Psychology

Chapter 1

Main ideas

Why study psychology?

The main reason to study psychology is to discover insight into human thoughts
and behaviors. One of the questions that psychology poses is: Does one’s
common sense and intuition really lead one to the correct judgment in every
situation? Often, our intuitions can assist us in the execution of commonplace
judgments that pertain to our everyday lives; but if the discipline of psychology
were solely directed toward our common sense, we would not ascertain any new
knowledge. Rather, psychology’s goal is to uncover how we come to make
these “common sense” judgments in the first place. Further, if we error in our
judgments, it’s the objective of psychology to understand why we make these
errors. In other words, psychology is not simply focused on explaining that
which we already knowpsychology is actually discovering the underlying
mechanisms as to why we truly think and behave the way we do as human
beings.

One of the mentioned phenomena, the hindsight bias, refers to the way that
human beings regularly make judgments regarding past events as if they had
foreseen them coming all along. The hindsight bias is also referred to as the “I-
knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. Scientists believe that because our common
sense can more easily describe an event that has already happened, we find it
easy to subscribe to the belief that we saw the event coming all along.

The authors also explain what it means to subscribe to a scientific perspective.

Most notably, scientists need to be curious, humble and skeptical in order to be
able to bring the best of their abilities to their work. Critical thinking is another
must-have for any aspiring scientist. Critical thinking refers to the ability to
analyze arguments and problems deeply before accepting conclusions. Having
the ability to objectively scrutinize data and evidence aids greatly in any
researcher’s quest to uncover the truth.

How do we study psychology?

When researching anything in the world of science, the scientific method is

employed. Simply stated, the scientific methodutilizes theories to formulate
questions and hypotheses. These hypotheses are then tested using a variety of
experimental tools. If the data collected supports the hypothesis, then the theory
is confirmed. If not, the theory must be either reMoreover, experimentation
requires various research methods, including case studies, naturalistic
observations, surveys, correlation studies, and experimental designs.

Correlation studies measure the relationship between two correlates using a

statistical method, called a “correlation coefficient.” The main shortcoming to
this method is its inability to show the direction of causation. Hence, there is no
way to tell which correlate caused the other correlate to change.

In experimental designs, researchers define a number of variables they are

looking to test. The independent variable is an added manipulation that
researchers implement into the study’s environment. The dependent variable is
the behavior or trait that may or may not be affected by the implementation of
the independent variable(s). Thus, this method is capable of showing the
direction of causation, which the correlation method lacks.

How do we measure psychological findings?

Statistics are the main tool used by psychologists to measure their findings. No
matter what research method is implemented, statistics are utilized to organize
and make sense of the data that is collected. Some of the most notable measures
in statistics include: mean, mode, range, median, variance, and standard
deviation. The main objective of using statistical methods is to look for a
significant difference between the data in the sample groups within the
experiment. If there is a significant difference in the data, it follows that some
sort of cause and effect did occur between the variables that were tested.

1. Which experimental method does not show the direction of causation?

2. What does the study of psychology aim to uncover?

Answer Key:

1. Correlation method.
2. The underlying mechanisms behind why we think and behave the way we do
as human beings.

Chapter 2

This chapter focuses mainly on the neural underpinnings of thought, perception

and behavior. The brain is arguably the most important organ when it comes to
discussing the biology behind psychology. Human beings understand that
getting an organ transplant does little to change one’s identity. What humans
also understand is that brain damage or transplantation can have an enormous
affect on one’s sense of self, one’s knowledge and one’s overall perspective on
the world. The authors commence the journey into the nervous system by first
examining the ways in which our neurons communicate with each other. Then
the authors explore such topics as the two interrelated parts of the nervous
systemthe endocrine system and the brain.

Communication Between Neurons

The communication between neurons is completely dependent on an

electrochemical gradient between the intracellular and extracellular
environments of a neuron. A neuron is a specialized cell located primarily in the
brain. Neurons are comprised of 1) a cell body, where the nucleus and various
organelles reside, 2) dendrites, along which signals are received from adjacent
neurons, 3) an axon, along which signals travel away from the cell body and
towards the next neuron, and 4) axon terminals, where the signal is passed on to
the next neuron(s) in its vicinity. The axon may also be covered with a fatty
substance called a myelin sheath. A myelin serves to conduct the
electrochemical signal, thereby quickening the time it takes for the signal to be
transmitted.

Neurons can only be activated when a signal of adequate strength is received

from sensory organs or other neurons. If the signal is strong enough, the cell
will reach its activation threshold, thus releasing an action potential. The action
potential is another technical term for the electrochemical signal that travels
down the axon and towards the next neuron.
The signal is further transmitted to the next neuron(s) through vesicles that carry
neurotransmitters into the area between the neurons, the area known as
the synapse. Once released into the synapse, the neurotransmitters attach to
specific receptors that enable the chemicals to breach the membrane of the
subsequent neuron. Thus, the signal continues to travel onwards until it finally
reaches its destination.

The Nervous System

The nervous system can be broken down into two parts: the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous
system is comprised of our brain and spinal chord, whereas the peripheral
nervous system can be broken down into two more components: the autonomic
nervous system (ANS) and the somatic nervous system (SoNS).

The function of the somatic nervous system appertains to our motor skills.
When moving any one of our skeletal muscles, we are activating our somatic
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system serves to regulate more
involuntary and autonomous processes, including glandular activity and the
movement of muscles surrounding internal organs.
Moreover, the ANS can be broken down into components corresponding to its
two main functions. First, the sympathetic nervous system serves to arouse us to
respond to impending danger. Most psychologists refer to this as being in the
state of “fight-or-flight.” Second, the parasympathetic nervous system functions
as the antithesis to the sympathetic nervous system. This system primarily
causes a calming effect on the body, putting a person into a state referred to as
the “rest-and-digest” state.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system can be seen as a secondary form of communication
between the cells. This system serves to secrete chemical messengers referred to
as hormones. Hormones are released into the blood by a number of glands
located throughout the body. Sometimes, these hormones can have a significant
effect on the brain, influencing one’s desires for sex, food and aggression.

The Brain

The study of the brain is paramount in the study of the human mind. The two
are deeply interwoven entities that encompass almost every question that
psychology is interested in answering.

With the technological leaps of the past century, many neuroimaging techniques
have been inventedincluding the electroencephalogram (EEG), positron
emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). For example, MRIs are extremely
technical machines that have served to produce some of the most detailed
mappings of the brain ever created.

Furthermore, specific structures of the brain aide distinct behaviors and

functions in animals: the thalamus has been dubbed the sensory hub where all
sensory information is relayed; the amygdala has been associated with various
functions pertaining to emotional evaluations; the cerebellum assists in
nonverbal learning and memory; and the hypothalamus normally regulates
bodily functions such as thirst, hunger, body temperature and sexual behaviour

The Cerebral Cortex

Cerebral Cortex is the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the
cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing
center. The cerebral cortex—that thin surface layer—contains some 20 to 23
billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections.
Glial Cells (glia) are cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and
protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. A
postmortem
analysis of Einstein’s brain did not find more or larger-than-usual neurons, but
it did reveal a much greater concentration of glial cells than found in an average
Albert’s
head
Each hemisphere’s cortex is subdivided into four lobes,
Frontal Lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead;
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and
judgments.
Parietal Lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and
toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Occipital Lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
Temporal Lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears;
includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the
opposite ear.
Motor Cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary
movements.
Sensory Cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes
body touch and movement sensations.
Association Areas areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary
motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions
such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Corpus Callosum the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain
hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Corpus Callosum joins the two hemispheres and is separated to cure epileptic
seizures.
People with separated corpus callosums are referred to as Spilt-brain patients.
They are unable to say what they see in their left visual field because speech is
in left hemisphere and the hemispheres regulate opposite sides of body.
When split-brainers are asked to say what they saw, the left hemisphere will say
what is seen in right visual field; when asked to point, get, or write what they
saw, the right hemisphere will dictate what is seen in the left visual field.
Sign language is nevertheless language and is control by left hemisphere, if deaf
people get a stroke in left hemisphere, signing will be disrupted.
Left Hemisphere : Mathematics, language, logical, reasoning. meaning
Right Hemisphere : Perceptual tasks, musical, artistic, emotion, face
recognition, copying information.
Pons the part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the
thalamus.
Hippocampus the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the
brain, thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous
system.

Chapter 3 Counciousness

Conciousness is defined as our awareness of ourselves in our environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked
with mental processes- Is taking the first small step by relating specific brain
states to conscious experiences.

Duel Processing The principal that information is often simultaneously

processed on separated conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight A condition which a person can respond to a visual stimulus

without consciously experiencing it.

A visual perception track enables us “to think about the

world”—to recognize things and to plan future actions. A visual action track

guides our moment-to-moment movements.

On rare occasions, the two conflict. Shown the hollow face illusion people

will mistakenly perceive the inside of a mask as a protruding face

Selective Attention The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular

stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness Failing to see visible objects when our attention is

directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Circadian Rhythm The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that

occur on a 24 hr cycle.

REM Sleep Rapid eye movement, a recurring sleep stage which vivid dreams
commonly occur. Also known as Paradoxical Sleep because the muscles are
relaxed except for minor twitches but other body systems are active.
Alpha Waves The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed awake state.

Sleep Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from

unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Hallucinations False sensory experiences such as seeing something in the

absence of an external visual stimulus.

Delta Waves The large slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Insomnia Reoccurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The

sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep often at inopportune times.

Sleep Apnea A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of

breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Night Terrors A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an

appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during
NREM-3, within two or three hours of falling asleep and are seldom
remembered.

Dream A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a

sleeping persons mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery,
discontinuities and incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of
the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Manifest Content According to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream (as

distinct from its latent or hidden content).

Latent Content According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as

distinct from its Manifest content).
REM Rebound The tendency of REM sleep to increase following REM
sleep deprivation ( created by awakenings during REM sleep).

Hypnosis A social interaction in which one person (hypnotist) suggest to

another (subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will
spontaneously occur.

Posthypnotic Suggestion A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session,

to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some
clinicians to help control undesired symptoms or behaviors.

Disassociation A split in consciousness which allows some thoughts and

behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

Substance Use Disorder Continued substance craving and use despite

significant life disruption and or physical risk.

Psychoactive Drug A chemical substance that alters perceptions and

moods.

Tolerance The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug,
requiring the user t take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's
effect.

Withdrawl The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive

drug or behavior.

Depressants Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce

neural activity and slow body functions.

Alcohol Use Disorder popularly known as alcoholism. Alcohol use marked

by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
Barbituarates Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing
anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Opiates Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they
depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Stimulants Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Amphetamines Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded up

body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Methamphetamine Powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central

nervous system with speeded up body functions and associated with energy and
mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Ecstasy (MDMA) Synthetic stimulate and mild hallucinogen. Produces

euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health risks and longer term
harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Hallucinogens Psychedelic drugs such as LSD that distort perceptions and

provoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Near Death Experiences An altered state of consciousness reported after

a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest) often similar to drug
induced hallucinations.

THC The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects,

including mild hallucinations.

Sleep depravation and sleep disorders

“Sleep deprivation has consequences—difficulty studying, diminished

productivity, tendency to make mistakes, irritability, fatigue,” noted Dement

Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone, and decreases
its hunger-suppressing partner, leptin . It also increases cortisol, a stress
hormone that stimulates the body to make fat. => obesity

Sleep deprivation slows reactions and increases errors on visual attention tasks.

Major sleep disorders

-Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the ability to sleep well.

-S. D. can be caused by a health or mental health condition.

-The lack of sleep can have a negative impact on energy, concentration an

health.

Insomnia – Difficulty falling or staying asleep. REM sleep deprived one day,
makes REM sleep longer on the next
(REM Rebound).

Narcolepsy – Suddenly falling asleep (very dangerous, especially when

driving).

Sleep Apnea – Suddenly stopped breathing when asleep (mostly overweight

men) that would automatically wake you.

Night Terrors – This is not nightmare, is A sleep disorder characterized by

high arousal and an appearance of being terrified .The next morning the person
hardly remembers what happened. In contrast, nightmares happen in REM
Sleep near the morning.

Dreams
 Using Freudian terms (depicted by Sigmund Freud), Manifest content –
what we remembered the dream to be. This is only the “cover up”;
underlying every dream is its true meaning called Latent content – our
unaccepting subconscious thoughts and drives.

 One explanation for dreaming is because dreams organize our thoughts

and facilitates memory; at the same time dreaming provides constant
neural stimulation that preservers our neural pathways.

 Seligman and Yellen (1987) proposed another theory that says dreams are
random bursts of activity from the brainstem and the brain tries to make
sense of it; thus hallucination images are produced in dreams.

 When we dream the amygdala in the limbic system of the brain is most
active (producing emotions).