MLTN Pollution

THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM
The Marine Life Information Network for Britain and
Ireland
Marine Life Topic Note
MARINE POLLUTION
Prepared by: Olwen Ager and Rebecca Jefferson
Last updated: October 2005
Definition - Marine pollution “the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or
energy into the marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects
as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities including
fishing, impairment of quality for use of seawater, and reduction of amenities” (GESAMP,
1983).
INTRODUCTION
Pollution in British estuaries and coastal waters has been studied for over 100 years. Until
the 1970s the major pollutant considered was organic waste (sewage). Improved sewage
treatment in the last 30 years and possibly increased use if chemicals in the marine
environment have meant that the impacts of other pollutants have started to come to light
(Matthiessen & Law, 2002). Marine pollution is a very broad topic, so we have divided the
topic into the following areas:
1. Sewage and other nutrients
2. Oil
3. Chemicals
4. Noise
General Links for further information

Ask a Scientist marine pollution http://oceanlink.island.net/ask/pollution.html
Department for Environment Food
http://www.defra.gov.uk
and Rural Affairs
Global Program of Action for the
Protection of Marine Environment http://www.gpa.unep.org
from Land Based Activities
Greenpeace http://www.greenpeace.org/international/
International Maritime
http://www.imo.org
Organisation
Marine Conservation Society http://www.mcsuk.org
http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/peril_
Ocean Planet
pollution1.html
Worldwide Fund for Nature
http://www.wwf.org.uk/core/wildlife/fs_0000000040.asp
(WWF)
Marine Life Topic Note – Marine Pollution
SEWAGE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS
History
For centuries, the seas have been viewed as a bottomless pit for human derived waste. Until
recently, many coastal towns in the UK had little or no treatment of sewage and it was
common for raw sewage to be discharged directly into the marine environment (Yorkshire
Water, 2002). A more recent source of nitrification of the inshore waters is agricultural run-
off, especially from application of fertilizers.
Importance
It is an unavoidable fact of nature that humans produce waste so there will always be a need
to dispose of sewage. European legislation, public concern about public health and on the
state of beaches, and campaigning by such groups as Surfers Against Sewage has led to
improved treatment of sewage (SAS, 2002).
How is sewage treated?

Every day in the UK, 347,000 km of sewers (enough to go round the earth 9 times) collect 11
billion litres of waste water (sewage). This waste is treated in over 9,000 sewage treatment
plants before being discharged to inland waters, estuaries and the sea (Defra, 2002).
The organic nature of sewage means that it is subject to break down by bacteria. Bacteria
require oxygen to do this. If large amounts of untreated sewage are discharged into the sea,
or water body of restricted circulation such as a river or estuary, the amount of dissolved
oxygen in water is reduced. In extreme cases, fish and other aquatic life will find it hard to
survive. Therefore, sewage is treated to reduce the amount of organic substances and to
protect the environment against these effects (Defra, 2002) (Figure 1).
Preliminary treatment:
involves screening the
21% sewage to remove large
solids, it may also include grit
11% removal.
Primary treatment: involves
the removal of debris and the
separation of water and
sludge.
Secondary treatment: uses
bacteria to break down
13% organic material.
55% Tertiary treatment: may

involve ultra-violet treatments
to reduce pathogenic bacteria
and viruses and/or nutrient
Preliminary / no treatment Primary treatment
removal to prevent
Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment eutrophication, and/or removal
of specific toxic substances
Figure 1. Sewage treatment in the UK (MCS, 2002)
Sewage sludge
The sewage treatment process produces a large amount of sewage sludge. Historically one
quarter of this sludge was dumped at sea. However, in 1998, this practice became illegal
and alternatives have had to be sought. Sludge is most often used as a soil conditioner or as
Visit the ‘Learning Zone’ at http://www.marlin.ac.uk/learningzone

a fertiliser on agricultural land. The ‘Sludge (Use in Agriculture) Regulations 1989’ regulate
the use of sewage sludge and a voluntary agreement (the Safe Sludge Matrix) ensures that
sludge is only used on certain crops. Studies have also shown that sludge can be made into
bricks to build houses (New Scientist, 2002) and burnt as a fuel.
Problems
The breakdown of sewage by bacteria reduces the concentration of oxygen in the water
measured as Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Clarke, 1997). A high BOD can lead to
plants and animals being starved of oxygen. Reduced oxygenation (hypoxia) can lead to a
change in the infaunal benthic community, and in severe cases the death of many benthic
invertebrate species. Nutrient enrichment by sewage can stimulate the growth of
phytoplankton as well as opportunistic benthic seaweeds such as Enteromorpha, Cladophora
and Ulva, which can form dense mats. These mats can reduce the exchange of water
between the sediment and water column resulting in de-oxygenation of the sediments. The
feeding areas for fish and birds may also be diminished if there is an extensive coverage of
algal mats on intertidal sediments (Cole et al., 1999). Absence of solids but continued
presence of high levels of nutrients, especially in enclosed areas, can result in blooms of
algae including some that are poisonous. An increased occurrence of paralytic and diuretic
shellfish poisoning may result from such increase in nutrients.
Unless sewage has had tertiary treatment (i.e. ultraviolet treatment or microfiltration) it can
contain a number of strains of human derived bacteria and viruses including those causing
gastro-enteritis, botulism, hepatitis A and meningitis. Studies have found that the hepatitis A
virus can survive in salt water for approximately 100 days (SAS, 2002).
Filter feeding shellfish, such as mussels and oysters, grown in sewage contaminated waters
may cause food poisoning. Bacteria and viruses can become concentrated in the flesh of the
organism and are transferred to humans if they eat raw or inadequately cooked shellfish
(Clarke, 1997).
Location
The Good Beach guide produced annually by the Marine Conservation Society gives details
of beaches that are not affected by inadequately treated sewage discharges (MCS, 2005).
Yorkshire, Anglian and Welsh Water all treat their sewage to tertiary level, therefore removing
the majority of bacteria and viruses (Yorkshire Water, 2002; SAS, 2002).
Control Measures
European Bathing Water Directive (76/160/EEC).
EC Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC).
The Urban Waste Water Treatment (England and Wales) Regulations 1994
The Urban Waste Water Treatment (Scotland) Regulations 1994
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1995
EU Nitrates Directive (91/67/EEC)
The Protection of Water against Agricultural Nitrate Pollution (England and Wales)
Regulations 1996
Nitrate Pollution (Scotland) Regulations 1996
The Protection of Water against Nitrate Pollution (Northern Ireland) Regulations 2003
Sludge (use in Agriculture) Regulations 1989

The Food Safety (Fishery Products and Live Shellfish) (Hygiene) Regulations 1998
REFERENCES
Brina, G., & Pollard, S., 1999. Marine Conservation the UK Action Guide. Ross-on-Wye:
Marine Conservation Society.
Clark, R.B., 1997. Marine Pollution (4th Edn). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cole, S., Codling, I.D., Parr, W. & Zabel, T., 1999. Guidelines for managing water quality
impacts within UK European Marine Sites. Natura 2000 report prepared for the UK Marine
SACs Project. 441 pp.
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), 2002. Sewage Treatment in the
UK: UK Implementation of the EC Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive [on-line].
London: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, [cited 21/10/02]. Available
from: <http://www.Defra.gov.uk/environment/water/quality/sewage/default.htm>
GESAMP (1983). Report of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, Switzerland, 28. February-4
March 1983. IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group, of Experts on
Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution. Reports and Studies (18):50p. WMO,Geneva,
Switzerland.
Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 2002. Sewage Treatment [on-line]. Ross on Wye:
Marine Conservation Society, [cited 21/10/02]. Available from:
<http://www.goodbeachguide.co.uk>
Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 2005. Good Beach Guide 2003 [on-line]. Ross-on-Wye:
Marine Conservation Society, [cited 30/04/04] Available from:
<http://www.goodbeachguide.co.uk>
Matthiessen, P. & Law, R.J., 2002. Contaminants and their effects on estuarine and coastal
organisms in the United Kingdom in the late twentieth century. Environmental Pollution,
120, 739-757.
New Scientist, 2002. Sewage sludge bulks up house bricks [on-line]. London: New Scientist,
[cited 17/10/02]. Available from:
<http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992731>
Nybakken, J.W., 1982. Marine Biology: an ecological approach. Cambridge: Harper & Row.
Surfers Against Sewage (SAS), 2002. The problem - what is the problem? [on-line]. St
Agnes: Surfers Against Sewage, [cited 16/10/02]. Available from: <http://www.sas.org.uk>
Yorkshire Water (2002), Coast care [on-line]. Bradford: Yorkshire Water, [cited 15/10/02].
Available from: <http://www.yorkshirewater.co.uk/yourenvironment/coastcare_main.html>
LINKS
Bag it and Bin it http://www.bagandbin.org
Dept for Environment Farming & Rural http://www.defra.gov.uk
Affairs
Dept of Environment in Northern Ireland http://www.doeni.gov.uk
Environment & Heritage Service http://www.ehsni.gov.uk
Environment Agency http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Environmental Campaigns http://www.encams.org
Good Beach Guide http://www.goodbeachguide.co.uk

Ofwat http://www.ofwat.gov.uk
Scottish Environmental Protection Agency http://www.sepa.org.uk
Surfers Against Sewage http://www.sas.org.uk
Water UK http://www.water.org.uk
Wessex Water H2O zone http://www.wessexwater.co.uk

OIL
History
Oil pollution usually hits the headlines when a tanker breaks up or goes aground and there is
a major oil spill. The world’s first major oil spill happened in March 1967 when the tanker,
Torrey Canyon, went aground off the Isles of Scilly and spilled around 119,000 tonnes of oil
(IMO, 2002a). Other notable recent major oil spills around the UK were in January 1993
when the Braer went aground off Shetland spilling 85,000 tonnes of oil, and in February 1996
when the Sea Empress went aground off Milford Haven and spilt around 72,000 tonnes
(Figure 2). Such spills make up less then 10% of the total amount of oil that enters our seas
(MCS, 2002).
Figure 2. The Sea Empress oil spill at Dale, Milford Haven, Pembrokeshire. Image: Blaise Bullimore.
Importance
Oil and its products are fundamental to the lives of most of the world’s population. It is a
critical element in world economies. The demand for oil is huge not only as a fuel for cars,
ships and aircraft but also in the manufacture of plastics, road surfacing, cosmetics and
thousands of other products. Some everyday products manufactured from oil or petroleum
products include: rulers, crayons, contact lenses, cosmetics, deodorants, paint, CDs, videos
and roofing tiles.
Inputs of oil to the sea

Natural seeps
Oil naturally gets into the sea through natural seeps and erosion of seabed sediments.
These seeps are natural springs that ooze oil and gas instead of water (GMOPIG, 2003a).
Land-based sources
Land-based sources include discharges of untreated sewage and storm water (urban run-
off), waste water from coastal industries, operational discharges from coastal oil refineries
and vehicle exhausts (GMOPIG, 2003a). Improper disposal of car engine oil is also a
source. The Environment Agency Oil Care Campaign is trying to publicise responsible
disposal of oil (www.oilbankline.org.uk).

Sea-based sources
Of the 3 billion tonnes of oil produced each year, approximately half is transported by sea
(Clarke, 1997).
It is estimated that over 6 million tonnes of oil enter the sea each year, due to sea-based
activities (GESAMP, 2000) (Figure 3). There are many sources of oil in the sea, the most
visible being large slicks from damaged tankers. This source accounts for only 2.5% of the
total oil in the sea (Clarke, 1997). The largest sea based source of oil is from atmospheric
emissions associated with transportation. Much of this is through evaporation of cargo oil in
tankers, or during loading and delivery. Another large input is from bilge waters and fuel oil,
and steps have been taken to successfully, and substantially reduce this. Ballast water is
required once a ship has unloaded its cargo, and seawater is pumped in to do this. When
the ballast is discharged back into the sea, it takes with it residual oil from the tanks. It is
becoming more common for tanks to be cleaned before ballast water is put in, therefore
reducing the amount of oil entering the sea (IMO, 2002b).
Tanker operations
Tanker accidents
Bilge and fuel oil
Dry docking
Scrapping of ships
Non-tanker accidents
Atmospheric emissions
Coastal refineries
Offshore production
Marine terminals
Municipal wastes
Industrial wastes
Urban run-off
River run-off
Atmospheric fallout
Ocean dumping
Figure 3. Sea based sources of oil into the sea (source Clarke, 1997).
What happens when oil is spilled in the sea?

Oil is lighter than water, so if it is spilled in the sea it forms a thin slick on the surface. The
thickness of the slick and the speed at which it spreads is dependant on the sea temperature
and the nature of the oil (Clark, 1997). The composition of oil starts changing as soon as it is
spilled. The light fractions evaporate, water soluble fractions dissolve and small drops of oil
can be suspended in the water column (emulsification). Water can also become emulsified in
oil producing a brown low-density mass, often referred to as ‘chocolate mousse’.
Impacts of oil pollution

Birds
Almost every type of seabird has been found at some time covered in oil, including puffins,
razorbills and guillemots. When a bird encounters an oil slick, its feathers become covered in
oil and its natural waterproofing is lost (Figure 4). The bird becomes waterlogged and uses
vast amounts of energy to keep afloat. The feathers that provide insulation also become
damaged so the bird gets very cold. The oiled bird becomes very ill through attempts to
clean its plumage and ingesting the poisonous oil. Finally, because the bird is so busy trying
to stay afloat, keep warm and clean oil off itself, it has no time to feed. So if it does not drown,
freeze, or get poisoned, it will probably starve (RSPB, 2003).
Figure 4. Dead, oiled gannet. Image: Keith Hiscock.

Cetaceans – whales, dolphins and porpoises
Cetaceans may be able to avoid oil slicks but they may suffer from a decrease in available
prey (Brina & Pollard, 1999). They may inhale toxic oil vapour when they surface to breathe,
damaging the airway and lungs. A dolphin’s eyesight may also be affected by oil (GMOPIG,
2003b).
Seals
Seals come into contact with oil spills in two ways. Firstly, they spend a lot of the time at the
surface, as they need to breathe. Secondly, they frequently haul themselves out of the water
onto beaches that may also be covered in oil (Figure 5). Atlantic grey seals are particularly
vulnerable during the pupping season as pups remain ashore for several weeks. The
ingestion of oiled food or the inhalation of oil droplets and vapours will attack exposed
sensitive tissues. These include mucous membranes that surround the eyes and line the
mouth, throat and the respiratory surfaces. This can cause corneal abrasions, conjunctivitis
and ulcers. Eating prey contaminated with oil could lead to the build-up of hydrocarbons in
tissues and organs (GMOPIG, 2003b).
Otters
Unlike seals, otters depend on their fur for insulation. If they are exposed to oil, this insulating
property is lost. During grooming the otter may inhale or ingest oil that can damage lungs,
cause ulcers and result in liver and kidney damage (GMOPIG, 2003b).
Shellfish
Animals such as adult mussels are filter-feeding organisms. Oil can coat their feeding
apparatus and gills eventually killing them (Brina & Pollard, 1999). For impacts on seabed
species refer to the MarLIN matrix (http://www.marlin.ac.uk/baski/activity_factor.asp)

Figure 5. An oiled seal pup at Skomer during the Christos Betos spill on 19 October 1978. A few
hours later the seal was dead. Image: Keith Hiscock
Plants
Plants can be smothered by heavy fractions of oil that sink to the seabed, or coat seashores
(Brina & Pollard, 1999).
Fish
Fish eggs may not hatch and young fish may die if they are exposed to oil. Adult fish can
swim away from areas that are contaminated. However, if the oil is dispersed in the water
column, it may be taken up through their gills or eaten resulting in an accumulation in the
stomach, gall bladder and liver (Environment Canada, 2003a). In commercial species this
may lead to the flesh having a tainted flavour making it inedible (Clark, 1997).
People
In the event of an oil spill, harbours marinas and tourist beaches are often closed. Fishing
may be temporarily stopped resulting in lost income for commercial fisheries. Oil can coat
boats and fishing gear and extensive cleaning may be required. People fear that fish may be
tainted, resulting in a loss of income for fishermen and other local enterprises.
Rocky shore species
Rocky shores are a high energy environment. As waves crash against the shore, they wash
away oil which may have been deposited following a spill. This reduces the amount of time
the oil is on rocky shores. Fresh oil contains toxic chemicals which are dangerous to
animals, so if oil arrives onshore soon after spillage, it will cause much more damage. All
animals on the shore are vulnerable to the toxins of the oil. After a few days at sea, the oil
loses these toxic properties. Old oil arriving on shore presents physical problems such as
smothering. Filter feeding animals are particularly at risk. It takes around seven years for
rocky shores to recover from oil spills (Figure 6).
Sandy shore species
The action of sand on sediment shores depends on the size of the sediments. On coarser
sediments, oil will seep between the particles and become difficult to remove and slow to
biodegrade. On fine sediments, the oil cannot penetrate and will form a layer on the
sediment. In this situation, the toxicity of the oil is slow to leach out and causes a longer term
problem. Organisms living in the upper layers of the sediment will be smothered as soon as
the oil settles. Many of these species are filter feeders or detritivores, which will be prevented
from feeding by the presence of the oil. The recovery of populations can be slowed by the
continued presence of toxins.

Figure 6. Changes in the abundance of rocky shore species following the Torrey Canyon oil spill
(Redrawn from Southward, 1979).
Clean up methods
At sea
Chemical dispersants are used to speed up the natural process of emulsification of oil in
water. Dispersants are not effective on heavy or weathered oils. Originally, highly toxic
dispersants were employed but a reluctance to use them resulted in low-toxicity dispersants
being developed (Clark, 1997). Floating booms that extend both above and below the water
can be used to stop or divert the movement of spilled oil (Clark, 1997). Booms are used for
three main reasons: to prevent oil slicks spreading; to protect harbour entrances or sensitive
areas and to move the oil to a place where it can be recovered (Environment Canada,
2003b). Slick-lickers, (a continuous belt of absorbent material), are passed through the oil
slick and then through rollers that extract the oil. Slick-lickers can only deal with small
amounts of oil (Clark, 1997). Skimmers are used to remove the oil from the water surface.
The effectiveness of a skimmer depends on the type of oil spilled, the thickness of the slick
and the water state, which is influenced by factors such as the presence of debris and
weather conditions (Environment Canada, 2003b).
Ashore
There are various techniques used for cleaning shores. The method chosen depends on the
nature of the shore and of the oil. The least aggressive method employed is to spray the oil
with nutrients (including phosphates and nitrates) to increase the bacterial breakdown of the
oil but the effectiveness of this technique is not clear (Clark, 1997). High pressure water,
steam or dispersants can be used to clean rocks and harbour walls. Oil on rocky shores that
have boulders and stones of various sizes can be washed to the water line, for later recovery,
by trickling water over it for a few days. Pebble or sand beaches are hard to clean, and
physical removal of the surface layers either by hand or bulldozer is required. Beach
cleaning produces a large volume of oil-contaminated debris that is currently disposed of at
rubbish dumps, but this is not a very satisfactory solution (Clark, 1997).
Control Measures
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)
Annex 1 prohibits deliberate discharges from ships of waste oils. The discharge of oil within
special areas is also prohibited and requires the provision of oil reception facilities at all ports.
In 2001, northwest European waters were made a 'special area'. This area includes the North
Sea and its approaches, the Irish Sea and its approaches, the Celtic Sea, the English
Channel and its approaches, and part of the North Sea Atlantic, immediately to the west of
Ireland.
The Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation
Convention) (Amendment) Regulations 2001, provide a framework for international co-
operation in dealing with major oil pollution incidents. It requires participants to establish a
national contingency plan for handling marine pollution from shipping and offshore
installations (HMSO, 2001; Brina & Pollard, 1999).
The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution) Regulations 1996 require that an oil
record book is kept to log all discharges of oil to sea, to other ships or to shore based
reception facilities (Brina & Pollard, 1999; HMSO, 1996)
What can you do?

Report any oil slick at sea, or oil washing up on the coast to the Maritime and Coastguard
Agency on 02380 3291000 including details of location and scale of the oil pollution
If you see any animals covered in oil contact the RSPCA 0870 5555 999 or in Scotland the
SSPCA 0870 737 7722
If you see oil in any waterways contact the Pollution hotline on 0800 807060 (24 hours)
REFERENCES
Brina, G., & Pollard, S., 1999. Marine Conservation in the UK Action Guide. Ross-on-Wye:
Marine Conservation Society.
Clark, R. B., 1997. Marine Pollution (4th Edn). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Environment Canada, 2003a. Oil, Water and Chocolate Mousse - What About the Wildlife
and Fish? [on-line]. Ontario: EE publications cited [23/10/03]. Available from
<http://www.ec.gc.ca/ee-ue/pub/chocolate_e/wildfish.asp>
Environment Canada, 2003b. Oil, Water and Chocolate Mousse - Chapter 5: Response [on-
line].Ontario: EE publications cited [23/10/03]. Available from: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ee-
ue/pub/chocolate/chpt5_e.asp
GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on
the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection). 2000. Report of the Thirtieth
Session, Principality of Monaco, 22–26 May 2000. Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 69, 68 pp.
[13/07/05] Available from <http://gesamp.imo.org/no69/index.htm>

Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway (GMOPIG), 2003a. Frequently asked
questions [on-line]. Stockholm: Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway cited
[23/10/03] Available from: <http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts/faqs.htm>
Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway (GMOPIG), 2003b.Effects of oil on marine
wildlife (species) [on-line]. Stockholm: Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway
cited [20/10/03] Available from: <http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts/wildlife.htm>
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (HMSO), 2001. Statutory Instrument 2001 No. 1639 The
Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Convention)
(Amendment) Regulations 2001 [on-line]. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office [cited
21/10/03]- Available from: http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si2001/20011639.htm>
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (HMSO), 1996. Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 2154 The
Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution) Regulations 1996 [on-line].London: Her
Majesty’s Stationery Office [cited 21/10/03].Available from: <http://www.scotland-
legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19962154_en_1.htm>
International Maritime Organisation (IMO), 2002a. IMO’s 50th anniversary – a record of
success [on-line]. Geneva: International Maritime Organisation [cited 10/10/03].
Available from: <http://www.imo.org/About/mainframe.asp?topic_id=321#pollution>
International Maritime Organisation (IMO), 2002b. Crude Oil Washing [on-line]. Geneva:
International Maritime Organisation [cited 21/10/03].Available from:
<http://www.imo.org/Environment/mainframe.asp?topic_id=306>
Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 2002. Marine world – oil pollution. Ross-on-Wye:
Marine Conservation Society [cited 10/10/03]. Available from: <http://www.mcsuk.org>
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), 2003. SOS save our seabirds [on-line].
Sandy: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds:[cited 10/10/03].Available from:
http://www.rspb.org.uk
Southward, A.J., 1979. Cyclic fluctuations in population density during eleven years
recolonisation of rocky shores in west Cornwall following the "Torrey Canyon" oil-spill in
1967. In: Cyclic phenomena in marine plants and animals, Proceedings of the 13th
European Marine Biology symposium, Isle of Man, 27 September - 4 October 1978, (ed. E.
Naylor & R.G. Hartnoll) pp.85-92. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
LINKS
Dept for Environment Food and Rural http://www.Defra.gov.uk
Affairs
Environmental Action Fund (Defra) http://www.defra.gov.uk/
Global Ballast Management Programme http://globallast.imo.org/index.asp
Global Marine Oil Pollution Information http://oils.gpa.unep.org
Gateway
International Maritime Organisation http://www.imo.org
United Kingdom Offshore Operators http://www.ukooa.org.uk

Association

CHEMICAL POLLUTION
Inputs of chemicals to the sea

There are approximately 60,000 organic pollutants in the marine environment. They enter
the marine environment via many sources including disposal of industrial effluents and waste,
run-off from agriculture land and urban areas and marine traffic (CEFAS, 2003).
Land based sources
Current farming practices use lots of chemicals to prevent crop and livestock damage by
pests and weeds. Runoff of pesticides and herbicides into surrounding rivers and streams
will eventually lead to the marine environment. Discharges from factories and chemical
production industries also add to chemical pollution.
Sea based sources
Chemicals are used when drilling for oil and gas. They are needed to lubricate drills, prevent
pipelines and machinery from corrosion, to stop unwanted growth of marine organisms and to
separate oil from water (UKOOA, 1998). Ships’ hulls are painted with antifoulants that stop
the growth of marine organisms. The weight and drag of the ship is increased if the hull
becomes covered with marine organisms and therefore more fuel is used to maintain the
same speed. In the early days of shipping compounds containing lime, arsenic, and mercury
were used as antifoulants. In the 1960s more effective chemicals were produced, using
metallic compounds such as tributyltin (TBT); now banned for use on small boats.
Properties of chemicals
Many chemicals are toxic to marine life. Some chemicals are termed acutely toxic and kill
organisms after a very short amount of time (Lincoln et al., 1998). Long term exposure to
chronically toxic chemicals can interfere with the reproductive, developmental and immune
systems of an organism (Brina & Pollard, 1999).
A variety of chemicals do not break down easily in seawater and persist in the marine
environment, or marine organisms. The risk of exposure to these chemicals is therefore
increased (Brina & Pollard, 1999)
Synthetic chemicals that are fat-soluble, e.g. some pesticides such as DDT, organochlorides
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), can build up in fatty tissues of marine species and
concentrate up the food web (Figure 8).
Effects on wildlife
Some chemicals that enter the environment disrupt the normal hormonal system of animal
species. Such chemicals are termed ‘endocrine disrupters’. Endocrine disrupters, including
atrazine, bisphenol A, DDT, and TBT, can mimic or block natural hormones or interfere with
their production or metabolism (Linley-Adams, 1998).
Cetaceans
Whales, dolphins and porpoises are at the top of the food chain and are therefore are
susceptible to pollution through food that has been contaminated with chemicals. The
animals can become more liable to infection and their reproduction may be impaired (WWF-
UK, 2004)

Effluent entering waterways contains very low

levels of dangerous compounds.
Phytoplankton present in these waters will have
low contaminant levels of 0.025ppm.
Phytoplankton are grazed by zooplankton
increasing the level to 0.123ppm
Sand eels feed on zooplankton which

accumulate contaminates to around 1.04ppm
Sand eels are consumed by large fish such as

cod, which accumulate contaminants to around
4.83ppm.
Eggs of birds such as the herring gull, which

are scavengers and will encounter large fish
species such as cod, have the highest levels of
contaminants – 124ppm. This is a 5000 fold
increase in the concentration of contaminants in
phytoplankton.
Figure 8. Diagram of bioaccumulation along a simple marine food chain. Contaminant values from
http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/images/chart403.gif
Fish
Experimental studies have shown that endocrine disrupters affect both freshwater and
marine fish. Male flounder in the Tyne, Mersey and Solway estuaries were found to have
signs of feminisation, including egg-producing cells in testis, reduced testis growth rates and
size, female reproductive tracts and increased levels of vitellogenin (egg protein) (Linley-
Adams, 1998).
Molluscs
The effects of TBT on dog whelks (Nucella lapillus) have been studied extensively and
represent one of the best known examples of chemical pollution – endocrine disruption.
Female dog whelks grew a penis and sperm duct and were unable to reproduce resulting in a
severe decline in population numbers (Brina & Pollard, 1999).
Seals
In the Wadden Sea (east coast of the North Sea) seals are having fewer pups and the
population is declining. In this area, the seals eat herring which has been contaminated with
PCBs, and have half the breeding success of seal populations that eat North Atlantic herring.
PCBs are known to stimulate production of enzymes which break down female hormones
causing miscarriages (WWF-UK, 2003).
Contaminants, especially in enclosed waters have most likely had a much greater adverse
effect on marine biodiversity or abundance that most measures indicate. For instance,
although TBT ‘expressed itself’ through dog whelks and oysters, the number of species in the
upper Crouch estuary doubled after it was banned (Rees et al., 1999, 2001).
Control Measures
EU Directive 96/61/EE Integrated Pollution Prevention Control directive (IPPC)
Sustainable production and use of chemicals – a UK strategy for hazardous substances,
DETR, 1999.
OSPAR - Regulations governing the carriage of chemicals by ship are contained in the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International
Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, as modified by the Protocol of
1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78).
REFERENCES
Marine Conservation Society:
Brown, V, 2003. Causes for concern: chemicals and wildlife [on-line]. Brussels: WWF [cited
15/04/04]. Available from: <http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/causeforconcern01.pdf>.
Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), 2003. Endocrine
disrupters and European Marine Sites in England [on-line]. Lowerstoft: CEFAS [cited
12/01/04]. Available from: <http://www.cefas.co.uk/news/news120401.htm>
Lincoln, R., Boxshall, G. & Clark, P., 1998. A dictionary of ecology, evolution and
systematics (2nd edition). Cambridge: University Press.
Matthiessen, P., & Law, R. J., 2002. Contaminants and their effects on estuarine and coastal
organisms in the United Kingdom in the late twentieth century. Environmental Pollution,
120, 739-757.
Rees, H.L., Waldock, R., Matthiessen, P. & Pendle, M.A., 1999. Surveys of the epibenthos of
the Crouch Estuary (UK) in relation to TBT contamination. Journal of the Marine Biological
Association of the United Kingdom, 79, 209-223.
Rees, H.L., Waldock, R., Matthiessen, P. & Pendle, M.A., 2001. Improvements in the
epifauna of the Crouch estuary (United Kingdom) following a decline in TBT
concentrations. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42, 137-144.
United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA), 1998. Chemical Discharges to
the Marine Environment [on-line]. Aberdeen: UKOOA cited [07/01/04].Available from:
<http://www.ukooa.co.uk/issues/1998report/v0000913.htm>
WWF-UK, 2004. Dolphins [on-line]. Goldalming: WWF-UK [cited 15/04/03]. Available from:
<http://www.wwf.org.uk/core/wildlife/fs_0000000015.asp>
WWF-UK, 2003. Chemicals and health in wildlife [on-line]. Godalming: WWF-UK [cited
18/03/04]. Available from: <http://www.wwf.org.uk>
LINKS
Centre for Environment, Fisheries and
http://www.cefas.co.uk
Aquaculture Science (CEFAS)
Dept for Environment Food and Rural Affairs http://www.Defra.gov.uk
Environmental Action Fund (Defra) http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/ea
f/
Environment & Heritage Service Northern http://www.ehsni.gov.uk
Ireland
Greenpeace http://www.greenpeace.org.uk
International Maritime Organisation http://www.imo.org
United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association http://www.ukooa.org.uk
UNEP/GPA Persistent Organic Pollutants http://www.gpa.unep.org/pollute/organic
.htm
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society http://www.wdcs.org
WWF-UK http://www.wwf.org.uk

NOISE POLLUTION
History
The amount of noise in the ocean has steadily increased through the twentieth century AND
into the twenty-first. Sources of underwater noise caused by humans include, oil rigs,
shipping (e.g. tankers and cargo vessels), seismic exploration, fishing vessels and military
activities (EIA, 2001).
Importance
There is little known about the effects of underwater sound on marine invertebrates (Vella et
al., 2001) so they will not be covered in this topic page.
It is generally agreed that hearing plays a large part in the lives of whales and dolphins. The
majority of marine mammals rely on sound as they hunt for food, avoid predators and find a
mate. Sound of the same frequency used by whales and dolphins (cetaceans) may have a
detrimental effect on them (NRDC, 1999).
Sources of underwater noise

Natural
There are many natural sources of noise underwater, at low frequencies events such as
earthquakes and volcanoes produce significant amounts of noise. On the surface, breaking
waves, air bubbles and spray or rain hitting the water can generate large amounts of noise.
Shrimps snapping create a sizzling noise over rocky areas in both temperate and tropical
waters. Seals and cetaceans are very vocal and can emit powerful sounds. Fish also make
a contribution to the background noise in the oceans (Gordon & Moscrop, 1996).
Shipping
Noise from ships comes from their propellers, from machinery and from the movement of the
hull through the water. Different types of ship produce different amounts of noise. Generally
larger ones are noisier than smaller ones and older, less maintained vessels are louder than
newer ones. It is thought that larger ships, which emit lower frequency noises, are within the
range of hearing for baleen whales (including blue whale, minke whale, sei whale, northern
right whale and humpback whale). Higher frequency sounds emitted by high-speed vessels
are more likely to affect dolphins and porpoises (Gordon & Moscrop, 1996).
Seismic exploration
Seismic surveys are carried out to build up a picture of the rock formations underneath the
seabed. During a survey pulses of low frequency sound are released at regular intervals,
these pulses pass through the water and seabed deep into the earth. The reflected echoes
are recorded and analysed and the results are used to create a computer-generated image of
the geology far below the seabed (UKOOA, 2002).
Offshore oil production
During oil production noise is produced by drilling, increased vehicle traffic, pipeline laying
and seismic site surveys. During decommissioning of a rig, explosives may be used
(Hammond et al., 2003).
Dredging
The noise produced by dredging depends on the characteristics of the dredger. Noise from
dredging can often be constant within a restricted area for days or weeks at a time. (Gordon
& Moscrop, 1996).

Acoustic thermography
The speed of sound in water is determined by the temperature, therefore, measuring the
speed of sound through the sea can be used to measure water temperature. By measuring
the time it takes sound to travel across ocean basins the average temperature of the ocean
can be measured.
Sonar
Depth sounders emit a high frequency beam towards the seabed and are fitted on most
vessels. Sonar used to find fish and for charting purposes is lower frequency. Powerful
sonars fill large volumes of the ocean with noise and so may have an effect over large areas
(Gordon & Moscrop, 1996).
Military
Undersea warfare is highly dependent on acoustics, but the details of the equipment used is
classified. However, it is thought that military sources have a substantial input of noise to the
marine environment (Simmonds et al., 2003).
Problems
Physical (Simmonds & Dolman, 1999)
Auditory
• Damage to ears
• Permanent hearing loss
• Temporary hearing loss
Non Auditory
• Damage to body tissues
• The “bends”
Recent studies have suggested that noise may be a factor in major stranding incidents.
Fourteen beaked whales were found stranded in the Canary Islands just 4 hours after an
exercise using underwater military equipment was started. Bubbles were found in the tissues
and blood and it is thought that the whales were suffering from decompression illness known
by divers as “the bends”. It is unclear whether the sound waves caused the bubbles to be
formed in the tissues or if a faster than normal ascent (to get away from the noise) was
responsible (Jepson et al., 2003).
Perceptual
• Stopping communication between animals of the same species
• Masking biologically important noises
• Interfering with the ability to acoustically interpret surrounding environment
• Shifting range of vocalisations which can take a lot of energy
Masking important biological sounds such as sounds from prey, courtship sounds and the
communication between calves and mothers, is likely to prevent animals from feeding, make
them more vulnerable to attack by predators, unable to socialise, reproduce or rear their
young properly (Simmonds, et al., 2003).
Behavioural (Simmonds & Dolman, 1999)
• Interruption of normal behaviour
• Modified behaviour
• Displacement behaviour
Responses of whales and dolphins to noise pollution can be very subtle such as a change in
breathing rate, surfacing activity or dive time and changing direction or moving away from the
source of the noise (Gordon & Moscrop, 1996). Long-term effects have not been extensively
studied but may include the exclusion of animals from areas that are biologically important to
them, for example breeding, feeding or resting grounds (WDCS, 2003).
Chronic/stress
• Reduced viability
• Increased risk of disease
• Sensitisation to noise
• Habituation to noise
An animal may avoid an area where a particular source of noise is if it has been exposed to a
painful level of noise causing sensitisation (Simmonds & Dolman, 1999). Animals may
become used to a noise even though it is damaging (habituation). Weilgart (1997) noted that
in the short-term it is very difficult to detect damage from sound in the marine environment
and that gradual deafness may be misinterpreted as a growing tolerance to noise.
Indirect effects (Simmonds & Dolman, 1999)
• Decrease prey availability
• Increased vulnerability
There may be indirect effects of noise on cetaceans. Seismic surveying has been shown to
affect fish distribution (Engas et al., 1996) and abundance. This in turn will affect the feeding
of cetaceans (WDCS, 2003).
Control Measures
Under the EU Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC Article 12, member states are required to
establish a system of strict protection for the animal species listed in Annex IV, which
includes all cetaceans. The Offshore Petroleum Activities (Conservation of Habitats)
Regulations 2001 implements the EU Habitats Directive for all oil and gas activities within the
UK Coastal Shelf. As part of these regulations, any company wishing to carry out a seismic
survey must apply for consent from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). The Joint
Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) are consulted on whether consent should be
granted for each individual seismic survey. If consent is granted, a standard condition is that
the JNCC Guidelines for minimising acoustic disturbance to marine mammals from seismic
surveys are always followed. Another condition of a consent being granted to carry out a
seismic survey is that a report is submitted to the JNCC for each individual survey. This
should detail how the JNCC Guidelines were implemented, the marine mammals sighted, the
methods used to detect them and any problems encountered. (JNCC, 1998, 2003).
Environmental Protection Act 1990 includes a provision for the control of noise as a
nuisance. The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 has reference to ‘disturbance’. This could
be interpreted to protect wildlife from noise pollution (Brina & Pollard, 1999).
REFERENCES
Marine Conservation Society:

Engas, A., Lokkenborg, S., Ona, E. and Soldal, A. V., 1996. Effects of seismic shooting on
local abundance and catch rates of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melangrammus
aeglefinnus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 53, 2238-2249.
Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), 2001. Swimming Against the Tide – noise
pollution [on-line]. London: Environmental Investigation Agency [cited 27/10/03].Available
from: <http://www.eia-international.org/old-
reports/Cetaceans/Reports/whales/whale06.html>
Gordon, J., & Moscrop, A., 1996. Underwater Noise Pollution and its Significance for Whales
and Dolphins. In The Conservation of Whales and Dolphins Science and Practice (ed. M.
P. Simmonds & J. D. Hutchinson), pp. 281-319. Chicester: John Wiley & Sons.
Hamond, P. S., MacLeod, K., Northridge, S. P., Thompson, D. & Matthiopoulos, J., 2003.
Background information on marine mammals relevant to Strategic Environmental
Assessment 4 [on-line]. St Andrews: Sea Mammal Research Unit [cited 30/10/03].
Available from: <http://www.offshore-sea.org.uk
Jepson, P. D., Arbelo, M., Deaville, R., Patterson, I. A. P., Castro, P. J., Baker R., Degollada,
E., Ross, H. M., Herráez, P., Pocknell, A. M., Rodríguez, F., Howie, F. E., Espinosa, A.,
Reid, R. J., Jaber, J. R., Martin, V., Cunningham, A. A. & Fernández, A., 2003. Gas-bubble
lesions in stranded cetaceans, Nature, 425, 575-576.
Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), 2003. Minimising Acoustic Disturbance to
Marine Mammals Seismic Surveys [on-line].Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation
Committee [cite 29/10/03]Available from: <http://www.jncc.gov.uk>
Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), 1998. Guidelines for minimising acoustic
disturbance to marine mammals during seismic surveys [on-line]. Peterborough, Joint
Nature Conservation Committee [cited 29/10/03].Available from: <http://www.jncc.gov.uk>
National Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 2003. Glossary of Environmental terms [on-
line]. New York: National Resources Defense Council [cited 29/10/03].Available from:
<http://www.nrdc.org/reference/glossary/n.asp>
National Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 1999. Sounding the Depths: Supertankers,
Sonar, and the Rise of Undersea Noise [on-line]. New York: National Resources Defense
Council [cited 27/10/03]. Available
from:<http://www.nrdc.org/wildlife/marine/sound/exec.asp>
Simmonds, M., & Dolman, S., 1999. Cited in Simmonds, M, Dolman, S, Weilgart, L. (eds.),
2003. Oceans of Noise [on-line]. Chippenham: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society
[cited 31/10/03]. Available from:
<http://www.wdcs.org/dan/publishing.nsf/c525f7df6cbf01ef802569d600573108/48a0c8d9c
559fa0680256d2b004027d4/$FILE/Oceansofnoise.pdf>
Simmonds, M., Dolman, S. & Weilgart, L. (eds.), 2003. Oceans of Noise [on-line].
Chippenham: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society [cited 31/10/03]. Available from:
United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA), 2002. Exploration on the West
Coast of Britain [on-line]. Aberdeen: United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
[cited 30/10/03].Available from:
<http://www.ukooa.co.uk/issues/exploration/v0001358.htm>
Vella, G., Rushforth, I., Mason, E., Hough, A., England, R., Styles, P., Holt, T. & Thorne, P.,
2001. Assessment of the effects of noise and vibration from offshore windfarms on marine
wildlife. DTI contract, ETSU W/13/00566/REP, Liverpool: University of Liverpool.
Weilgart, 1997. Cited in Simmonds, M, Dolman, S, Weilgart, L. (eds.), 2003. Oceans of

Noise [on-line]. Chippenham: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society [cited 31/10/03].
Available from:
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS), 2003. The impacts of noise on cetaceans
[on-line]. Chippenham: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society [cited 28/10/03].
Available from:
<http://www.wdcs.org/dan/publishing.nsf/allweb/061E707258B75A2B802568FF004FB43C
>
LINKS
Dept for Environment Food and Rural http://www.Defra.gov.uk
Affairs
Dept of Environment in Northern Ireland Http://www.doeni.gov.uk
Environmental Action Fund (Defra) http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/eaf/
Joint Nature Conservation Committee http://www.jncc.gov.uk
Seawatch Foundation http://www.seawatchfoundation.org.uk
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society http://www.wdcs.org
CITATION
Ager, O. & Jefferson, R., 2005. Marine Life Topic Note. Marine Pollution. Marine Life
Information Network [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United
Kingdom. Available from: <http://www.marlin.ac.uk/learningzone/>
Funded by the Environmental Action Fund of Defra

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SEWAGE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS

How is sewage treated?

55% Tertiary treatment: may

Figure 1. Sewage treatment in the UK (MCS, 2002)

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Marine Conservation Society http://www.mcsuk.org

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Inputs of oil to the sea

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What happens when oil is spilled in the sea?

Impacts of oil pollution

Figure 4. Dead, oiled gannet. Image: Keith Hiscock.

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What can you do?

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United Kingdom Offshore Operators http://www.ukooa.org.uk

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Inputs of chemicals to the sea

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Effluent entering waterways contains very low

Sand eels feed on zooplankton which

Sand eels are consumed by large fish such as

Eggs of birds such as the herring gull, which

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Sources of underwater noise

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Weilgart, 1997. Cited in Simmonds, M, Dolman, S, Weilgart, L. (eds.), 2003. Oceans of

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