BY: JASON C.

SOBREVEGA
Table of contents
 SOCRATES

Early life

Socrates was born in Alopeke, and belonged to the tribe Antiochis. His father was
Sophroniscus, a sculptor, or stonemason. His mother was a midwife named Phaenarete.[25]
Socrates married Xanthippe, who is especially remembered for having an undesirable
temperament.[26] She bore for him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus.

Socrates first worked as a stonemason, and there was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by
modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the
Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.

Xenophon reports that because youths were not allowed to enter the Agora, they used to gather
in workshops surrounding it.[29] Socrates frequented these shops in order to converse with the
merchants. Most notable among them was Simon the Shoemaker.[30]

Military service

For a time, Socrates fulfilled the role of hoplite, participating in the Peloponnesian war—a
conflict which stretched intermittently over a period spanning 431 to 404 B.C. Several of Plato's
dialogues refer to Socrates' military service.

In the monologue of the Apology, Socrates states he was active for Athens in the battles of
Amphipolis, Delium, and Potidaea. In the Symposium, Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in
the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle
(219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the
General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his
military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to
retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will
be killed in battle.
Philosopher

Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of
society. He attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than
theological doctrine. He pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for
happiness. Ultimate wisdom comes from knowing oneself. The more a person knows, the greater
his or her ability to reason and make choices that will bring true happiness. Socrates believed
that this translated into politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a
democracy. Instead, government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest
ability, knowledge, and virtue and possessed a complete understanding of themselves.

For Socrates, Athens was a classroom and he went about asking questions of the elite and
common man alike, seeking to arrive at political and ethical truths. Socrates didn’t lecture about
what he knew. In fact, he claimed to be ignorant because he had no ideas, but wise because he
recognized his own ignorance. He asked questions of his fellow Athenians in a dialectic method
(the Socratic Method) which compelled the audience to think through a problem to a logical
conclusion. Sometimes the answer seemed so obvious, it made Socrates's opponents look foolish.
For this, he was admired by some and vilified by others.

During Socrates's life, Athens was going through a dramatic transition from hegemony in the
classical world to its decline after a humiliating defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War.
Athenians entered a period of instability and doubt about their identity and place in the world. As
a result, they clung to past glories, notions of wealth, and a fixation with physical beauty.
Socrates attacked these values with his insistent emphasis on the greater importance of the mind.
While many Athenians admired Socrates's challenges to Greek conventional wisdom and the
humorous way he went about it, an equal number grew angry and felt he threatened their way of
life and uncertain future.

Execution

The jury was not swayed by Socrates's defense and convicted him by a vote of 280 to 221.
Possibly the defiant tone of his defense contributed to the verdict and he made things worse
during the deliberation over his punishment. Athenian law allowed a convicted citizen to propose
an alternative punishment to the one called for by the prosecution and the jury would decide.
Instead of proposing he be exiled, Socrates suggested he be honored by the city for his
contribution to their enlightenment and be paid for his services. The jury was not amused and
sentenced him to death by drinking a mixture of poison hemlock.

Before Socrates's execution, friends offered to bribe the guards and rescue him so he could flee
into exile. He declined, stating he wasn't afraid of death, felt he would be no better off if in exile
and said he was still a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by its laws, even the ones that
condemned him to death. Plato described Socrates's execution in his Phaedo dialogue: Socrates
drank the hemlock mixture without hesitation. Numbness slowly crept into his body until it
reached his heart. Shortly before his final breath, Socrates described his death as a release of the
soul from the body.
Synopsis

Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and a teacher
of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in
aesthetics, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of
language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in
the Western world. He died in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.

Background

Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato's life has been constructed
by scholars through his writings and the writings of contemporaries and classical historians.
Traditional history estimates Plato's birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars,
tracing later events in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his
parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato's father, Ariston, descended from the kings of
Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E.
Greek statesman Solon.

Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather, Aristocles, following the
tradition of the naming the eldest son after the grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence
of this, or that Plato was the eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that "Plato" was a
nickname, referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is record that
the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.

As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught by some of Athens'
finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as
well as Parmenides. These probably helped develop the foundation for Plato's study of
metaphysics (the study of nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).
Plato's father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek
politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is believed to have had two full brothers, one sister
and a half brother, though it is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often, members of
Plato's family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of Plato's pride in
his family lineage.

As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his course in life. One was meeting
the great Greek philosopher Socrates. Socrates's methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato
so much that he soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the question of virtue
and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was the Peloponnesian War
between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between 409 and 404 B.C.E.
The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two
of Plato's relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new government, part
of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens.
After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a
career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured him on this idea and he
turned to a life of study and philosophy.

After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region, studying
mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in
Egypt. During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate
among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three distinct
periods.

Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview

The first, or early, period occurs during Plato's travels (399-387 B.C.E.). The Apology of
Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates's death. Other texts in this time period
include Protagoras, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues, Plato
attempts to convey Socrates's philosophy and teachings.

In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice,
courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during
this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings.

In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at
his own early metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and
architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato
suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our
senses is deceptive and changeable.

Founding the Academy

Sometime around 385 B.C.E., Plato founded a school of learning, known as the Academy, which
he presided over until his death. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park named
for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until 529 C.E.., when it was closed by
Roman Emperor Justinian I, who feared it was a source of paganism and a threat to Christianity.
Over its years of operation, the Academy's curriculum included astronomy, biology,
mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place
for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.

In 367 B.C.E., Plato was invited by Dion, a friend and disciple, to be the personal tutor of his
nephew, Dionysius II, the new ruler of Syracuse (Sicily). Dion believed that Dionysius showed
promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher
king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of
conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under "house arrest." Eventually,
Plato returned to Athens and his Academy. One of his more promising students there was
Aristotle, who would take his mentor's teachings in new directions.

Final Years

Plato's final years were spent at the Academy and with his writing. The circumstances
surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348
B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a
wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep.

Plato's impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his
homeland of Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics,
science and nature, morals and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in
education have proven to be essential for understanding the entire universe. His work on the use
of reason to develop a more fair and just society that is focused on the equality of individuals
established the foundation for modern democracy.
Aristotle

Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose",[9] was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice,
about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[10] His father Nicomachus was the
personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age.
Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within
the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[11]

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at
Plato's Academy.[12] He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47
BC. The traditional story, about his departure, records that he was disappointed with the
Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible
that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato died.[13]

"Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)

Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia
Minor. There, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they
researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's
adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after
Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son
Alexander in 343 BC.[5]

Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave
lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[14]
Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia was
unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the
Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and
to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[14]
By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the
Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens,
his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a
son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an
eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[15]

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed
many of his works.[5] He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those
works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for
widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most
important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On
the Soul) and Poetics.

Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant
contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy,
embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on
aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and
theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works
constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.

Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze
sculpture made by Lysippos.

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship
with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role
in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after
the death.[16]
Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC,
Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[17]
prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, at which occasion he was said to
have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[18][19] – a
reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Euboea of natural causes
later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will
in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[20]

Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis
and Eretria and to have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring and some terra-cottas as well
as what is supposed to be the earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull
fragments.[21]

In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of
Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient
points.

Death and Legacy

In 322 B.C., just a year after he fled to Chalcis to escape prosecution under charges of impiety,
Aristotle contracted a disease of the digestive organs and died. In the century following his
passing, his works fell out of use, but were revived during the first century. Over time, they came
to lay the foundation of more than seven centuries of philosophy. Solely regarding his influence
on philosophy, Aristotle’s work influenced ideas from late antiquity all the way through the
Renaissance. Aristotle’s influence on Western thought in the humanities and social sciences is
largely considered unparalleled, with the exception of his teacher Plato’s contributions, and
Plato’s teacher Socrates before him. The two-millennia-strong academic practice of interpreting
and debating Aristotle’s philosophical works continues to endure.
Confucius

Synopsis

Kong Qui, better known as Confucius, was born in 551 B.C. in the Lu state of China (near
present-day Qufu). His teachings, preserved in the Analects, focused on creating ethical models
of family and public interaction, and setting educational standards. He died in 479 B.C.
Confucianism later became the official imperial philosophy of China, and was extremely
influential during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties.

Confucius-9254926-1-raw

Early Life

Confucius, also known as Kong Qui or K’ung Fu-tzu, was born probably in 551 B.C. (lunar
calendar) in present-day Qufu, Shandong Province, China. Little is known of his childhood.
Records of the Historian, written by Ssu-ma Chi’en (born 145 B.C.; died 86 B.C.) offers the
most detailed account of Confucius’ life. However, some contemporary historians are skeptical
as to the record’s accuracy, regarding it as myth, not fact. According to Records of the Historian,
Confucius was born into a royal family of the Chou Dynasty. Other accounts describe him as
being born into poverty. What is undisputed about Confucius’ life is that he existed during a time
of ideological crisis in China.

Philosophy and Teachings

During the sixth century B.C., competing Chinese states undermined the authority of the Chou
Empire, which had held supreme rule for over 500 years. Traditional Chinese principles began to
deteriorate, resulting in a period of moral decline. Confucius recognized an opportunity—and an
obligation—to reinforce the societal values of compassion and tradition. His social philosophy
was based primarily on the principle of "ren" or "loving others" while exercising self-discipline.
He believed that ren could be put into action using the Golden Rule, "What you do not wish for
yourself, do not do to others." (Lunyu 12.2, 6.30).

Confucius’ political beliefs were likewise based on the concept of self-discipline. He believed
that a leader needed to exercise self-discipline in order to remain humble and treat his followers
with compassion. In doing so, he would lead by positive example. According to Confucius,
leaders could motivate their subjects to follow the law by teaching them virtue and the unifying
force of ritual propriety.

His philosophy of education focused on the "Six Arts": archery, calligraphy, computation, music,
chariot-driving and ritual. To Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was to teach
people to live with integrity. Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the traditional values
of benevolence, propriety and ritual in Chinese society.

Major Works

Confucius is credited with writing and editing some of the most influential traditional Chinese
classics. These include a rearrangement of the Book of Odes as well as a revision of the
historical Book of Documents. He also compiled a historical account of the 12 dukes of Lu,
called the Spring and Autumn Annals. Lunyu, which sets forth Confucius’ philosophical and
political beliefs, is thought to be compiled by his disciples. It is one of the "Four Books" of
Confucianism that Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi, a self-proclaimed Neo-Confucian, published as
Sishu in 1190. Far-reaching in its influence, Lunyu was later translated into English under the
title The Analects of Confucius.

Death and Legacy

Convinced that his teachings had not made a significant impact on Chinese culture, Confucius
died on November 21, 479 B.C. in Qufu, China, a year after losing his son, Tzu-lu, in battle. His
followers held a funeral and established a mourning period in his honor. As of the fourth century
B.C., Confucius was regarded as a sage who had deserved greater recognition in his time. By the
second century B.C., during China’s first Han Dynasty, his ideas became the foundation of the
state ideology. Today he is widely considered one of the most influential teachers in Chinese
history.