themselves
with preparations for the establishment of the Commonwealth government.

Japanese Occupation of the Philippines

During Word War II

On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first attacked and
also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then on December 22, The Japanese forces landed at the
Lingayen Gulf and continued on to Manila. General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city on
the advice of commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction. Manila was occupied
by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. MacArthur retreated with his troops to Bataan while the
commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor island before proceeding to the United States. The
joint American and Filipino soldiers in Bataan finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to
Corregidor then proceeded to Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the
infamous "Death March" to a prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000 prisoners
died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.

17
The Huks
In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together and created local brigades for their protection.
Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino, and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in February 1942 in
Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the Japanese as a unified guerrilla army. Another meeting was
held the following month, where in representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija threshed out various details
regarding their organization, which they agreed to call "Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc
was chosen to be the Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man. The members were simply known as
Huks!

The Philippine Executive Commission

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the Filipino officials in
Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises with the Japanese to mitigate the
sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine
Executive Commission was established, with Vargas as chairman. the following was appointed as
department heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice;
Claro M. Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and
communication; Jose Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.

The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence
(PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the
will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10, 1943. Two months later it was ratified by the
KALIBAPI, which was the only political party allowed to exist at that time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa
Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935 constitution that
fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in effect only temporarily, while the Philippines still in chaos. After
the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director general, Benigno Aquino Sr. held a party
convention to elect 54 members of the National Assembly. The Assembly was actually made up of 108 members; but half
of this number was composed of incumbent governors and city mayors. Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of the
second republic (the first republic was Aguinldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. & Ramon Avancena
as a vice-presidents. The new republic was inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the front steps of the legislative building in
Manila. The Philippine flag was hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese started using
propaganda to gain the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They hung giant posters and
distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the Philippines belong to the Filipinos." they also used
newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was one of the main
objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing several Japanese strongholds until they
regained control of areas previously occupied by the enemy. The bombings began on September 21 1944, and barely a
month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans landed triumphantly in Leyte. Once a shore, General Douglas
MacArthur said; "I have Returned."

Sergio Osmeña was Part of MacArthur’s group. He had taken over Manuel L. Quezon as president after
the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on August 1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944
the Americans engaged Japanese forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle
in World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese fleet and rendered in
18
incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte Gulf is said to have signaled the beginning of Philippine
liberation from the Japanese.

By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese, meanwhile, secured other area where their
thought other American units would land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on
January 9, 1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme commander of the Japanese
troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes (Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also
deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds.

On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders of Yamashita, who is also known as
the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront stretching along the Sierra Madre
Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of intense fighting before they finally
surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur continued to liberate other parts of the country. And finally proclaim
general freedom from the Japanese on July 4, 1945.

Philippine Independence from the Americans

Freedom is among the rights that Filipinos did not enjoy during the Spanish rule. It was a struggle for the
Philippine revolutionary leaders to achieve independence from foreign power. The Filipinos fought
countless battles, resulting to bloody revolutions since the 19th century under the Spanish government.
The Filipino forces were persistent to achieve independence for the country. In 1896, the Philippine
Revolution started, which incriminated Jose Rizal resulting to his execution on allegations of treason and
rouse the Katipunan in Cavite to organize in two groups creating conflict. At the break of the Spanish-
American war, the Filipino leaders saw the war between Spain and America as an opportunity to free the
Philippines from the claws of the Spanish colony; hence, supported the United States with military forces including
indispensable intelligence. America summoned Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines from exile and with confidence
towards the pleasant US relations, Aguinaldo anticipated independence from Spain with the help of America. Returning to
the Philippines and leading the Filipino troops to hold the fort of Luzon with success except for Intramuros, Aguinaldo
declared the Philippine Independence from the Spanish colonial government on June 12, 1898 under the First Philippine
Republic. The Philippine National flag was held up, and swayed proudly before the joyous cries of the Filipinos by 4:20
in the afternoon at General Aguinaldo’s balcony of his mansion in Kawit, Cavite. Albeit, the fact that Spain lost the battle
to the Filipino troops, Admiral George Dewey schemed to convince the Spaniards to surrender to America. It was an act
of betrayal by America that no sooner short-lived the celebration of Philippine independence when America annexed the
Spanish colonies to include the Philippines. The Filipino forces were determined to continue their efforts against
imperialist power leading to a bloody fight against the American Army in February 1899 when America refused to grant
Philippines the long-sought Independence.

The Philippine-American War erupted in February 4, 1899 in the struggle of the Filipinos for freedom
conflicting with the interests of America to become a world power by establishing overseas empire to
include the Philippines under the US imperial rule. The Filipino forces applied conventional, then
guerrilla tactics in fighting against the US army as they become fully aware, under the leadership of
General Emilio Aguinaldo, of the strength of the US military heavily equipped with superior firearms.
Although, General Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, the insurgencies, particularly by the Muslim
Moros in the Southern part of the Philippines continued. Nonetheless, America was preparing Philippines for
independence that started with the creation of civil government. The US President Woodrow Wilson promised Philippine
Independence and started to entrust authority over Filipino leaders with the establishment of the Philippine Senate by a
democratic election. The Philippine Commonwealth, with elected President Manuel L. Quezon, was instituted in 1935
under the Tydings-McDuffie Act that granted Philippines its self-government, although the legislative power was not
absolute, which still required approval from the US President. At that time, it was a good start towards the eventual
Philippine Independence.

When the events were gearing towards Philippine independence as promised by the United States of
America, the Japanese invasion and occupation bolstered in a surprise. Bataan was surrendered to the
Japanese but President Quezon along with Osmeña fled to America. World War II broke out that created

19
immense damage to Filipinos with roughly about one million casualties. After the war, Manuel Roxas was elected
President in April 1946 for the independent Second Republic of the Philippines. In a formal declaration, the American
flag was lowered in Luneta, Manila and raised the Filipino National flag in tri-color of red, white, and blue looked up by
proud Filipinos. Finally, independence was granted to the Republic of the Philippines dated July 4, 1946. The National
anthem of the Philippines was played next to America’s. It was indeed a moment of liberating glory, for all Filipinos after
pools of blood were shed in many revolutions.

July 4, however, holds less inspiration for the Filipinos according to the elected President of the
Republic of the Philippines in 1961, Diosdado Macapagal. Macapagal believes that the June 12, 1896
declaration of the Philippine independence by General Emilio Aguinaldo brings to memory the heroes
of the revolution and therefore, Philippine independence is best commemorated in honor of the
Filipino revolutionary heroes. Hence, President Macapagal changed the date of celebration of the
Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, which the Filipinos celebrate each year up to this
time.

The Philippines During Martial Law

Proclamation of Martial Law: On September 21, 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos placed the
Philippines under Martial Law. The declaration issued under Proclamation 1081 suspended the civil
rights and imposed military authority in the country. Marcos defended the declaration stressing the need
for extra powers to quell the rising wave of violence allegedly caused by communists. The emergency
rule was also intended to eradicate the roots of rebellion and promote a rapid trend for national
development. The autocrat assured the country of the legality of Martial Law emphasizing the need for control over civil
disobedience that displays lawlessness. Marcos explained citing the provisions from the Philippine Constitution that
Martial Law is a strategic approach to legally defend the Constitution and protect the welfare of the Filipino people from
the dangerous threats posed by Muslim rebel groups and Christian vigilantes that places national security at risk during
the time. Marcos explained that martial law was not a military takeover but was then the only option to resolve the
country’s dilemma on rebellion that stages national chaos threatening the peace and order of the country. The emergency
rule, according to Marcos’s plan, was to lead the country into what he calls a “New Society”.

Marcos used several events to justify martial law. Threat to the country’s security was intensifying
following the re-establishment of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) in 1968. Supporters of
CPP’s military arm, the New People’s Army, also grew in numbers in Tarlac and other parts of the country.
The alleged attempt to the life of then Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile gave Marcos a window to
declare Martial Law. Marcos announced the emergency rule the day after the shooting incident. Marcos also
declared insurgency in the south caused by the clash between Muslims and Christians, which Marcos considered as a
threat to national security. The Muslims were defending their ancestral land against the control of Christians who
migrated in the area. The minority group organized the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in Malaysia and pushed
for the autonomy of Mindanao from the national government.

The move was initially supported by most Filipinos and was viewed by some critics as a change that solved the massive
corruption in the country. Martial law ceased the clash between the executive and legislative branches of the government
and a bureaucracy characterized by special interest. Marcos started to implement reforms on social and political values
that hindered effective modernization. To match the accomplishments of its Asian neighbors, Marcos imposed the need
for self-sacrifice for the attainment of national welfare. His reforms targeted his rivals within the elite depriving them of
their power and patronage but did not affect their supporters (US Library of Congress, Martial Law and the Aftermath).

20
Thirty-thousand opposition figures including Senator Benigno Aquino, journalists, student and labor activists were
detained at military compounds under the President’s command (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). The army and the
Philippine Constabulary seized weapons and disbanded private armies controlled by prominent politicians and other
influential figures (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos took control of the legislature and closed the Philippine
Congress (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Numerous media outfits were either closed down or operated under tight
control (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos also allegedly funnelled millions of the country’s money by placing
some of his trusted supporters in strategic economic positions to channel resources to him. Experts call this the “crony
capitalism.”

The deterioration of the political and economic condition in the Philippines triggered the decline of
support on Marcos’ plans. More and more Filipinos took arms to dislodge the regime. Urban poor
communities in the country’s capital were organized by the Philippine Ecumenical Council for
Community and were soon conducting protest masses and prayer rallies. These efforts including the
exposure of numerous human rights violations pushed Marcos to hold an election in 1978 and 1981
in an aim to stabilize the country’s chaotic condition. Marcos, in both events, won the election;
however, his extended term as President of the Republic of the Philippines elicited an extensive
opposition against his regime. Social unrest reached its height after former Senator Benigno Aquino
was murdered. The incident sent thousands of Filipinos to the streets calling for Marcos’ removal from post. Turning
again to his electoral strategy, Marcos held a snap election in 1986 but what he hoped will satisfy the masses only
increased their determination to end his rule that seated Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino, as President of the
Philippines ousting Marcos from Malacañang Palace and ending the twenty-one years of tyrant rule.

EDSA People Power Revolution

The Philippines was praised worldwide in 1986, when the so-called bloodless revolution erupted, called EDSA People
Power’s Revolution. February 25, 1986 marked a significant national event that has been engraved in the hearts and minds
of every Filipino. This part of Philippine history gives us a strong sense of pride especially that
other nations had attempted to emulate what we have shown the world of the true power of
democracy. The true empowerment of democracy was exhibited in EDSA by its successful efforts
to oust a tyrant by a demonstration without tolerance for violence and bloodshed. Prayers and
rosaries strengthened by faith were the only weapons that the Filipinos used to recover their
freedom from President Ferdinand Marcos’s iron hands. The Epifanio de los Santos Avenue
(EDSA) stretches 54 kilometers, where the peaceful demonstration was held on that fateful day. It
was a day that gathered all Filipinos in unity with courage and faith to prevail democracy in the
country. It was the power of the people, who assembled in EDSA, that restored the democratic
Philippines, ending the oppressive Marcos regime. Hence, it came to be known as the EDSA
People Power’s Revolution.

The revolution was a result of the long oppressed freedom and the life threatening abuses
executed by the Marcos government to cite several events like human rights violation since the
tyrannical Martial Law Proclamation in 1972. In the years that followed Martial Law started the
suppressive and abusive years–incidents of assassination were rampant, particularly those who
opposed the government, individuals and companies alike were subdued. The Filipinos reached
the height of their patience when former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Sr. was shot and
killed at the airport in August 21, 1983, upon his return to the Philippines from exile in the United
States. Aquino’s death marked the day that Filipinos learned to fight. His grieving wife, Corazon
Cojuangco-Aquino showed the Filipinos and the world the strength and courage
to claim back the democracy that Ferdinand Marcos arrested for his personal
caprice. Considering the depressing economy of the country, Ninoy’s death further intensified the
contained resentment of the Filipinos. In the efforts to win back his popularity among the people, Marcos
held a snap presidential election in February 7, 1986, where he was confronted with a strong and potent
opposition, Corazon Aquino. It was the most corrupt and deceitful election held in the Philippine history.
There was an evident trace of electoral fraud as the tally of votes were declared with discrepancy between
21
the official count by the COMELEC (Commission on Elections) and the count of NAMFREL (National Movement for
Free Elections). Such blatant corruption in that election was the final straw of tolerance by the Filipinos of the Marcos
regime. The demonstration started to break in the cry for democracy and the demand to oust Marcos from his seat at
Malacañang Palace. The revolt commenced when Marcos' Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the Armed Forces
Vice-Chief of Staff command of Fidel V. Ramos, both withdrew their support from the government and called upon the
resignation of then President Marcos. They responsibly barricaded Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo and had their
troops ready to combat against possible armed attack organized by Marcos and his troops. The Catholic Church
represented by Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin along with the priests and nuns called for the support of all Filipinos who
believed in democracy. Radyo Veritas aired the message of Cardinal Sin that summoned thousands of Filipinos to march
the street of EDSA. It was an empowering demonstration that aimed to succeed peacefully with the intervention of faith.
Nuns kneeled in front of tanks with rosaries in their hands and uttering their prayers.

With the power of prayers, the armed marine troops under the command of Marcos withdrew from the site. Celebrities
expressed their support putting up a presentation to showcase the injustices and the anomalies carried out by the Marcos
administration. Finally, in the morning of February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino took the presidential oath of office,
administered by the Supreme Court Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee at Club Filipino located in San Juan. Aquino
was proclaimed as the 11th President of the Republic of the Philippines. She was the first lady president of the country.
People rejoiced over their victory proving the success of the EDSA People’s Power Revolution, the historic peaceful
demonstration. Although in 2001, there was an attempt to revive People Power in the efforts to oust then President Joseph
Estrada, it was not as strong as the glorifying demonstration in 1986. The bloodless, People Power Revolution in EDSA
renewed the power of the people, strengthened the meaning of democracy and restored the democratic institutions of
government. Continue to the 5th Republic (1986) up to the Present Time.

Fifth Republic (1986–Present Time)

The world’s eye was on the Philippines after it successfully toppled down almost a decade of dictatorship rule through a
peaceful demonstration tagged as the EDSA People’s Power Revolution. After the widowed wife of former Senator
Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Sr. was elected into office, President Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino faced both economic and
political problems of the country. Her rule as president began on February 25, 1986 after taking oath at the Club Filipino
in San Juan, Metro Manila. She was the 11th president of the Philippines and the first woman to become president of the
country. She was tasked to put together a nation devastated by the rule of her predecessor Ferdinand E. Marcos. It was not
an easy task since the country’s economic condition was in its worse state since 1982. Filipinos living below the poverty
line is alarmingly increasing in number. Aquino also struggled with Marcos’ supporters in the Armed Forces of the
Philippines who attempted to remove her from power. The group of soldiers, who called themselves members of the
‘Reform the Armed Forces Movement’ or RAM, staged seven coup attempts against the Aquino administration. The
attack held in August 28, 1987, which killed at least 53 people and injured more than 200 others, was the most serious
attack the government experienced. These attacks worsened the economic condition of the Philippines as investors
became wary about Aquino’s ability to rebuild the country. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and
the United States also forced the government to fulfill its obligations to pay an estimated $27.2 billion worth of debt
Aquino inherited from the previous administration. To be eligible for IMF’s rehabilitation programs, Aquino instigated
reforms towards a freer economy. These reforms ended monopolization of the agricultural industry of the country,
reduced tariffs and lifted import controls in the Philippines.

The political condition of the country at that time did not look any better. To resolve the issue, Aquino commissioned a
referendum that would be the framework for the new government. It tackled various issues from shifting the government
from presidential to parliamentary, to economic reforms involving foreign participations. Due to its immediate necessity,
details of the referendum were left to the legislature to determine. Released in February 1987, the new charter easily won
the approval of the public.

The rule that followed Aquino’s presidency established steadier governance of the Philippines.
Fidel V. Ramos took office in 1992 and immediately worked on the country’s recovery. Ramos
initiated the Social Reform Agenda or SRA that was geared towards alleviating poverty. The Gross
National Product reached an average of 5 percent annually, which translated to a growth in the
average family income of the Filipinos. He undertook the implementation of Build-Operate-
Transfer (BOT) law which improved public infrastructure and deregulated several industries to help
liberalize the economy. The country also saw improvements in its relations to secessionist Moro

22
Islamic Liberation Front or MNLF as Ramos achieved a peace agreement with the group. Ramos bagged the first
UNESCO Peace Award yet given to an Asian for this effort. He also came to be known as the ‘Centennial’ President for
his successful supervision of the 100th anniversary of the country’s independence from the Spanish rule celebrated in June
12, 1998.

A film actor, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, succeeded Ramos as president in 1998. He was the previous
mayor in the municipality of San Juan, Metro Manila and vice president of Ramos, Estrada was
placed into office by a wide margin of vote. He gained support in the election for his promise to
begin a pro-poor administration that his predecessors failed to promote in their respective
platforms. This support dwindled down as his administration was rattled by corruption. Critics
accused him of failing to live up to his promises due to the resurfacing of cronyism in the
government. Efforts made by Ramos to resolve political conflicts in Mindanao were also threatened
as Estrada launched an all-out war against the Islamic group in Mindanao called the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front in March 21, 2000. In the same year, Ilocos Sur Governor Luis “Chavit” Singson
accused Estrada of receiving Php 400 million from him as payoff from illegal gambling profits. The revelation led to
Estrada’s impeachment in November 12, 2000 and his ouster from presidency in January 20, 2001. Then Supreme Court
Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. swore-in vice-president, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as president the same day.

The Philippine Constitution allows the president to ran for a second term if he/she was sworn into
office by succession and served in less than 4 years, otherwise the president is limited to one term
of office. Arroyo was qualified to ran for another term. Indeed, she did. In the 2004 Philippine
General Election, Arroyo declared her presidential candidacy and she was seated into office for the
second time. Arroyo promoted a “Stronger Republic” under her rule, which was geared toward
vigorous economic reforms. However, her administration was bombarded with several
controversies and impeachment attempts in the last five years. Hence, as she announced her
disinterest to extend her term or run for office in the 2010 elections, critics expressed their
apprehensions. Once, Arroyo had broken the people’s trust when she declared that she was not
interested to run in the 2004 elections. Protesters express their disappointment every so often rallying at the streets calling
against the Charter Change (Cha-Cha) and now the Constituent Assembly (Con-Ass), which is currently promoted by the
Arroyo’s supporters in Congress when the Cha-Cha attempt has become improbable receiving critical disapproval. The
representatives in the lower house of Congress were said to have made the move independently to pass the Con-Ass
however, many are skeptic of the true agenda of the Arroyo administration as the 2010 election countdown nears.
Supporters of Arroyo are pushing for a change of government from a Presidential to a Parliamentary form. This will
enable Arroyo run for parliament and become prime minister.

On the May 10, 2010 general elections, Arroyo run and won for congresswoman for the 2nd district of Pampanga
province. Making her the first president to hold a lower office after occupying the highest office of the land. On her first
day as congresswoman, Arroyo filed a resolution calling for Congress to hold a Constitutional Convention to amend the
constitution.

On June 30, 2010, Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, a.k.a Noynoy Aquino, was proclaimed as president of the
republic together with Jejomar Cabauatan Binay as vice-president.

23