Copight 8214 by he American Soc fr Nonesuch. Me he Ameticn Soci fr Noceshucve feign. JASN ot woos forte cuanto acco nomoton Sere’ snc ara veces i open at och Saar Fe ond No par of mk pubtcatn maybe tproced cr Yn inary om. maar lctore or mechanical nr eto ‘oo ecarina coarse Pweg an para Oe Aare St rence IS, NDT Hobo. e NO Tacnician are wm ana ae ade The Arion Saciy Nene ea, IRCAGCE ASN Level Say Gude, Wotenas Evaluator, Nordeonei ean Handbok esmech Nonsestchve ‘rauon na ANE gtr tadorents he Amancan Satyr Nendeoucve ns. ne ae sig 7e1-s773007 er) HIG 76 S17 Se.) ‘he Aten oct fe Nordeuce Tes fate by: ope 8 Contin PRO, Edcona Mates ler seed oy Cys leran Eaveatonl Vales Supervect Sr ito eto [SN it fo soot Seafarer by remetng ne roteion a ectsloe ofrendectctv etn aDr Neca Fabris received he BS.and MS. degrees in mechanical engineering fom the Univers Sarajevo, Bouin und Heregoina with a Number! sanding to the Production Option out fa las of 50 students Subsequent the conced graduate tay and research in manufacturing eginering athe Technic Universy of Aachen, Germaay, and graduated with MS and PhD. degrees in mechanical and aerospace engineering fom the nos Insite of Tecnology, {Chicago ios She was member af the technical staf at Bal Telephone Taborstory before joining the Mechanic Engineering Deputies Calor Sate Universi Los Angeles where she lught 3 eas and served ea chai ofthe Akepartment for three years She taught 2 diferent undergraduate and gradunte tlases and introdoced eight new manficturing and terial class. ‘Dr. Fabris has conduted research in tool wea in metal cuting, an has deve oped analytical stabi analy nonlinear hater in tal ating sing hes owe, ‘experimental data. Sh spliced numero atices on manufacturing wel the pedagogy a teaching She har recived several grants ncuding a National Science Foundation (NSF gran foran innovative proj, the Mother Daughter Workshop” with the parpoe of encouraging hh chook gi to study engineering Her major honors and awards neode the 201 Society of Wore Engineer (SWE) Award for DistngushedEnginering Eduatr (awarded none eco nthe ration pr yer), Outstanding Mechanical Engineering Professor Award in 1999 and 200s, a 1998 Manufacturing Educator of the Year awarded bythe Socey of “Manufacturing Fnginering (SMB), Desert Pac Region 12 Dr rises lena, Calon, with er Rand ret sient ond ‘enjoys taveling nd spending tine with the two cen ann grandee Richard! D. Loppez isthe Enterprise NDT Competency Le for Deere & Company, based oa of Det’ Moline Technolgy Innovation Center His work ‘enter on technology development training nd andards but also tnludes Work Ing with suppliers and perinde production challenges in any of Deer's busines lvisions a plans He hasa masters degre in mater scence end engineering ‘om lows late Users, a BS degree in metalogcl engineering so fo low State Unversty, and an AAS degen nondstacive esting fom, [Northeast lowa Community Calle Previous employment experience icudes Iowa Sate Univers, Metcory Marine, Being and work san ASME Code weer and radgraphy technician for a pressre vessel manufactutt Half of is me eh Lowa State mar Ciestd to no ‘oe NDT and metllurgle engincengouteach tsistance o lows manufacturers, ‘nd th renner ws dedsted Yo NDI esearch and development ended pina ‘ily by the Federal Avion Adminstration (FAA). Two projets hat he was Involved in were recognized by "Beter Way" awards In 2004 and 2009 by the FAA andthe Air Transport Associaton (now Ain: for Ameri oper carrey hol ASNT Lev! I certation in Jour ethods (PT MT, UT, and VI) an actively patcates in NDT standards wring snd ele commie, ‘wll ay ASNT echncaleommites. He has authored or coauthored sever peer feviewed echaicl papers, contributed and reviewed ASNT Handbook mai ad has presented at several conferences.Acknowledgments ‘The second edition of Materials and Paces fr NDY Technology builds upon the frst eton eed by Harry D. “Moore. The American Soil for Nondestracive Testing, Inc gratfl forthe contributions techn expertise, oowedge and deletion ofthe flowing nda have Relped make thi nee eon posse Authors Dr. Ne Fabris - Profesor of Meshal Englasng, als Slate Univesity, Ls Angee (Sections One & Two) Richard D, oper ~ Deere &e Company, Moline Tecnology Innovation Cente (Section Tree) ‘Gerard K, Hacker ~ Teledyne Brown Engineering De Shan! Kendrian ~The Aetospce Corporation Paul Basal Lockheed Martin Fooathan Rell ~ Shavndra Products, ne ohn . Brunk "Eugene V:Chapla- Blugeove NDT Consulting 1 Tenry Casing ~ Drs & Associates, ne Dayne E, Cooper Wyman Gordon Forging, ne ‘Aaron M, DePoala—K Mache Indust Services Dy Pte Hutfnan Deere & Company Steven Crag Johnson, St. = Onsubsea Timothy Kinsella ~ Dasa alone Crp Donald P Leal ~ Citgo, Lake Charles Manufacturing Complex ‘Thomas E MeConomy = ATI John W. Newman» Laser Technolgy ns Stephen R Parkes UTC Aerospace Systems (Glenn Pelogin Welding Testing, Ine Mark R Pompe ~ Wes enn Testing Group Douglas P Shoup ~ Airco Inu: DhamerV. Sigh ~Alstrs Group Suniel Tucer= Unite Aiines Roland Valdes ~ Inspection Salatons Joseph L- Mackin, Chal — International Pipe Inspectors Association “Marty Anderson ~ Global Technical Services “Mark R Pompe - West Penn Testing GroupPreface Material nd Process for NDT Tecnology intended a8 reference and source of informaton concerning anf ‘uring fr ase by personne involved In dsigning, using, or ealuating nondestructive esting (NDI) of prot and structures. The tne matrl has been kp as generals posible sl esi chal ale bat broad coough to Include most phases of manufetring an the material ket ‘New otis eton sa section on NDT technology Seton I covers many ofthe NDT methods and techniges commonly used to est materials and strates in» variety of Indust, One ofthe estental ee for satlvtory Ws ‘NDT is vecogtion of ts limtations Knowledge ofthe wurce of lactis, the mutes in which they a found andthe processes by which they are crested ian id of eters the vad any test and its evleaton ‘The subject of materials and manufacturing processes is truly singe subj when the rkentation of icin it toward the end produc that must be manutactred to fll some funtion. Although theater has ben made in thistook to shot this siglenes of subject mater, stl eceary to test pec are elated topics The enormous quantity of knowedge avalabe about manufacturing proveses cin be discused in vuying dees of depth and coverage The following setlons of this bok have ben chosen eth the hope thatthe onde wl set logical ad onde to maximm lesring, Industrial Materials The bonding structure, and soliton of vary of material ate present than exp ‘ison compostin and ensline strictures wel sponta imperfections and import that cl ft NDT. In ‘don to metals and alos coding slaminum and titan, be, aewer material technologies are preset, ‘cha bi-nano-engineered, and scl intligoat materi The peoperts and wes of polymers, ceramics, and ‘Composites ae also dscused Manufacturing Proceses. The major proene of cating, deformtion shiping, welling machining nd nshing are iscusse with an emphasis on thi use and importance NDT personnel Th itertltionship of manfactring processes are sch that o one aren an ext lone, and the importance of any process nan sive cve sential ‘pendent upon ts elation to the product with which its asociated ‘Nondestructive Testing. Te nl section ofthis book provides an overview of 16 nondsstrvctve testing thos plas spectroscopy wed in industri applications. Basic terms are defined and qualivng procures for NDT personnal di ‘sed The ae of NDT for detecting materi aurea well at material chaictration eso presente Fal the Importance of engineering wit ett the reliably of NDT inspections examined Since NDT isan inseparable part ofthe manufacturing syste, ti imperative that NDT personne in response pesos have general knowledge ofthe elements of manufacturing eehnoogy. The NDT specialist wll ewe mshy hours in analysand interpretation ofthe dsontnutsrsaig rom manulcoring operations In ode op vide pat to corrective action he shew be called upon many mes to urs echnical guidance othe dig, ‘aerials, manufacturing, and quay assurance functions, With knowledge othe otal mantacturng process the NDT specialist will me eftiney ull thes responsi,INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS .......1 2. classi 21 Classification of Materials 8 22 General Prop fof Engineering Materials “ 25 Compostion of Materials 28 24 Crystalline Stucture 35 25 solidification Phases, 11 ntroduetion to Manufacturing 5 ST cae 42 12 History of Manufacturing : 26 Host Treatment of Metals 48 1S nckasra|Ratatonahips 4 27 influence of Environment 14 Different Categories of on ropertias 51 Manufacturing Processes 5 28 Imperfection in Materials sé 1s Processing 6 16 Material Conseration In Selection of Processes a 17 Effet of Manufacturing Process le summary 2 31 Introduetion 6 32 Physical Properties es 33 Mechanical Properties and Destructive Testing of Materals......70SECTION Two. MANUFACTURING. PROCESSES = 135 a ‘41 Ferrous Metals ant Alloys 7 42 Aluminum and Aluminum alloys... 92 43 Copper 99 ‘4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 99 Recta oat 62 Casting Practices ees 1 63 Other Solidification Processes... 159 aia ee a 654 Quality ofthe Casting Product ....168 {48 Titanium and Titanium Alloys... 102 655 The Future of Castings 16s 49 Special Use Metals 105 vb : 71 Introduction to Forming 187 172 Bulk Deformation Processes 68 Pa Se eer eecce ere aR 175 Sheet Metal Forming Processes... 184 52 Ceramics and Cements ne Ub atpend bela ae 75 Quality of Products. 183, 53 Composites 78. doining and F 10. ” 81 Introduction to Joining 195, rene ea 10} Introduction 269 83 Discontinultios in Wolds 27 102 Surtace Finishing 270 103 Cleaning of Surfaces 2m. 104 Platings and Coatings 28 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING....28: 21 Material Removal 21 92 Machining Processes 248 93 Grinding ana Finishing 235 ) 4 94 Chemical. Electrica and High-Energy Seams 258 11, introduction t 95 Numerical Contral 286 sna net 11) Basic Definitions 22s 112 Value of NOT to Materials 113 Requirements and Certication for NDT Personnel 228 14 References and Information Available 202121 Views Testing 122 Liguid Penetrant Testing 125 Magnetic Particle Testing 124 Ultrasonic Testing 125 Guided Wave Testing 126 Radiographic Testing 127 Neutron Radiography 128 Electromagnetic Testing 129 Magnetic Fux Leskage Testing 1210 Microwave Testing 1211 Ground Penetrating Radar 1212 Infrared and Thermal Testing 1215 Acouste Emission Testing 1214 Leak Testing 1218 Laser Testing 1216 vibration Analysis 1217 Spectroscopy 3a 365 151 Relationship Between NOT and Manufacturing 152 Materials Characterization 155 New Product Applications 14, NoT and Engineering 141 Role of NDT Engineers 142 NDT Reliability 143 Engineering approach 366 anINDUSTRIAL MATERIALS oN Rattus ae ocd See eae tear eee Properties of Materials 631.1 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING The term manufctare may be dfn finshed produce expecially when earied Alisin oflabor i age sae instr op Sach definition ial incusv Ie covers the making of foods, dosti, hems and inf evrything made sable or more wabley the conversion of pres of making ra materials into cesta by machinery an the Shape. for, o properties of atural material Speci interests have devloped isthe mechanical and industrial phases of indy concerned with the making of durable goods of metas and plastics The Talon of metal and some other materi all clas that item ferred fo as ngincering material Chatstrisc ofthis rp ae the properties a elatvely high hardness strength, toughness, ti dra, Gls, emi, wood, concrete and textes although they may compete wth meals ia many applications, have anally been exladed from these structural teri because of «diferencia {he combination of properties processing requlement and typeof gods pro Ace Theis of scaled engineering materials continue ith he ‘Maltin of new metalic combinations pists, and even materia that have Deen Previously excluded fom thei they are developed wit fer properties or {he in new applications. “Characteristic of this group are the properties of relatively high hardness, strength, toughness, and durability.”Interpretation of the tr egnsrng materi nudes mt metals and those plate that are solid an hve ressonic tenth t oom temperature. This ook tile concened wi these material andthe process that re sed shape thers br change their properties to more usable form. 1.2 HISTORY OF MANUFACTURING ‘The growth ofndastey inthe United Sates ipl ofindastal development Uiwoughout the wld Eat sets were concerned primal with fal and she “Most manufictuted goods were imported, but ome manfactring was dane In fal unis Eventual, as condions were tbe, ficiency improved and ‘ces goods were avalible for sale and trade The ctor form af ndsty ily ‘eles under control of singe fuses Some ofthese il exit bat mot have ‘hanged o corporate entepise under ownership of many individuals Barly Manufacturing The st manufacturing was devoted manly to arc sland military needs One ofthe ett instal operations to poe to lare see asthe redton of oe to metal By 5 very nature, particularly for ferro metals, this process not adaptable to very sal operations The tend inhi ndstry| toward increasing size has continued othe plnt where fe very large corpora tions produce ner all othe base metal ven though there are any small br Taterchangeability The Civil War and the expanding font crete much Incentive forthe manelactre of feats, The fis example of tue tschangeab Wand the development of eter transportation following the Civ War eld a "api growth of prodacton goods Many ofthe procs were conser tris thetime but since have become necesies tthe moder este Importance of Manufacaring Manufactured prods sean intl pr of xerane' fe, bu most persons do nt realize the gest amount of insted 3d Inhor that makes those pact possible. Almost very activ rales of Pd in some way dependent on hardwace produced by the manusctarng indy ‘According to data cited by National Avacatin of Manutataer the manmloc ing stor accounted for 120 percent ofthe gross domeatc produc! (GDP) nthe US. n 2014 Further data taken rom the Butea af aoe Satis dct tht _manufactaring acount fr abot on nsx private stor ab inthe US 1.3 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS 13] COMPETITION IN INDUSTRY In capitalistic economies seh an the US, th profit mote the roo of ot busines icuding manalctring. The sytem presi dict competion so thst Ta number of companies re engaged i the mansctre fsa prod the sales Yolums wl bein proportion tothe product quality, promotions ctv. Service polis, and pce The cost of mansfctaring, therfore became of pric Importance forthe company that can produces th lowes comand mae gal team spend more sls activites, cn sella lower cost or can make larger Profit per ale than les fortunate competitors. For this eso. indtry sont Frengaged ina bate to lower padicton cos 2 PERSONNE! Several kinds of workers are nede in any manuficturing operation. Some work 8 ‘areilnswihver mid shemale can wed ph Fahne hemeplsi pode). ‘hc tnemeting pans pera omaley known as uk. asa ge neregat deve in os From far tietnovs nace con pes fine, a Radlogra ‘Compared wih netcand ceramic tat hae ben Known or eanads yes, a aee a ‘orehan 13000 peso pamershnvebee madecommercly rable Thre Semaetce‘variations of abut 2b polymer fami, Thermoplastic ar usa eet fre times mre than hermnting pyr ‘Uses of Pst Eames yrs me rom lasts ae al around smi and sn rink bts, platc ay, clothing ca Ges er emp often ated fo IS ie mt tye ge prchaen araggfonn ftre, eposes Ir Pains aber bails rocrbon resin cating on dish aramid for bllproot ‘estthelist got on and on although concrete (compote) s roduc most Spt tt bjt shown agar 29 "Widely sed plas for every product ae called conmoiy plati those ued fr engineering products are led engineering pls Many pasts ca be ted or comedy wel a engnering produ For Ista, petyins ‘whch produced in rger quantities than anyother ply ae fo lastic ‘hopping bags an blow mold be (commodty lt) a wel in nde {Pound pig andwetr-sesstnt machine part engcering las Bot rps ‘poms themoseting and thermoplastic can Be ed comm al ch tring last Proper of lati. Compare wth tals and ceramics, oles plas) have te fling characteris 2 Mother that forthe same od they eet and deform mach more than meas ceramics (or example abou 10 tines more tans). « Atrom onpotore many pasts crc or sony deform ih ine hich aca nine ation ed Varo «+ ‘hernowets ela stong than ct Hever hy in hae ew dnt 0 that thei strength divided by deat (pete strengh) might be cleo that 4 Expandable when este at ate on 10 tines higher tha fort, They alssofen and ml at much awertemperatrs than mon be enginceting Hamme to iret degrees {Gomi ne and do not srads, utmost of thm dante when ees say expos to lal ation. «+ Some polymers fr example yon) abso water and sve {Mor pics are mor afore tha ther engineering tr o Cy Figure 29: Tharmatinared lating of plate part made in mo: (bolton ste; 2) top sure‘© Most thermoplastic polymers ate extremely ductile and malleable and can be «asl formed into complex shapes. The sme i trac for thermosetting Ply ‘mer before the are cured. Thats probably the main reason tht they reso ‘fen asd in everyday Ie andar gaining 4 competitive edge in enpinecring ‘plication. ‘6 Bloplatics are biodegradable another thermoplastic, suchas uorcarbon| ress have adhantageous wear properties Polers eh a wade range of properties dus to virions in bonding, chemi ” Khe he mas of a ectvon 'Sequal 0 9.11» 10° kg or approximately 1/1836 the miso a proton, The ttl as ofthe atom is fund when the ase of protons and toutans are added together, wh the masses of decrons are mony neglected, While etl atoms havea equal umber of protons and electrons (tht the reason they ae neta since the positive and negate charges cance each the) the numberof aetrons ‘an ways casing the atomic mass to vary The toms ofthese lesen tht hare 2 diferent numberof neutrons in her nalews and therefore aieen tome Imasae called tps For simplicity ape unit of mas was Stedced the atomic mi uni) ‘The amu iseual 0 11 ofthe atomic mas of earbor 12, the most cmon watope ‘ofeabon, I contains 6 protons, 6 neurons, nd 6 dectrons. Therloe the ani {approximately 1.87 Ig (1.67 10" kg Convers one pram eal {6028 10 ama The mas of every atm nthe pad ale of elomens expressed ‘nama units given a the bottom of ech eure Below the chemical symbel or ‘hat element Fr example iron ha aston thas of 3345 ma hat oe atom fiom has amas of approximately S443 1.67 1D2%g = aa6t x 10 "Another way of secifpng the mass ofan element speijing the mass pe one ‘mole arom, wheres male represents 623 1D" (so-called Avoga's name) ‘of atoms or molecule. For instance one mole of on tons, or Angas umber of atoms asa massa 3845g This canbe obtain by multiying the mas of neon atom 98.264» 10g with Avogadro's amber. Ths ges the appro mate mas of 56g which lig diferent fom $5434 becase of the apron ‘tions involved: Whe one tom of on ha mas of $45 amu, one le of. From has amass of S54 ‘Alomic Weight, Insc of mas, mater scenits fen se heer atomic wiht where weight is mass multiplied by gravitation (it what you read when ou Put something onthe scale) and ican be represented in grams o hloras. For ‘xample tn used ers in ates science for ion ae a lows: atc welght ‘of ron 35845 amu and molecular weight (or wight of one male) of ton 5545 p Note In engineering, the ul fr weight (or fre) one newton (N), which W approximately 110 | hg Atoms are assumed tobe spherical hough this sumption i ot aay justi. "lecrons exis around the ncleus in orbits with ilerent ad cach opreseting deren energy level Only two electrons which mst ave ferent “spin” can have the same energy level (the oll paul exluson prin) Some deren energy level ae combined int sll The electrons that occupy the otermost shel are calle loc etn, ad these dectrons are extremely importants they parts inthe bonding betwen toms to form atomic and molecular groups. Furthermore, many othe phyla ‘humial propertis of solids are based on these valence elestons ‘Some toms have sal lczonconigurations that thet valece electron shall ar completly filed Tes elements (He, Ne, A, Ke, and Xe) are the net ot ole, gsen, which ually do not reac cencaly with cher elements, Some toms ofthe clement ht have ull valence shes sume ible ctr con “rations by gaining or losing electrons or by sharing electrons wth ober toms, “Aloms that have a electra charge ae clad ons; those postey charged are calle ation, and negatively charged atoms ae clled anions Cation have sve ‘omic a than neutral atoms, whl anions ave lage adiMetals areas alle elacropstie element becuse they easly “ge up” thle salen secrons and becrmeposely charges. Mt cements nthe period be tre metals Hlment located onthe righ side of the pero able ae leon ‘meaning hey ea asepcletons to form anions ‘Chemical Bonding between Atom Ascent principle tha evry abject, secks to decreases potential ener. Chemica bonding betwee atoms s accom nied bya net decree i the potent energy of tom inthe bond ate For ott ‘erpos, is portant todas diferent ypes af boading between atoms and The iniaece on properties of mater Te general, chemiea bonding betwee atoms can be divided into two groups 1» Pray or strong bond 1 Secondary or weak bonds. ‘Tyee diferent yes of primary bonds re found in solidi, covalent and metalic Stong bonds mean that large amounts of energy veto be spent 0 sp fate atoms. This enezgy in be mschoical (work done to break the pa) o thermal (energy necessary to melt the part). Therefore, snes ofthe pat and melting te erate) arendleatons the strength ofthe ons Tone mater have igh Icing and boing pins dae to strong onc bond force, However te sro bon are presen only between certain cs fstoma—as with ovale bonds material can be eb broken or med int moecls at low temperature without ‘parting rreng primary bonds in each molec. itis important to understand these Key aspects of tome bonds, nord to pre ct how measureable propery night change duet dierenees in chemist ot temperature Figure 215 shows how the energy of wo atom interacting with each tater changes depending oa how close they ae to each etet. The tee “wall” near the Vax nates tht to atoms canna easly e shed into cach the 50 that they occupy the same space. This ar be done, ofcourse, and itis known as miler {Fison Aste two atoms efter apart they irate. There isa rough the ve which ithe equim bonding distance aK "Aone Responses to Increaresin Temperate, When atoms increase nt porate they gn kinetic energy aod vibrate Temperate eset measure ‘ent ofthe kite energy of atoms Resa the bonding carve fn symm Sato that vibrates more and more wil be, om average sigh father ay To ‘he minimum of he bonding sre (Se Figere 2.15) sony Figure 215:The energy versus distance Figur 216:The average position ofan atom “lagram fr atom bonding. The low pnt [Sinaicote bythe gray dotted ine. As ‘on te graph shows the equilibrium some {emperatre neeases the postion gets Separation at OK ‘arher away fom the originThisis the cause of thermal expansion, whichis why mast materi, withthe exception of polymers expand when heed, Soe exceptions est daring phase transformations sacha emi aswell Tis causa change a mater nes The sine of materia direct eit othe shape ofthe bonding cure ‘Asa mtr heat up and he atoms move farther apart he il alo bea pot tion on te curve with es sharp creature, That mean that the atc mols wil dese as tmperture urease the sess of materi decreases, the speed of Sour; or sar mada, n that material als decrees Acoustic soc mes ‘Med with laste esting (UT) fr tastanc, is governed by mater dey, ‘Ths he stifles ofa mater and, corespondingy the sped of sud in at ‘mati ate related to the sength ofthe stomi bonds "The strength of those bonds Is dependent oa which atoms ae present and how ‘hey arearangd relate teach the Fortis reason, nt tel wl ave ey i lars Im other words sels lest al have an dic models etn 193 GPa snd 210 GP, Aluminum alloys wi have esi modal round 70 GPs Thievery ‘ell infrmaton in practice because you can makes very acute gs abo The ses of materal ad theeore the sped sound. yoaknow theses os ‘Slr chery: Knowing that the stfnes changes wich ad temperature an be ery afl when analying the ess flrs esting Jonke bonding perhaps the easiest escrie and vss aay found ia compounds that se composed ofboth metal nd ont mens Atoms of Inca clement easly give wp her alence electrons to the nonmetal. the proces all atoms asi» table configuration with wo lectin the valence ho: In addition, they acquire ar decal charge, therfore cong ln Metals have more protons than electons each toms therelrs, they are postive charged (cations: Nonmetallic materials accept one or more entra eletrons tate neptly ‘hanged (anions A clas exampl onc ateril sium chloride (NOC) oF table al In ths ase, the sodium atom loss one electeon whe the chlorine atom {uns one. Bot toms are now ctl charged, and they tract each the with ulomb force and form anionic bond Talc bonding is termed ponirectionsl— tha i the magitode ofthe bonding foc sequin all dietons round anon, allows tha in materials bond by onc Bonds, each caton as to have sie hse -eghbor an anon. igre 17 iste hema on bonding Teche cuz sts, a —eN, oN ( Wo) eee (@) } 7 Figure 297 ln bonding baton hum and Morin te formIonic materials are charstersaly hard and bit and mel at high tempera tures For example, NaCl mel at 800°C (1472°F), ee MO mets at 2800°C (G72 °F). Materials wet snc bonds ze cecal sd heal Salat For exan ple ceramics te predominaly bonded ional. ln covalent bonding, stable electrical configuration is achieved by the sharing of sdestrons between adjacent atoms, Two atoms tha ace covalently bonded wil ‘ich contribute atleast one eecron ta the bond. The shared eecron Belong to both stows, "The covalent bond is directional it exits only in the direction between one atom and another that participates in electron sharing. Many nonmetal ele nts form molecules where two Menticl atoms shat letron lr example, {CyandF,) aswel a molecles containing dsimiar atoms, such as CHy HO, lINO, and others. In gore 218s covalent bond between two Bydsopen| ome shown, Some elemental sols, sacha carbon in diamond fom sion and germanium, bond with covalent bonds. Other such wld include compounds nade from ‘ent located on the ight hand side af the pesod tale (egining with ITA [CAS ‘umberiag) alum arsenide (GaAs), indium antinonide (aS), and slicon ca Ihde (SC) Mos are semiconductors. Diamond is simply a thee-dmesionalntr- Connected structure wherein eich carbon stom covalently bonds eth far oter cr bon atom ‘Polymer materi are also bonded covalently. ach carbon atom has fou ec tuons inthe lence and, and two of them ae used to bond with two neighboring arbon aoms sare, while the eaining two are shared with feet atoms making diferent ype of polymers ‘Mast covalent bonds are very tong as indicated by their ming temperate (Tg For ecampl, St melts at 10°C (2570 "Pad diamond ata temperature higher than 3580 °C (6122"¥), On the other hand, de to the dinetonal bonding hdlick of shared electrons three dimensions any covleay bonded cement ‘ols, for example Hy Cl ah Fs a5 wel molecules conning sale Norma yaogen tem Se Bons Figure 218:covalent bond forming Hight) with twe hydrogen atoms hering two electrons.toms such as CH, or HNO, ate gases or lauds (H,O) at rom temperate Als, 2+ mentioned thermoplastic poyers are not strong due tothe ck of peimary bonding three dresions. Metalic onding a the name impli, found in metal an thi alloys. Metalic materials have one, two, oF monly thee valence ltrs whi sre ot bound to ‘ny patel atom nthe sold which means that three oon ae tors or tletons total inthe valence band. They ae re to dit throughout he ete ‘miter and are considered to belong tote metal sa whole forming se of ee trons ran electon oud. The remaining nomalencedestons and soi nl form socalled ion cos which posses ane postive charge equal in magatude to the total valence elton charge pe tom (numberof valence seston the charge af each electron of 1.6% 10"). The ree clectons shield the postive charged ion coe from the other cre Hoth cores are posite charged, and ifelacrans are not present, the ete repel ‘each oer. ation these ree clectons ats ge aha the on cores gst {The metalic bond is nonditectonal in character Honding energy and teing lemperatare (Tq) se proportional For example bonding emery for mercury (Hg) i 8 ]/mel aluminum (A 324 Kimo, ton (Fe) 406 bm, and angst (W) 849 Kol The coresponding Ty is 39°C (382°) for Hg (mercy lg at room temperature, °C (152055 for A, 1588°C 2800" for Fea 340°C (61701) for W, Tr themed snot connected ta soare of lect, the ovement of ectrons ‘srandom Ihe materi connected to. sours of ect, ec are aac tcto the positive dctrode, and hole (postive change missing elton) tothe neguive cleo ‘os metals and ther allys are ductile a oom temperate, meaning they can be pantcaly deform without factulaoter word ther toms an change postion without the metalic bond bing broken. In contain covalent oni Frond sls the bond between toms ss to be brake before toms an mone, dering thse mats rite igre 219 schematically strates metalic bonding ‘Acaaly ery few compotnds exhibit only one typeof bonding. Its possible that interatomic bonds (named after the dominant elect) are partly ionic and — Quatemary — Primary e Se tetiay ‘Figure 218: Metall bonding of zine ‘Figure 220: Schematic of secondary bonds — secondaryPartly coven, or patil covalent and partly metalic. The farther apart ‘lements are onthe periodic table the getter hee diference in lectronegevity {nd their afinty to form nie bonds Electronegativity a measure a the tex ‘deny fan stom to trict «bonding pao estrone andi root cause of eae rosion and ydrogenembritlemeat ements core fo each oer tend forms Emslent or metalic bonds The properties of materials are dependent on the pe Eentage of ach bond spe Secondary or so-called van der waals bonds ae much weaker than primary bonds. They ae on the order of only 0-410 4]/ma compared to the primary bond for ton of 46 Klimol and others given above) and ate lays presen, although they canbe obscured by primary Bonds also present. They ae ev ent in net gases, which have stable eectron structures and donot bond with Primary bonds but still become liuld (bonding) at low temperatures. Also, {hese secondary bonding Fores ae important in covalent bonding they at between lage molecules of polymers making thre dimensional solid (See Figure 2.20 for an illustration of secondary bonds) 2.4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE [Ata gven high temperature, any material wl transform int gaseous tat, How igh tha temperature depends upon the eng othe beads between molec, ani toms With dipole itractons,dferenes in clctronegatit are aso ‘evolved Ins gscous sate, stm have high ite nergy ang them 10 vibrate ‘apily and to brea nterolecalr arate orcas Soiree molecules or aos expand andthe avaiable vale Irth energy ofthe mater owered (trough condensation), atoms or mole cules move les api (thats, condense) and tractive forces pla amore sig ‘tcl nti state, the molecules atoms tke random postions an sructres ‘hat vary nme but maintaln a constant average spacing Thi state ra ligand ‘he materials have fed ole but asume the shape of the container in which hey are placed. ‘As the energy level i further decreased, the mobility ofthe tome decreases, omic bonding occurs, and a solid is formed. If the atoms or ions in a solid are ranged in a pattern that eepeats self in three dimensions they Form a solid ‘with eryetaline structure. The reader i certainly familar withthe tert “crys 121" wed for special las or precious material. The sme term applies to many ‘ther materia that ae nether transparent nor termed preious but cold be ‘ery uefa nonetheless ‘Ceytallization. Essentially all metas (exept when cooled at an extremely rapid rte forming metalic glasses as explained earier, 2 major faction of eramic materials and certain polymers erystalze when they solidly. Those materials that do ao ertlize ar called amorphous (iterlly without form) as In many polymers and ceramic including optical ase). Some materials pat~ aly crystallize leaving pats ofthe structure amorphous, for example, some Sold state polymers. Often, these amorphous regions crystallize with tne, fesuting ina volume decrease ofthe polyne, ‘Costs posses periodic that proces long-range order. That relly means ‘hat egal atomic atangemens repeat at regula intervals milion of tines ina thrse-dimensional atic. Some othe properties of crystaline solids depend on the txytaline sacar ofthe mater tat the manne in wich atoms ons. OF molecules are spatially arranged. There isan extremely age numberof dierentFigure 22. commen ‘metal atcsr cyslin statues ll having long-range atomic order. Tey vary om rately Simple structures for pure metals to exceedingly complex ones asin some metal ‘Compounds mineral, ceramics and polymers Here we wl discuss the mos com mon metalic erystaline structures. "The atomic onder in crystallin sos means that group of toms forms a rept ie tree dimensional pattern cle cll which the base ding bl of the material. The penny ofthe anit el restr atic strtre. Te diferent lengths othe nial ditances othe unit el, bc~and the angles betwen them deta the ype of tie The axial dntancesarclle ate vectors lati com ants and te anges between tern arent cece perpendicular to one noth er Ifthe ngs othe thre ati constants are eq, the angles between them ate ‘S90 and the unit al cubic. the angles are 9 bu the length of ne sides i ferent, then the nit el is tragonal all hee lengs are deren andthe angles are 90 then the uit el is rtoehombi the length and angles areal dierent {nd none ofthe angles s 907 thes the ui cli nthe esagonal nicl 2 equals b but note the angle between a and is 127 and the emai 0 anges ate 9” For further information, the eader bs encouraged ook up norma tion onthe brats tice. There ae ony 14 posible tice strates, ‘Common Unit Cell Structures. The ype of unt cel and atomic atzangement within it asa tong influence on the physical and mechanical properties of tha material The mos common unt elm meta are the ody centred cbc (BCC), face entered cubic (FCC), and hexagonal close-packed (HCP) statues or latices, srshown in Figure 221, Unt ell ae often sketched a shown i the ig with ci ‘sin the eabicsractre representing the center of stom, This x know 3 the Isl and ick modelo the simple mode fact nary allt fall unde oe of ‘hese thee unit ell ype rom has cubic steucture but two diferent types of unit cel at diferen tempers tres. At oom lemperatre, the unit el has one atom a each comer of the bie "rutue andl one to in the middle of the cb structure It Known a the oo Cera cable (CC) suctre. The atoms are touching along the diagonal ofthe ‘bi strocture Because ofthat arangement che body agonal ofa BCC unt el ‘an be writen a ean it elt V3 Where Ris the aia ofthe atom an ape the atice constant, which sol ‘ol sides ofthe BCC. Thi eillastatd in Figure 222. Every atom hs the same surroundings the unt all islet so that corner stom snow inthe eile, we would gt he sre rangement of fons inthe new unit ea s important to notice ta hough ght toms at place inthe corner of the snp model ofthe BCC structure, oly 18 ofeach belongs tothe ni cell ‘ing represented. The remaining 78 belong tothe eighboring nit cll With ‘ght comers of 18 atoms each and one stom in the eater, tw whole toms mae upthe BCC unica, Te we assume that toms are spec! (hard-ball moe we can cleat the packing actor ofthe unit el as volume ofthe spherical atoms with ads Rad ‘hide that wih the volume of the niclFors BOC nicl he total ame fata in unite is (q.22) ax{ San} (29 “The packing ctor (Pye) equals ea20 vet ann This canbe expressed as 29 “This ely means that 6% ofthe space in a BCC unit eli occupied with toms while 32s empty intra space. Note thatthe packing factor inde Pendent f these of he radi of the tom, Foreign storms can ocupy this ines {space and rate new alloy, sucha when carbon and oer elements re no ‘hse to om in ming sel Tron ithe most common metal with aby centred cubic (BCC) sre (Chromium ange, tania, lsum, sodium, and pati lo have the BCC Figure 222: Schematics of body-contered cubic (BCC structure.242 FACE-CENTERED CUB sR Asone can gather from the previous section, some mets hav the BCC structure, but the majority of metal ave fected ub (FOC) stature The FCC anit cel has one stm tech comer and another i the center of exch fae the cbc Structure. The stoms are touching slong the ional ofeach sd, ofc, ofthe cube structure "The fice dgonal of FOC unt cel is (420) AR ee wit F “The side of uit cl su to: 29 ‘The FOC uni cls shown in Figure 223, ‘Thee tol of four whole stoms in the FOC structure unit sc 1/2 toms 4 the center ofeach side an eight I atoms a ach comer, The ate consti ‘he ECC argr than that forthe BOC un cel ut contains four stm ek Inga higher packing ctor For the FCC unit cl he total volume of atoms in nit cls eae? 28 of: i ‘The otal volume of unt cl (0.29) °‘The packing ator (PF = mw “solume af ms Soleo nit cell “This cam be expressed a: eqn Lager packing factors mean tha the FCC metals ae more densely packed ron dsan FCC setae at higher tempertares and t weighs more pr unt volume than at room terperatue whee nore loc” pcted ins BOC siructue ‘Aluminum, copper, nck sve, lad gold and some other materi form FCC rysllogrph atures Some compounds, suchas NaCl (able sal also have the FCCstrature. The unt eal maybe vewed an FCC structure fone type of storm, for example, Na withthe ott CL occupying the intersttalvacances. Bah de ‘ments for an FOC structure are interne, 2:45 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTUR A hexagonal lose packed (HCP struct wth the center of atoms represented as ‘ard alle shown in Figre 224. The had l representation of woe stom show in Figure 2286 Ths strate represents three HCP unt els hich ae Skewed prisms. Avan be seen, each stom ino ayers ated ietly above ot low the iterstces created by the space hetwen thre adiacent stom neighbor sng layers. tums ae touching long the sd ofthe base. In an Weal HICP sre, (= 1.93, but fr moa HCP meta cla atin dlrs df the presence of) ‘nixed bonding condiions—metalic and some covalent “The BCC and FIP ae close-packed structures hat they ae paced ver fi ently with the highest pose packing factor of 1.74, Several metals ave the HCP ‘thture ining zine, magnesia, anu, and cabal. sols an be generally classed into two types: (1) ceysaline, ‘which an form rule rpeting theeimensioalstractre cl acyl at ‘sand (2) amogphows, which can aggregate with no particular order. The word ‘amorphous derived from Greck word smorphoe meaning without onder” (©) Ten amorphous saith lal envionment nclading both the distance 0 tuigboring unite sid the numbers of neighbors varies hrovghoat he materi. gyre 224 Schematics of Ditferest amounts of thermal energy are neoded to overcome these dierent intra Ronagonal ose: ache! ‘ons Consequenl amorphous sol end to sften slowly overs wide tempera Structure ‘ue range rather than having» wel-defined melting po ke a rysallne soi IF anamorphous slid maintained at temperature ust belo lng pol for Jong periods of ume, the component molec, toms or ans can radially rearange int a more highly ordered ersaline form. ‘Amorphous sols inlude both nar and manufactured materials The most frequent ced example o an amorphous solids ls. However, amorous sods recommon tal bse of solide Addoal example inh thn ube ‘ants metalic pases polymers, nd gee, 244 AMORPHOUS STRUCTURES Asmentoned ci‘Mates that cas have more than one strctre ae called pbmorphic or allorop {c)-As you might noice, Fe and Tiare sted shaving two dierent strctares rn 25 BCC and FCC, and anim as BOC and HCD. At emperatres higher than 912°C (16r4°F but lower than 1394 °C (2541), pure von has the FOC sre Blow 912°C (1674°F or above 1394°C (2541) Fels the BCC structure wa melting at 1538°C (2800) Thi temperature diferent forse depending 08 {hei carbon content (Nore The reader may wish to explore “phase grams for further information on this toplc) THanlum has the HCP stra at lv terpera tures and BCC above 882°C (1620°F). These ansormations provide the Bass for the eat eatment of ste and taniar,s wil be explained tet Many ceramic material sch as lc (10,) are also polymorph, sis aon, which can havea graphite damond, or fllerine suture ‘Volume Change volume change ten accompanies these crystallographic teansormations For instance when on cooled from high teers Belo 512°C (Lo74 Fits packing factor changes tram 0.74 10 0.635 changes from FCC 10 BCC and expands in volume I we consider an irom atm with given dam te, then we a compute the change a vlme ofthe ron unit ell eco om 513°C (ters °F) 1912 (674. "The volume ofthe FCC cll (Vgc equals (24212) (age)'=(44V2)' =(03891 am)’ = 0046107 ma? “The volume the BCC cl Vag) e203) (@qcc} =(48V3)' = (0.2683 nm)’ = 0.023467 nm "The volume the FOC unit cls cupid by four atoms and inthe BCC unit callby two So we hae to compare two BOC unit cal wih one FOC cll Two BOC tun cals havea ttl volte af 2 0023467 = 046934. The volume change per tom during the crystallographic wansormation can be calculated a (0.016307 0046934) eqn nar “This represents a percentage change of 1.34%. ‘Upon farther cling fom 912°C (1674) to room temperature, the volume wl decrease ight eee the dlameter ofthe atm decrees, bt thie change ‘ch ethan the volume incene det the change in erytalographic strc Residal tress. This substantial change in volume can cna eal tees, ‘whi ests warping and ractore, When FCC iro cooled to rom tempers fre the surface ofthe part cooled ft and wanaorm to a BCC structure The surface expands, while the interior sil Bot and has the FCC stractre When the Interior cole down and transfor tothe BOC srt, wil stato expand but the exterior, lead cold and strong, tends to prevent this expansion. Ava consequence of thst of wa” stuatlon, the ace Isstetched andthe core‘compres so thatthe forces in the pact are in eqisium. During thls process thesurface may cack and warp. Ifa Section ofthis parts ct off the equ feral and external ores wl be disrupted which ests in fret warping ‘naa new equim is ataned. esd stres canbe caused by thermal gradients crystallographic wansforma tions and plastic deformation. Plastic deformation can cur actos the ers seton the par (for example lingo forging orb locale to the surface or exam le peeing). Real ress an be problematic becase very il exter oud owl be rogied efor the otal stress exceeds the mater capac, Resi tes can alo be beneficial because oealived comprenive tren athe sace om Prong cnt sl be overcome by oped sscs: thus extending the fatigue le of {Re put (Reda steer and haw they canbe eve ae dacsed in aes sec om ofthis book) 246 SUP LINES, PLANES, AND SYSTEMS Diferent crystallographic tutus deform diferent under apple loads, Most ‘eral experince sone laste dformation before they permanent (pst) ef. During elastic deformation, te bonds between som are "stretched OF “compressed” But not broken The volume ofthe material increases decreases slighty depending onthe typeof the apple force tension or compression. When the forces emoved the rater "springs back tothe orga shape and vl (or more information on this type faction the eer may wish 0 research Hooke’ law. Hook's awe is peep of physics tht stats ta the ere eae to een or compres spring by some distance Is proportional that stance "Een, Hooke slaw shows the relationship betwen the forces applied wo spring and its clic, Deved from Hooke’ aw, he made of hati the ‘tof theses tothe sain) A perfect example of an elastie materal is sbber Metals and many polymers exh a dtc bevir but toa much le eget than uber Ceramic nd ther bile materiale wall esol pect atic ‘mater materials that defor only permanently ke lay), ate no cst ‘Stress Strain Rati, The antouat of force needed o defor single crystal last cally depends on thecystallogapc ditection in which lod ls pple the load ‘Sappled in the ection where the tons ate touching, more forces nceded to Separate the atoms than he loads applied nes dense lection. The rato [etween sess amount of force peru are) and sai change in length pr wnt Feng) is known a the mex of elaticty We wl alk more about these quant ‘isin the next chapter The densest direction ina BCC unit cel slog the body ‘Sigal. The mol of elastic har the highest vale in that ieton and lowes inthe dietion ofthe sd agonal ofthe wnt cell For an FOC ant el the densest ‘ston ithe side diagonal ofthe ni cll For example the modo ast for plyerylinesuminm (HCC) 63.4 GPa (9.210 pe), However, long the ‘ds diagonal of singe etal of sarin, the modula of ea e759 GPa (11410 pilin the same manner, the meaarement of sound veloc with lie sone testing (UT) varies wi espe to the estalograpi diction of mater “Toda bh tel ad shninu ave been experimental explored, “Anbotropic Behavior ifthe whole place ofthe material only one crystal or ll the cysts are ortentod in the same ditton the material would exhibit enotop ‘bdavor meanings properties vary with deton. On the tbe and, the ts tals are smal (they tsuly are) and randomly erlented, hen the mater s ‘borap meaning it as kena properties in all diectons. Ifthe metals ook under normal cicumsances (ina, queaced or slow cone in an oven it becomes les fstropic However, to ake advantage of dierent properties indir nt tections some spec cooling methods can be applied to employ anisotropy feespestiesppiations We wll dics thew method in he chapter on casingPlastic Deformation. Permanent ox pate deformation inplis moving ayers ‘of aioms with respect teach other and changing the shape of he pat without ‘hanging the volume or causing fractures or eack, Contrary to lst deforma tion, plastic deformation Is ease along dzetions where te atom ae closely spaced and the distance between panes atively Lge. Foran analogy, me Can {ie domino lines eae to push dominoes if they ate closet eck ther and fone line does tot ntertere with another than they ae fa ava om cache ‘These planes are clled slp planes andthe mos dens directions where the spit occurs ae called sip directions, Sip planes and lip directions make sip sot ach sructureFCC, BCC, and HCP-—has diferent numberof lp sams FCC crystallographic structures have more sp stems and are more malleable, thats ease To defor plasty 2.5 SOLIDIFICATION, PHASES, AND MICROSTRUCTURES ‘We tend to think of pure substances a idea, ut in many Instances, boas of cost, sallabiliy and properties it desirable to have imports present. An exp ‘Seringsiber,which contains 7.5% copper and 924% ser Werte ner highly tnd we can refine st nove 99% purty It woud cost more, however, eowld hae inferior quai, Without ater its appearance, 79% Cu mak he ver stronger and harder, therefore more durable at lower cost “Another common example is rs, which formed when zinc add cop Pet Bras share and stronger than coppe, bt pure copper bas eter tis) Condvetsiy Adding copper to ser orn to copper is clang One ery Common alloy iste where ron contains sal atounts of aon, ‘Common Metallurgical Terme. To ndrstnd the formation an properties of allays we fist have to ntoduce several common tei sed by materi sens ‘nd metallurgists. They do not necewary correspond to teas esd nother branches ff sclence and engincetng ora even he These re ‘¢ Equilibrium condition: The condo ofthe material when ll reactions ae com: pleted andthe tractre would not change reqarless of how lng the materi I ep at that temperature In contrast oncquirim conditions represent the structure before the material tasformation ire. By keeping mater that temperature, phase changes canbe completed and quis conditions ‘ante achieved, ‘Phase: & material having the same composition srctrs and properties every= ‘where. Theres a definite interac twee the phase and any survoundg oF soinng phases 1 Solid solo Sl singe phase tat contains more han one element Solid mare: Sol materi where moe than one phases present amples of Alloys. Alloy an beatin Oy ‘© sbsttuting onetype of atom with another structere, refered to ab subst tational slid out, ‘© squeezing oe foreign stom between atoms of the hot sae refered tas an ‘metal sali slut {© producing mixture af wo or more diferent pass, Brass isan example of substiatonl wld ston, Zinc atoms replace some ‘opps toms, Bras takes nthe FCC (ce centered ub) structure of copper father than the HCP (hexagonal lose packe) strate of Tiss possble because the zine atoms and copper atoms have similar ses and comparable decton structures However, nly limited aumbe of copper atoms (39%) canbe replaced‘by ain atoms IF more Zn atoms are aed mitre formed which does at have The property of bras and ot wed in enginering So we ay tha inc has ited Selubty copper. Solubility. On the other hand, copper atoms and nickel atoms can substitute ‘ach other any quay: ht, they have elite saat. We can hate a in ‘le phase allo at room temperate a lst 100% copper with nea nck, Simos 10% nickel with almost Os copper, and anything im between hi i beease opper and nickel atoms are even closet ath ater insite and electron strctre ‘han inc and coppe at both of thes have the FCC crystallographic sacar. Wecan compare al soul wth more ania id sally, Ni cot fee, for example, has unlimited slut, whe ga is ote has only Limited sl bility and if ne exceed the imi fad move soar), we forma mature with wo phases guid weet effec) and soi sugar onthe bottom ofthe cup). Whe a {his eae we have sod and lige phases we can alo haves titre gus Such ail and water, where represen one pate ting on the ep while the heavier water son th bottom, We san se rely the inference tween these ‘wo phases ‘Ste at higher temperatures (above 912 [1674] san intersttlsld sol ‘on of cabon and rom Above that temperature ion takes the FCC tract, ‘which incldes an tril cavity tthe enter of the uit el where the sal car bon atoms can squeeze thems ito that ay "Although in ur exaples only metal ace mentioned other material ike ceram ‘es and polymers can frm single phase with more than one component therefore, by deiion they ate soli solutons. We wil ico thet solution inthe secon ‘on plastics and ceramics 52 SOLID SOLUTIONS AND MIKTURE STRENGTHENING ‘As mentioned the ation f alloying elements changes the properties ofthe host ‘material How much the properties change depends onthe amount of toying ele ‘ents and diference in some ne between the lloying eles ad the hos bse atrial, Tn geerl we an sy that the effect of ol soliton strengthening on the prop rte of mater incadas following 1 Thestength and hardsess olay re retr than those of pure metal 1 Almost alvay the duct ofthe alloy mach wer thn that of pe met Only rely ain copperzine alloy, does the sold sli incente bath strength and duct. Hectic conductinty of the ally mach lower than that of pare metal The conductivity of me changes as increasing amounts of alloying clement are ddd. Even small amounts of foreign atoms can rece conductivity. a shown In Figure 225, 1 Thelna of strength in use at igh temperature dust “esep” is improved by sold soltion trengthening Many high-temperature alloy, uch a those uted for je engnes, rely par on extensive solid saltons suenathening. ‘Mistures When the slit lmit of materials exceeded by ang 10 much of another material second phase forms ar we have seh when we ld 0 rch inc to capper o too mach sagt col, The boundary Between th wo sess A Sueice at wbich the stoi arrangement sot pres. This typeof mater fale a misture May common enginering mater are mistare of wo O ore Bhsses solder ste, concretecopahmers and composite set five examples. ‘The addon ofa second (or hia) phase improves the properties of the material "The base materia called the murs (Ihe ne that represen he larger comp ent in the stuctre), and the added material called the salt, The general re toobtaining good properties ofa mixtreithat the matric shold be eave oft Sand tough andthe sate shoul be hard finely ispesed and round. We can relate {his ule to concrete cement in concrete is the matrix nd snd the sole eter concrete can beabaind ithe sand is fine and round than the same amount of Sands add inthe form of hage rocks. The same situation seen the ae of composts For example polymer i the mates (ll and ugh), whe trong ard fs or gape bers arc add for enforcement. er common matures Uncle the dierent carbides tngsten (WC), ania (TiC) and ter carbides 4 ato cobalt sa inde al ed for cting edges in ct os iow much the properties of single phase are improved by ang a cond ‘phase depends upon the amount ofthe ote phase ands se shape, and disebu- ‘on. Itshould be noted that each phase inthe mitre could eal solution con sisting of more than one material. For example n carbide ct tools, WC ea ‘ides (one phase) consist of tungsten (W) and carbon (). . ssp) cos) 1s + 503) “00, one emt ons ame ot Impunty percent) Figure 2.25; Decrease in conductivity of copper caused by various impurities {BANGS = percentage of international Annealed Copper Sardar 6 ‘Figure 226:cuNi phase lagram.EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM An eqn phase diagram graphical strates the eltionsip between em- rate, compostin, an the phases preset in the paicular alloy sem. Tis Eolletion of curves showing sly its for ferent conpostons a diferent temperatures, The digrams are constructed ing experaental daa, Alloys eth Aieent composiion are ested to diferent temperatures an held as long neces ary far any eaton to stop when equlbium reached At that temperate the homicl composition ofeach pas Is deterined. When these vals ae plted for diferent femperatures te phase diagram is formed In Figure 226 the Ca Ni pase diagram fs shown. The upper line calle igus and it represents he tem atures above hich each lla 10S igi The lowe ine salle alias and hoes at wha emperstare each alloy completly oid. Fr example fra alloy ‘hat contains 4097 Ni wand or weigh percentage) and 0 es Cu, he ‘ido temperate 250°C (2536 °F, heres 1240 (2264°F) iis solids te perature. Above the liquids tempera, the materi only ne phase gui (1) Sod below the solidus temperate takes om onl the aid phase) Betees these wo temperatures the rate ia ature o std ad ligid pases The ‘ight side ofthe gue represents de chenge in temperate er ne Itcan be seen ‘at material cools str gid than ia the sold region. ‘Singe-and Multiple Phase Regions. Inthe singe pas regan a particular ‘phase asa now ceria composition af the given alloy Simin mupe has region, the ceric composition and amount ofeach phase inthe mistre ane deduced rom the phase dara aswel. As canbe sen from the igure, Cu Ine lower ming temperatre than Ni. When we cola alloy of 10 we Nk 4 CCuteow 1280 °C (236), most ofthe sols that are formed i the beginning rn contain Ni, whi tr they mostly contain Cu, Unifoam one-phase sl (e) Is formed when eqlvium is eahed ‘More complied diagrn ste obtsne when the alloy hs ited slay ito the host material an when more than one eit phate preset t oom eerste, Paz ion mesa temperature af 1538 (2500°F) as shown atthe ef sie ofthe ‘igaam a Fgure 227 Ast coy ita ona BCC rsalogrph sce for Ingthe6-on pase A11394°C (354°) the stuctare changes oan FOC structure, foring the yiton phase, Then, oa farther cooling, changes toa BCC strctare agai, ere is kaon to have the eon phase. The ably ofa soll materal to. ‘exist in mufiple forms of crystallographic strate is known as polymorphism. It fds other metal and cers, sch as Tv and 203, ‘Changes in Crystallographic Stractre. Change nthe crystallographic acre causes change nthe volume ofthe lee of ron, Remember tat the BCC soca has ‘wer packing number than the FCC structure Therefore the same nae of on "om iny-ron wl ope pace thn non. Although som a lowe temper ‘re ate les they are conierd mln ae) than at igh tempera the ‘elume aan eq number of toms orion cooling fom the 8 ps no they pase ‘eleotract sn then, rm toa iron at oom tenpertre,wllexped apron Tiley Lae involone—a 007% lar expenson Ths change weme tr oppse {othe change commonly undergone fr met ther ari, Whi oer tetas ‘Beak hon they are cooked to oo trapertre ion exp ure iton suey usc or engineering applations ste or cst rons moa sed, Both are alos of ion and carbon, Many steels and at iron lo cot ‘ter alloying elements. Even commercial avalale pure" kon contains up (ones stds contain upto 2.11% Cand east ron upto 667% C. Asan be seenfrom Figure 227 the ron carbon dag or Fe‘, diagram, at soe called, femore completed than previ phase diagrams The main reso stat nthe sald region the change of crystallographic strotre flo indicated, meaning that regions of anda secs are separated: Besides Greck eter notations (7.9) ‘many pases inthe diagram ako have pete names tht ae weed n mally and ‘mater cence. Fr instance thea phar tcl er, y phase aut, an esc phase cementite or card These phases and ther properties wil be brily ‘ested in nxt selon “The on