Katie Hearl, Matt Okabe, & Rachel Bell
Dr. Collins
SPED 637
June 13, 2017
Characteristic Crosswalk
Characteristics Dyslexia
Oral language -Most people with dyslexia
have ​difficulty with
(phonological awareness, identifying and
Phonics and word manipulating individual
recognition) sounds ​(phonemes). Thus
phonemic awareness is weak.
- phonological processing​ is
weak because of ​underlying
issue with speech perception​
(Hakvoort et al.,2016).*
speech perception is the
listener’s ability to discern
between sounds on a
continuum for eg /ba/ and /da/
may sound the same
-Issue lies primarily with
phonological awareness;
decoding​ is the hallmark
problem in Dyslexia. (BBC
06/08)
-some individuals with
dyslexia display ​allophonic
perception ​(inability to
generalize phonemes to their
category) (Hakvoort et al.,
2016).
- This trickles down to
difficulty learning to then
represent those sounds with
letters (graphemes). ​Word
recognition ​is therefore also
very difficult (IDA, 2012).
-despite good language
modelling and instruction at
home and school, people with
Other Reading Disabilities
-People with SLD can
experience deficits in
​ processes that underlie their
understanding and
expression of spoken
language. ​Two verbal
memory processes that
underlie are e​xecutive
function (attention to task,
​
planning, flexibility) ​ and
lexical-semantic knowledge
(long term memory store)
(​Hall, McGregor, & Oleson,
2017).
-Students with Specific
Reading Disability (SRD)
(*poor readers with average
spoken language) show
deficits​ in neural
representations of phonemes,
phoneme discrimination,
phoneme awareness and rapid
naming whereas those with
Specific Language
Impairment (SLI)(*average
readers with poor spoken
language) were free from
phonological processing
deficits.​ However, both
groups showed deficits in
short-term memory
(McArthur & Castles, 2013).
 dyslexia can have t​rouble
expressing themselves
verbally​ ​and/or fully
comprehending others’
speech​-this can be hard to
recognize so often goes
unnoticed by adults around
the child until they are older
- ​foreign languages​ are ​very
difficult to learn
-affects people ​all their lives
-Not due to lack of
intelligence so ​can affect
anyone ​regardless of
background or IQ (Hakvoort
et al., 2016).
-speech perception deficits,
although associated with
dyslexia, don’t ​necessarily
lead to poor reading
(Hakvoort et al., 2016).
-automatic ​word recognition
is difficult because of ​poor
verbal short term memory
(Hakvoort et al., 2016).
-corrective feedback can help
build word recognition skill
(IDA, 2012)
-​neurobiological​ in
origin;manifestations (ie
difficulties with word
recognition, spelling and
decoding) mostly because of
a ​deficit in the phonological
component​ of language
(Eden & Moats, 2002).

Spelling -one of the ​core​ difficulties is -​Difficulty with spelling for

with spelling; ​problems in
spelling are one key marker
of dyslexia (Eklund et al.,
2015​)
-​trouble remembering letter
students with SLD leads to
difficulty in writing​, which
is a complex and difficult
process anyway. Students
with SLD may be​ limited​ to
 symbols and words (IDA,
2012)​. *have to re teach
‘known’ words from the day
before again the next day.
-​genetic​ (​34%–66% of
children born to families with
dyslexia (even if not labelled
with dyslexia themselves)
experience severe difficulties
in reading and spelling
especially during first grades
at school. Eklund et. al 2015)
-difficulties with accurate and
fluent word recognition and
poor spelling and decoding
abilities (Eklund et al., 2015)
Reading -reading is ​slow and so not
accurate​ (interventions
should include extended time)
-reading is one of the
strongest deficit area
because r​eading fluency is
weak (IDA, 2012).
-mix up​ words that are
similar ​(IDA, 2012).
-​ letters can look​ jumbled
(reading backwards is a myth)
because students can’t
remember letter symbols for
sounds (IDA, 2012).
using only words they use
often or that are easy. ​Cover
Copy and Compare ​(CCC)
is an intervention that has had
positive results in helping
students with SLD improve
spelling (Derby, Everson,
Manfred & McLaughlin,
2015).
-The definition of a Learning
Disability ​focuses on basic
psychological process​ so
difficulty with academic
skills is evident. There is
usually a ​discrepancy
between ability and
achievement. ​Decoding​ and
comprehension are affected.
(BBC 6-8-17)
-Students with a reading
disability have ​trouble with
rapid automatized naming
(RAN)(Ahonen, Aro,
Heikkilä & Närhi, 2009) *so
testing students in RAN can
highlight students at risk for
SLD
-​perceptual and cognitive
processing difficulties​ are
assumed to be the underlying
reason why students with
learning disabilities
experience reading problems,
(and deficits in
writing)(Heward, 2006).
-Learning disabilities are
associated with ​problems in
listening, reasoning,
memory​,​ attention​, selecting
and focusing on relevant
stimuli, and the perception
and processing of visual
and/or auditory information

Writing fluency -When studied, students with
dyslexia would pause more
frequently mid word when
writing, suggesting the
student was attempting to use
memory to remember how to
spell the word. (Sumner,
Connell, & Barnett, 2016)
This would prove to be
problematic for students who
are participating in writing
activities that are timed.
-The International Dyslexia
Association (IDA)
recommends using ​Structured
Literacy Instruction, a
systematic and cumulative
direct approach that
recognizes the importance of
teaching semantics (meaning
of language) from the
beginning of the curriculum
to assist readers with dyslexia
in strengthening writing
fluency.(IDA, 2015).
-Because students with
dyslexia often have a limited
vocabulary, they have
difficulty mapping internal
words onto written words.
(Lovett et al., 2007)
Vocabulary -Students with dyslexia use
limited vocabulary when
writing due to a lack of
spelling ability. (Sumner,
Connell, & Barnett, 2016)
-Interestingly, lexical
diversity on verbally
produced texts was on the
same level as peers. (Sumner,
Connell, & Barnett, 2016)
-Vocabulary instruction is
(Heward, 2006).
-Writing is challenging
because it is a complex
process that requires the
orchestration of handwriting
or typing, spelling, and
sentence construction skills
that are required to get words
onto the paper. (Graham,
Collins, & Rigby-Wills,
2017)
-Students with LD have
weakened memory skills
along with difficulties with
executive functioning and
cognitive monitoring skills.
(Graham, Collins, &
Rigby-Wills, 2017) This is
similar to students with
dyslexia as a weakened
memory is tied to the slower
writing due to an attempt to
recall spellings of words as
the student is writing.
-Students with LD have
weakened memory skills
along with difficulties with
executive functioning and
cognitive monitoring skills.
(Graham, Collins, &
Rigby-Wills, 2017)
Vocabulary and writing
fluency are intertwined (along
with spelling). The weakened
memory skills are a barrier as
 often overlooked as an
important piece of literacy
(Class Discussion)
-Vocabulary knowledge
requires stored phonological
and semantic representation.
For students with dyslexia,
this means they have fewer
vocabulary words stored
because of their deficits in
phonological processing.
They have difficulty decoding
and then storing words.
(Lovett et al., 2007).
Reading comprehension -Poor reading comprehension
Skills and Strategies may be a secondary
consequence for students with
dyslexia because dyslexia
primarily affects decoding
and phonological awareness
(class lecture 6/8/17).
- Based on the Simple View
of Reading, students with
dyslexia fall into one of two
categories: poor word
recognition and good
comprehension or poor word
recognition and poor
comprehension (class lecture
Session 2).
-Students with dyslexia may
have a difficult time with
long reading assignments-
both with persistence and
comprehension (IDA, 2012).
-Students also may struggle
with “reading quickly enough
to comprehend” (IDA, 2012).
-Students with dyslexia might
benefit from multisensory
experiences during explicit
and systematic instruction
(IDA, 2012).
students struggle to recall
vocabulary and how those
words are spelled.
-Students with SLD may
struggle with understanding
what they read.
-As students progress in
school, reading no longer is
about “learning to read”, but
rather “reading to learn” and
students who struggle with
reading comprehension miss
out on content-specific
information (class lecture
Session 1).
-Direct and explicit
instruction with reading
comprehension strategies can
benefit students with learning
disabilities in reading
(Boardman et al., 2016).
-Some successful strategies
include those that let students
preview the text, question the
text, and connect to their own
background knowledge
(Boardman et al,. 2016).
 -Students would benefit from
working individually with a
teacher or tutor at a pace that
is best for the student (IDA
2012).

Written expression -Students with dyslexia have -Students with learning

a difficult time obtaining and
utilizing written language
(IDA, 2012).
-Written expression becomes
even more challenging when
language becomes more
complex in upper grade levels
and students are required to
understand grammar and
write longer assignments
(IDA, 2012).
-Organizing writing is a
challenge (IDA 2012).
disabilities struggle with
written expression because
writing is a complex system
made up of many parts:
handwriting, spelling, typing,
sentence construction,
forming ideas, drafting,
revising, editing (Graham,
Collins, & Rigby-Wills,
2017).
-Because writing is so
complex, students with SLD
can easily become frustrated,
disengaged, or confused when
focusing on one specific part
of writing, e.g. a student
forgetting what his or her
main character is going to do
next because he or she was
trying to spell a word
(Graham, Collins, &
Rigby-Wills, 2017).
-Overall, typically achieving
students master writing
outcomes more regularly than
their peers with learning
disabilities (Graham, Collins,
& Rigby-Wills, 2017).

● It is important to note that another area affected by having dyslexia is self esteem. Having
a different learning disability can contribute to a lack of academic self confidence
(Graham, Collins, & Rigby-Wills, 2017). Students often begin to feel they aren’t smart.
This poor self image can affect their lives emotionally and socially ​which in turn affects
their performance in all academic​ and non academic subjects. On top of academic
struggles, students with reading disabilities struggle with confidence even once they
 receive strong instruction. This is why ​early intervention​ with direct instruction is so
important, before a poor self concept is created.
References

Ahonen, T., Aro, M., Heikkilä, R., & Närhi, V. (2009). Rapid Automatized Naming and
Learning
Disabilities: Does RAN have a Specific Connection to Reading or Not? ​Child
Neuropsychology, 15, 343-358.

Boardman, A., Vaughn, S., Buckley, P., Reutebuch, C., Roberts, G., & Klingner, J. (2016).
Collaborative Strategic Reading for Students With Learning Disabilities in Upper
Elementary Classrooms. ​Exceptional Children, 82(4), 409-427.

Collins, L. (2017a). ​SPED 637 Session 1 (PDF document). Retrieved from

https://laulima.hawaii.edu/access/content/group/MAN.4190.201743/Supplemental%20Re
adings/Lectures/SPED%20637%20Session%201_Student%20Copy.pdf

Collins, L. (2017b). ​SPED 637 Session 2 (PDF document). Retrieved from

https://laulima.hawaii.edu/access/content/group/MAN.4190.201743/Supplemental%20Re
adings/Lectures/SPED%20637%20Session%202.pdf

Derby, K., Everson, M., Manfred, A., & McLaughlin, T. (2015). The Effects of a Modified
Cover, Copy and Compare Spelling Tests and in Written Compositions for Three
Students with Specific Learning Disabilities. ​Educational Research Quarterly. 38 (3),
3-31.

Eden, G. & Moats, L. (2002). The role of neuroscience in the remediation of students with
dyslexia. ​Nature Neuroscience, 5(11), 1080-1085.

Eklund, K., Torppa, M., Aro, M., Leppänen, P. H. T., & Lyytinen, H. (2015). Literacy skill
development of children with familial risk for dyslexia through grades 2, 3, and 8.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 126-140.

Graham, S., Collins, A., & Rigby-Willis, H. (2017). Writing Characteristics of Students with
Learning Disabilities and Typically Achieving Peers: A Meta-Analysis. ​Exceptional
Children, 83(2), 199-218.

Hakvoort, B., DeBree, E., VanDerLeij, A, Maassen, B., VanSetten, E., Maurits, N., &
 VanZuijen, T.L. (2016). The Role of Categorical Speech Perception and Phonological
Processing in Familial Risk Children With and Without Dyslexia. ​Journal of Speech,
Language, and Hearing Research, 59, 1448–1460.

Hall, J., McGregor, K., & Olesona, J. (2017). Weaknesses in Lexical-Semantic Knowledge
Among College Students With Specific Learning Disabilities: Evidence From a Semantic
Fluency Task. ​Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60, 640–653.

Heward,W. (2006). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. NJ : Pearson

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International Dyslexia Association. (2012). Dyslexia Basics. ​Just the Facts… Information
provided by The International Dyslexia Association. Baltimore, MD

International Dyslexia Association. (2015). Effective Reading Instruction for Students with
Dyslexia. ​Just the Facts… Information provided by The International Dyslexia
Association. Baltimore, MD

Lovett, M., Morris, R., Sevcik, R., Wise, J., & Wolf, M.​ ​(2007). The Relationship Among
Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary, Listening Comprehension, Pre-Reading Skills,
Word Identification Skills, and Reading Comprehension by Children With Reading
Disabilities. ​Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, (50), 1093–1109.

McArthur, G. & Castles, A. (2013). Phonological processing deficits in specific reading

disability and specific language impairment: same or different? ​Journal of Research in
Reading. 36(3), 280-302.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2016). The Influence of Spelling Ability on Vocabulary
Choices When Writing for Children With Dyslexia. ​Journal of Learning Disabilities.
49(3), 293-304