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H
: Heat is a form of energy in transit, that flows from the „hotter‟ body (a body at higher temperature)
to the „colder‟ body (a body at lower temperature) when the two bodies are in thermal contact till both the bodies
achieve „thermal equilibrium‟ (both the bodies attain the same degree of hotness or coldness).
Two objects are in thermal contact if energy can be exchanged between them. Two objects are in
thermal equilibrium if they are in thermal contact and there is no net exchange of energy. The exchange of
energy between two objects because of differences in their temperatures is called heat.
 SI unit of Heat energy is Joule (J). Joule is an amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1/4200 kg of pure water from 14.50C to 15.50C.
 CGS unit of Heat energy is Calorie. Calorie is the amount of heat that would raise the temperature of
1 gm. of water by 10C that is from 14.50C to 15.50C.
 In British system the unit of heat was British Thermal Unit (BTU), defined as the amount of heat that
would raise the temperature of 1 lb (pound) of water from 630F to 640F.
1 Cal = 3.968 X 10-3 Btu = 4.1868 J (4.186 J)
Temperature: Temperature is a scientific quantity which corresponds to primary sensations – hotness and
coldness. Temperature is a measure of Thermal Equilibrium. That means when two objects are in thermal
equilibrium with each other are at the same temperature. Thus temperature determines the direction of heat
(energy) flow.
If two objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are
in thermal equilibrium with each other. (This is known a Zeroth law of Thermodynamics). We use
thermometers to measure the temperature of a system.
Temperature Scales:
The SI Units of Temperature is Kelvin (K). It can be
expressed in degree Celsius (oC is not an SI unit) . Temperature of
a body apparently has no upper limit, but has lower limit and the
lower limit is taken as Zero of the Kelvin temperature scale (T=0
corresponds to 10-∞). Absolute zero is used as the basis for the
Kelvin temperature scale, which sets 273.15°C as its zero point (0
K). There are no negative numbers on the Kelvin scale.
Tc = T – 273.15
Tc is the Celsius Temperature and T is the Absolute
Temperature (Kelvin Temperature).
00C = 273.15 K (We use 273K for our convenience)
The most common temperature scale in use in the United
States is the Fahrenheit scale. The relationship between the
Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is:

Let’s do:
1. Convert the following Celsius values to Fahrenheit scale
a) 00C (Freezing point of water ) c) 370C (Normal body temperature)
b) -400C (Is it not a scale of coincide?) d) 200C (Comfort zone. Isn‟t it?)
2. Convert the following Fahrenheit Values into Celsius
a) 2120F (Boiling point of water) c) 1040F
0
b) 32 F d) 950F
3. Convert the following Celsius values into Kelvins
a) 1000C b) -25.150C c) 290C

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Internal Energy : The internal energy of a substance is the sum of the molecular kinetic energy (due
to random motion of the molecules), the molecular potential energy (due to forces that act between the
atoms of a molecule and between molecules), and other kinds of molecular energy. A substance doesn‟t
contain heat – it contains internal energy. Heat is not radiation. The word “heat” only refers to the energy
actually in transit from hot to cold.
The work done on a system is a measure of the amount of energy transferred to the system from its
surroundings, whereas the mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus potential energy) of a system is a
consequence of the motion and configuration of the system. One can refer to heat only when energy has
been transferred as a result of a temperature difference. Both heat and work are ways of transferring energy
between a system and its surroundings.
More specifically, temperature is proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of
molecular motion. Molecules may vibrate or rotate with associated rotational or vibrational kinetic energy –
but these motions are not translational and don‟t directly affect temperature. Hence, we take the temperature
of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its atoms or molecules.
To understand this we have to remember the kinetic molecular theory.
 More energetic random motions cause the particles to occupy more space.
 Energy is transferred from one object to another by collisions.
 As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, they are able to break bonds with neighbouring
molecules and change from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas.
 Mechanical work can be transformed into thermal energy. The work done on the particles increases
their random motion.
: The amount of mass of an object and the nature of the material determine the
extent of the temperature change. For any two objects made of the same material, the object with more mass
will require more heat to achieve a specific rise in temperature. The nature of the material plays an equally
important role in determining the amount of temperature increase. Different materials have varying
capacities to absorb heat for a given temperature change. The specific heat capacity of a substance depends
on the type of material and must be obtained experimentally. We can think of specific heat capacity as
thermal inertia. Specific heat capacity is a sort of thermal inertia since it signifies the resistance of a
substance to a change in its temperature.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy that must be added to raise 1.0 kg
of the substance by 1.0 K.
The specific heat s of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass. Therefore, if energy Q transfers
to a sample of a substance with mass m and the temperature of the sample changes by ∆T, the specific heat
of the substance is
s = Q/m∆T
Thus, the energy Q transferred between a sample of mass m of a material and its surroundings to a
temperature change ∆T as
Q = ms ∆T
Let’s do:
1. Which is higher specific heat capacity, water or sand?
2. Why does a piece of watermelon stay cool for a longer time than sandwiches do when both are
removed from refrigerator on a hot day?

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The large specific heat capacity

of water plays an important role in
weather and climate patterns. As the
temperature of a body of water decreases
during the winter, energy is transferred
from the cooling water to the air by heat,
increasing the internal energy of the air.
Because of the high specific heat of
water, a relatively large amount of
energy is transferred to the air for even
modest temperature changes of the water.
The specific heat capacity of a
gas is dependent not only on the type of
gas, but also on the variations in pressure
and volume.

Note: To convert the values to units of

Cal/gm. 0C divide by 4186.

Let’s do:
1. A 55.0 kg person going for an hour-long, brisk walk generates approximately 6.50 × 105 J of
energy. If the body‟s temperature regulating systems did not remove this thermal energy, by how
much would the walker‟s body temperature increase?
2. A 0.050 0-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200°C and then dropped into a calorimeter containing
0.400 kg of water initially at 20°C. The final equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is
22.4°C. Find the specific heat of the metal.
3. A cowboy fires a silver bullet with a muzzle speed of 200 m/s into the pine wall of a saloon.
Assume all the internal energy generated by the impact remains with the bullet. What is the
temperature change of the bullet?

One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a sample to some known temperature Tx ,
placing it in a vessel containing water of known mass and temperature Tw < Tx , and measuring the
temperature of the water after equilibrium has been reached. This technique is called calorimetry, and
devices in which this energy transfer occurs are called calorimeters.
If the system of the sample and the water is isolated, the principle of conservation of energy requires
that the amount of energy Qhot that leaves the sample (of unknown specific heat) equal the amount of energy
Qcold that enters the water.
Net heat lost = Net heat gain
Q- hot = Qcold
mw sw (tf – tw) = - mx sx (tf – tx)
This equation can be solved for the unknown specific heat sx.
Take two samples of same liquid with different temperatures in two different vessels. Let the initial
temperatures of the samples of masses m1 and m2 be T1 and T2 (the higher of the two temperatures is called
T1, the lower is called T2). Let T be the final temperature of the mixture.
Q- hot = m1s (T1 – T) and Qcold = m2s (T – T2)
Q- hot = Qcold
m1s (T1 – T) = m2s (T – T2)
By simplifying we get the final temperature of the mixture i.e.
T = (m1T1 +m2T2)/(m1+m2)
If the masses of both the liquids are same, then the final temperature of the mixture would be
T = (T1 +T2)/2
This is known as principle of method of mixtures.
 CGS unit of specific heat is Cal/gm. 0C
SI unit of specific heat is J/Kg. K

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Let’s do:
1. What would be the final temperature of a mixture of 50 g of 20°C water and 50 g of 40°C
water?
2. If you wish to warm 100 kg of water by 20°C for your bath, how much heat is required?
(Give your answer in calories and joules.)
3. What would be the final temperature when 100 g of 25°C water is mixed with 75 g of 40°C
water?
4. What will be the final temperature of 100 g of 20°C water when 100 g of 40°C iron nails are
submerged in it? (The specific heat of iron is 0.12 Cal/gm.C0. Here you should equate the
heat gained by the water to the heat lost by the nails.)
In many instances the most convenient unit for specifying the amount of a substance is the mole
(mol), where 1 mol = 6.02 X 1023 elementary units of any substance. Thus 1 mol of aluminium means 6.02
X 1023 atoms (the atom is the elementary unit), and 1 mol of aluminium oxide means 6.02 X 1023 molecules
(the molecule is the elementary unit of the compound). When quantities are expressed in moles, specific
heats must also involve moles (rather than a mass unit); they are then called molar specific heats.

Matter can change from one phase to another, and heat plays a role in the change. A solid can melt
or fuse into a liquid if heat is added, while the liquid can freeze into a solid if heat is removed. Similarly, a
liquid can evaporate into a gas if heat is supplied, while the gas can condense into a liquid if heat is taken
away.
Ice, for example, is the solid phase of H20. Add energy, and you add motion to the rigid molecular
structure, which breaks down to form H20 in the liquid phase, water. Add more energy, and the liquid
changes to the gaseous phase. Add still more energy, and the molecules break into ions and electrons, giving
the plasma phase. The phase of matter depends on its temperature and the pressure that is exerted on it.
Changes of phase almost always require a transfer of energy.
The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to change the phase of a mass m of a substance
is Q = ml, where L is the latent heat of the substance.

Let us have a look at the changes of phase that occur in H20. To make the numbers simple, consider a 1-
gram piece of ice at a temperature of - 50°C in a closed container that is placed on a stove to heat. A
thermometer in the container reveals a slow increase in temperature up to O°C.
Then an amazing thing happens. The temperature remains at O°C even though heat input continues.
Rather than getting warmer, the ice begins to melt. In order for the whole gram of ice to melt, 80 calories
(335 joules) of energy is absorbed by the ice, not even raising its temperature a fraction of a degree. Only
when all the ice melts will each additional calorie (4 .18 joules) absorbed by the water increase its
temperature by 1°C until the boiling temperature, 100°C, is reached. Again, as energy is added, the
temperature remains constant while more and more of the gram of water is boiled away and becomes steam.

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The water must absorb 540 calories (2260 joules) of heat energy to vaporize the whole gram. Finally, when
all the water has become steam at 100°C, the temperature begins to rise once more. It will continue to rise as
long as energy is added.
 The heat required to change 1.0 kg of a substance from the solid to the liquid state is called the heat
of fusion; it is denoted by Lf. The heat of fusion of water is 79.7 (~80) K Cal/kg or, in proper SI
units, 335 kJ/kg.
 The heat required to change a substance from the liquid to the vapour phase is called the heat of
vaporization, Lv. For water it is 539 (~540) k Cal/kg or 2260 kJ/kg.

Let’s do:
1. How much energy is transferred when gram of steam at 100°C condenses to water at 100°C?
2. How much energy is transferred when gram of boiling water at 10aoC cools to ice water at O°C?
3. How much energy is transferred when gram of ice water at O°C freezes to ice at O°C?
4. How much energy is transferred when gram of steam at 100°C turns to ice at O°C?

Water in an open container will eventually evaporate, or dry up. The liquid that disappears becomes
water vapour in the air. Evaporation is a change of phase from liquid to gas that occurs at the surface of a
liquid.
Evaporation occurs because all molecules of all substances are constantly in motion. Consider the
molecules that make up a teaspoon of water, for example. Those molecules are constantly in motion, flying
back and forth within the water, sometimes colliding with each other. When collisions occur, some
molecules gain energy from other molecules.
Molecules at the surface that pick up energy from other molecules deep within the water begin to
travel faster. Eventually, they may be able to travel fast enough to escape from the surface of the water or to
evaporate from the water. This process continues as long as water molecules remain. Molecules that were
once inside the water eventually work their way to the surface. When they pick up enough energy by
colliding with other water molecules, they too escape. Eventually, no water molecules remain. The liquid
has completely evaporated. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. It is a cooling process.
Surface molecules escape from the liquid as they pick up energy from other molecules. The
molecules left behind, therefore, have less energy than they had before the collisions. Since they have less
energy, they also have a lower temperature. The more rapid the evaporation, the faster the cooling.
 When our bodies overheat, our sweat glands produce perspiration. This is part of nature's thermostat, for the
evaporation of perspiration cools us and helps us to maintain a stable body temperature.
 Evaporation is a very important part of the water cycle. Heat from the sun, or solar energy, powers
the evaporation process. It soaks up moisture from soil in a garden, as well as the biggest oceans
and lakes. The water level will decrease as it is exposed to the heat of the sun, the escaped water
molecules stay in the atmosphere, affecting humidity, or the amount of moisture in the air as a
vapour. Once water evaporates, it also helps form clouds. The clouds then release the moisture as
rain or snow. The liquid water falls to Earth, waiting to be evaporated. The cycle starts all over
again.
Rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on its surface area, temperature and amount of vapour already
present in the surrounding air.

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The opposite of evaporation is condensation-the changing of a gas to a liquid. When gas

molecules near the surface of a liquid are attracted to the liquid, they strike the surface with increased kinetic
energy and become part of the liquid. In collisions with low-energy molecules in the liquid, excess kinetic
energy is shared with the liquid, increasing the liquid temperature. Condensation is a warming process.

Let’s answer:
1. If the water level in a dish of water remains unchanged from one day to the next, can you
conclude that no evaporation or condensation has occurred?
2. Why does dew form on the surface of a cold soft-drink can?
3. When H20 in the vapour phase condenses, is the surrounding air warmed or cooled?

Example: A piece of ice of mass 100g and at temperature 00C is put in 200 g of water at 250C. How much
ice will melt as the temperature of the water reaches 00C? The specific heat of water is 4200 j kg-1K-1 and
specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.4 X 105 J/kg.
Sol: - The heat released as the water cools down from 250C to 00C is
Q = ms∆t = (0.2 kg) (4200 j kg-1K-1) (25 K) =21000 J.
The amount of ice melted by this much heat is given by
m = Q/L = 21000 J/ (3.4 X 105 J kg-1) = 62 g.)

There is always some water vapour in the air. A measure of the amount of this water vapour is called
humidity (mass of water per volume of air). Weather reports often use the term relative humidity- the ratio
of the amount of water vapour currently in the air at a given temperature to the largest amount of water
vapour the air can contain at that temperature.

Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin, exposed objects in the morning or evening
due to condensation. As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a
rate greater than that at which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets. When
temperatures are low enough, dew takes the form of ice; this form is called frost.

Fog is actually just condensed water vapour close to the ground. The amount of water vapour in the
air is known as humidity. When the water vapour completely saturates the air, the water droplets start to
condense, or turn from a gas back into a liquid. These droplets of liquid are suspended in the air and appear
as a thick mist, known as fog which restricts visibility.

Warm air rises. As it rises, it expands. As it expands, it chills. As the air chills, water-vapour
molecules are slowed. Lower-speed molecular collisions result in water molecules sticking together. If there
are larger and slower-moving particles or ions present, water vapour condenses upon these particles, and,
with sufficient build-up, cloud will be formed.

Most of the water in clouds is in very small droplets. The droplets are so light they float in the air.
Sometimes those droplets join with other droplets. Then they turn into larger drops. When that happens,
gravity causes them to fall to Earth. We call the falling water drops "rain." When the air is colder, the water
may form snowflakes instead. Freezing rain, sleet or even hail can fall from clouds.

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