‫مدرسة العلوم الهندسية والتطبيقية‬

‫قسم الهندسة الكهربائية والحاسوب‬

‫شعبة الموجات الدقيقة واالتصاالت‬

‫‪EED-627: Radar Engineering‬‬

‫‪Electronic & Electromagnetic System‬‬

‫د‪ .‬مصطفى بن عروس سالم ابوطبيل‬

‫‪Electrical Engineering Department‬‬
‫‪Azzaytuna University‬‬

‫‪April 08, 2018‬‬

 ‫‪Course aim‬‬
‫‪The course aims at introducing a fair theoretical‬‬
‫‪background to those who are interested at‬‬
‫‪knowing about the radar principles and‬‬
‫‪technology before going further for scientific-‬‬
‫‪research, operation and even maintenance.‬‬
‫دراسة التخصص الذي يستخدم موجات كهرومغناطيسية للتعرف‬
‫على بعد وارتفاع واتجاه وسرعة األجسام الثابتة والمتحركة‬
‫كالطائرات‪ ،‬والسفن‪ ،‬والعربات‪ ،‬وحالة الطقس‪ ،‬وشكل‬
‫التضاريس وبعض االستخدامات األخرى كالتنقيب والكشف فى‬
‫االعماق وكذلك تقنيته وتطبيقاته في الهندسة المدنية‪...‬‬
 Course Contents:
(Basics, Types, Applications)
 Basic Relations: Range and angle measuring, Principles,
Radar equation, Pulse radar block diagram and
operation, CW radar block diagram and operation,
Radar measuring accuracy and resolutions.
 Radar application in weapon systems: surveillance
radars, 2-D search radars, synthetic aperture radar
compression technique, low-probability of intercept
radars.
 Target tracking radar: track-while scan tracking systems,
missile guidance radar, 3-D search radars.
 Special purpose radar types: millimeter-wave radar, laser
radar.
 Air-surveillance radar: HF over the horizon radar,
bistatic radar.
Materials are Descriptive and Little Mathematical Analysis
 Grading Scheme
 Class Activity 15%
 Attendance
 Assignments
 Mid-Term 20%
 Term Project 25%
◦ Survey, theoretical
◦ Simulation, software
◦ Design, hardware
 Final-Exam 40%
Term Project (I): Simulation
 Term Project (II): Design
Implementing Ultrasonic-Based Radar Signal
Processing Using Arduino Microcontroller
The project is aimed to demonstrate the Code: is available
working mechanism of a real-time radar
system. It uses ultrasonic waves to detect
an object and measure its distance and
angular position, and then displays the
results obtained on a computer screen
using the Arduino microcontroller. The
selected microcontroller will be
programmed to provide the required signal Breadboard
processing simulating the actual radar
performance. The complete program is a (Arduino, Servometer, Ultrasonic sensor)
combination of different functions. Prototype of the aimed System
The developed code will include the main The corresponding angle of the
functions and other related subroutines, rotation of the ultrasonic sensor
which are used to configure various ports and the angle of the motor
of the microcontroller to control the operation are important tasks
required system functioning process such as for monitoring consideration
detection, tracking and rotation.
Term Project (III): Design
Ultrasonic Range Detector Using Arduino and SR-04F
 The aim is to measure distance without using ruler. Here we make a
Arduino distance measuring device with a ultrasonic module similar to
a bat.
 What is Radar?
 RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging System.
 It is basically an electromagnetic system used to detect the
location and distance of both moving and fixed far-off
objects from the point where the RADAR is placed.
 It operates in the UHF and microwave range.
 It works by radiating energy into space and monitoring the
echo or reflected signal from the objects.
 Clutter and other obstacles can cause false target detection
or even missing target detection..
 The electrical and magnetic properties of the transmission
medium are important for the required measurements.

:
Radar Definitions
Linguistically, RADAR, as a competing technique, is an
acronym derived from the words:

 RAdio Detection And Ranging.

 Radio Aid to Detection And Ranging.
 RAdio Direction-finding And Ranging.
 RAdio Detection Angle and Ranging (Recently).
 More recently LIDAR or LADAR systems — which use
laser beams in place of radio/microwave ones — have
begun to be used in 1971..
Radar Concept

Naturally built-in Radar

Bat
 Radar Merits !
1. Radar was first developed (UK, USA, Germany @ WWII ) to warm
of the approach of hostile aircraft and for directing anti-aircraft
weapons.
2. Radar implemented to have the ability to see and not to be seen
(LPI).
3. The possibility of confrontation of jamming and deception.
4. Radar cannot resolve details or colors such as the eyes do.
5. Radar can see in conditions which do not permit the eye to see
such as darkness, haze, rain and smoke.
6. Radar can also measure the range for so distant objects.
7. It was radar that gave birth to microwave technology.
8. In fact the early researchers found out that the highest
frequencies gave the most accurate results.
i. Produce the best echoes.
ii. High resolution makes it possible to detect smaller targets.
iii. Permit the use of smaller antennas size.
 Radar Frequency Bands
Wavelength 1 km 1m 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm

Frequency 1 MHz 1 GHz 109 Hz 1012 Hz

IR UV
Visible

Ku
UHF L-Band K
S-Band C-Band X-Band Ka
VH W
F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Allocated Frequency (GHz)

30 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Wavelength (cm)
Radar Frequency Band
Operating Frequency Bands and Usage
 Microwaves: What and Why
 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from about 300MHz –
300GHz with short wavelengths in air ranging from 100cm – 1mm.
 The word Microwave means very short wave, which is the shortest wavelength region
of the radio spectrum and a part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Microwaves have large bandwidths compared to the common bands like short waves
(SW), ultrahigh frequency (UHF) waves, etc.
 They can reflect by conducting surfaces just like optical waves since they travel in
straight line.
 Microwave currents flow through a thin outer layer of an ordinary cable.
 Microwaves are easily attenuated within short distances.
 They are not reflected by ionosphere and are capable of freely propagating through due
their high frequencies.
 Microwaves have the ability to use high gain directive antennas, any EM wave can be
focused in a specified direction (just as the focusing of light rays with lenses or
reflectors).
 Microwaves have a wide range of applications in modern technology such as
telecommunications, radar and other commercial and industrial applications.
 Fading effect due to the variation in the transmission medium is more effective at low
frequency. Due to the line of sight (LOS) propagation and high frequencies, there is less
fading effect and hence microwave communication is more reliable.
 Transmitter / receiver power requirements are pretty low at microwave frequencies
compared to that at short wave band.
 The presence of such a transparent window in a microwave band facilitates the study of
microwave radiation from the sun and stars in radio astronomical research of space.
 How to reduce your exposure
to phone radiation
 Do not use your phone more than necessary and keep your
calls short
 Send a text instead of making a call
 Try to avoid using your phone if the signal strength is low -
find a better location to make a call
 Try to use the phone outdoors rather than inside, or move
close to a window to make a call
 Keep the phone (and particularly the aerial) as far as possible
from your head
 Avoid touching the aerial while the phone is turned on, and
keep the phone away from areas of the body such as eyes and
other internal organs
 Limit usage as much as possible if pregnant
 Switch off your phone when not in use
 ‫‪Radar Technology‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Radar technology was once mainly the domain of military users,‬‬
‫‪but it continues to expand into instruments for weather,‬‬
‫‪automotive safety, and even astronomy.‬‬
‫‪ Measurements of radar systems are as important as ever,‬‬
‫‪especially as these systems impact so many different‬‬
‫‪applications. These applications are summarized in next slide.‬‬
‫تستخدم الرادارات في تطبيقات مدنية وعسكرية ال حصر لها ولقد أدى استخدامها في كثير من‬
‫هذه التطبيقات في تحسين أدائها بل إن تعطل الرادارات فيها قد يؤدي لشلل تام في عملها كما‬
‫في أنظمة المالحة الجوية والبحرية‪ .‬وتنحصر مهام الرادارات في التطبيقات المختلفة في أربعة‬
‫مهام رئيسية وهي المراقبة ( )‪ (surveillance‬والتتبع ( )‪ (tracking‬والتصوير الراداري‬
‫( )‪ (radar imaging‬واختراق األرض لكشف ما تحت سطحها )‪.)ground penetration‬‬
‫وفي كل تطبيق توجد أنواع ال حصر لها من الرادارات حيث تتفاوت في أحجامها وفي الترددات‬
‫المستخدمة وطرق المسح ونوع الهوائيات وطرق معالجة اإلشارات وهذا بالتالي ينعكس على‬
‫أثمانها التي تتراوح بين عدة مئات من الدوالرات وماليين الدوالرات‪.‬‬
 Radar Applications
1. Military Applications:
 In air defense it is used for target detection, target recognition and weapon control (directing the
weapon to the tracked targets).
 In missile system to guide the weapon.
 Identifying enemy locations in map.
2. Air Traffic Control:
 To control air traffic near airports.
 The Air Surveillance RADAR is used to detect and display the aircraft’s position in the airport
terminals.
 To guide the aircraft to land in bad weather using Precision Approach RADAR.
 To scan the airport surface for aircraft and ground vehicle positions
3. Remote Sensing:
 RADAR can be used for observing weather or observing planetary positions and monitoring sea ice
to ensure smooth route for ships.
4. Ground Traffic Control:
 RADAR can also be used by traffic police to determine speed of the vehicle, controlling the
movement of vehicles by giving warnings about presence of other vehicles or any other obstacles
behind them.
5. Space:
 To guide the space vehicle for safe landing on moon
 To observe the planetary systems
 To detect and track satellites
 To monitor the meteors ‫أنظمة الكواكب‬
 ‫االستخدامات العسكرية‬
‫‪ ‬إن أكثر المجاالت استخداما للرادار هي القوات المسلحة بمختلف أنواعها البرية‬
‫والبحرية والجوية وقد كانت االحتياجات الحربية هي الدافع الرئيسي في ظهور‬
‫الرادار وفي تطويره للمستوى الذي هو عليه اآلن‪ .‬يستخدم الرادار في األنظمة‬
‫العسكرية في مهام ال حصر لها ويتراوح حجم الرادار فيها من تلك التي تحمل باليد‬
‫إلى التي تحتل مئات األمتار المربعة أما تعقيدها فيتراوح بين تلك التي تقيس بعد‬
‫الهدف إلى التي ترسم صورا ثالثية األبعاد لساحات المعارك‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬إن أهم مهام الرادار في األنظمة الحربية هو في كشف وتحديد مواقع األهداف‬
‫العسكرية للعدو كالطائرات الحربية والصواريخ بمختلف أنواعها وحامالت‬
‫الطائرات والغواصات والسفن والزوارق الحربية والدبابات والمدافع والمركبات‬
‫وحتى األفراد‪ .‬أما المهمة الثانية فهي في توجيه الصواريخ وقذائف المدافع‬
‫والدبابات ضد أهداف العدو بشكل آلي وإصابتها بدقة عالية وذلك من خالل تحديد‬
‫موقع الهدف أو من خالل إضاءة الهدف باألمواج الكهرومغناطيسية للصواريخ‬
‫المحملة برادارات تلتقط الموجة المنعكسة عن الهدف فتقوم بتوجيه الصواريخ نحوه‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬يبلغ مدى الرادارات المستخدمة في المدافع المضادة للطائرات ‪ 10‬كيلومترات بينما‬
‫يصل إلى ‪ 30‬كيلومتر في الصواريخ قصيرة المدى وإلى ‪ 100‬كيلومتر في‬
‫الصواريخ متوسطة المدى وإلى ‪ 1000’s‬الكيلومترات في الصواريخ بعيدة المدى‪.‬‬
Radar – Electronic Eye
“Microwave Echo-location” for military and civilian applications since 1936.

Target Information
 Electronic device (mech. parts!)
 2-Way communication system • Position
 SISO ! • Velocity
 Objectives: • Angle
 Location, • Type
Tx
 Distance,
 Direction,
 Tracking Wasted echo
Rx
Microwave
Transmitter

 Considered as an Electronic eye.

 Integrated System Technology.
Receiver
- Electronics + Mechanics + Applications.
 High Value-Added Industrial Technology
 Radar Operation
 The RADAR system generally consists of a transmitter which
produces an electromagnetic signal (read out signal) which is
radiated into space by an antenna.
 When this signal strikes any object, it gets reflected or reradiated in
many directions. This reflected or echo signal (response signal) is
received by the radar antenna which delivers it to the receiver,
where it is processed to determine the geographical statistics of the
object.
 The range is determined by the calculating the time taken by the
signal to travel from the RADAR to the target and back.
 The target’s location is measured in angle, from the direction of
maximum amplitude echo signal, the antenna points to.
 To measure range and location of moving objects, Doppler Effect is
used.
 The choice of a suitable transmit waveform is an important problem
in radar design. This is so because the waveform controls resolution
and clutter performance and also bears heavily on the system cost.
Return Signal Information
Antenna Propagation

Target
Cross
Section
Reflected
Transmitted Pulse (“echo”)
Pulse
Radar observables:
 Target range (distance) Radar
Signal
 Target angles (azimuth & elevation)
Processing
 Target size (radar cross section)
 Target speed (Doppler)
 Target features (imaging)
 Target identity Target information
 Target height
Information Definitions
 Important terms
 Bearing resolution:
• Refers to the ability of a radar system to distinguish
targets at the same range but different bearings.
• Degree of range bearing depends on: radar beam width
and range of targets.
 Range resolution:
• Refers to the ability of a radar system to distinguish
between two or more targets on the same bearing but
different ranges.
• A well designed radar system, will all other factors at
maximum efficiency should be able to distinguish targets
separated by ½ of the pulse width (PW), i.e.
Factors Affecting Radar Performance
 The performance of a radar system can be judged by
the following:
1) The maximum range at which it can see a target of a
specified size.
2) The accuracy of its measurement of target location in
range and angle.
3) Its ability to distinguish one target from another.
4) Its ability to detect the desired target echo when
masked by large clutter echoes, unintentional
interfering signals from other “friendly” transmitters, or
intentional radiation from hostile jamming (if a military
radar).
5) Its ability to recognize the type of target.
6) Its availability (ability to operate when needed),
reliability, and maintainability.
 Radar Cross Section (σ,m )
2

 For radar, a target is defined by the Radar Cross Section (RCS),

which is the part of the surface of the target that reflects echoes in
the direction of the place where the receiver is located.
 Thus, RCS is a measure of how detectable an object is by radar
where a larger RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected.
 An object reflects a limited amount of radar energy back to the
source. The factors that influence this include:
 The material of which the target is made.
 The absolute size and the relative size of the target. ‫بعض االهداف حجمها معروف مسبقا‬
 The wavelength of the transmitted radar signal.
 The incident angle (angle at which the radar beam hits a particular portion of
the target, which depends upon the shape of the target and its orientation to
the radar source).
 The reflected angle (angle at which the reflected beam leaves the part of the
target hit which depends upon incident angle).
 The polarization of the transmitted and the received radiation with respect to
the orientation of the target. Thales, Encyclopedia, RCS
‫ حيث يتموج مجال كهربائي عموديا على‬،‫االستقطاب من أهم خصائص الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية أنها موجة مستعرضة بالنسبة التجاه انتشارها‬
‫ ويمكن‬. ‫الضوء هو أحد انواع الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية‬.‫ وكالهما يتموج عموديا على اتجاه انتشار الموجة الكهرومغناطيسية‬، ‫مجال مغناطيسي‬
‫لمواد خاصة بلورية استقطاب الموجة الكهرومغناطيسية فهي تسمح مثال بنفاذ مركبة المجال الكهربائي وتمنع مركبة المجال المغناطيسي‬
 Radar Signals
 What are the types of a radar signal.
i. Echoes from desired targets
ii. Echoes from undesired targets.
iii. Noise signals in the receivers.
iv. Jamming signals.
v. Signals from hostile sources.

 Are the echo signals always guaranteed.

i. Not always.

 What about the strength of the echo signal.

i. The nature of the material of the surface of the intended target.
ii. The shape of the target surface (Regular/flat vs. Irregular/curved). Thales

iii. The diffraction phenomenon.

iv. The target size.
v. The target distance.
Radar Signal Processing
y[n] = αx[n – D] + N[n]
Where:
y[n] = Reflected Signal
x[n] = Transmitted Signal
α = Attenuation factor in the round trip transmission
D = Delay time
N[n] = Added noise
The processing involves:
a) Distance measurement
 Transit time
 Frequency modulation
b) Speed measurement
c) Reduction of interference effects
d) Plot and track extraction.
Radar Signal Processing
 In the modern Radar systems, DSP is used extensively. At
the transmitter end, it generates and shapes the
transmission pulses, controls the antenna beam pattern
while at the receiver, DSP performs also many complex
tasks, including STAP (space time adaptive processing) - the
removal of clutter, and beam forming (electronic guidance
of direction).
 The front end of the receiver for Radar is still often analog
due the high frequencies involved. With fast ADCs often
multiple channel, complex IF signals are digitized. However,
digital technology is coming closer to the antenna. We may
also require fast digital interfaces to detect antenna
position, or control other hardware.
Radar Signal Processing
 Reduction of interference effects:
◦ SP is employed in radar systems to reduce the radar
interference effects.
◦ SP techniques include MTI, pulse Doppler, constant false
alarm rate and digital terrain model (DTM) are also used
in clutter environments.
 ‫‪Radar Signal Processing‬‬
‫من أحد الطرق للتعرف على األشياء هو توجيه موجات لتصطدم بها ثم دراسة الموجات‬
‫المرتدة منها‪ .‬وبالتالي تحدد المسافة بين الرادار والهدف من الزمن الذي تقطعه النبضة‬
‫المرسلة والتي اليزيد عرضها عن قليل من الميكروثوانى في الذهاب واإلياب حيث يتحدد‬
‫مكان الهدف‪ .‬يحدد مدى العمل للمنظومة الرادراية بعاملين‪ :‬مقدار الطاقة المرسلة في النبضة‬
‫المرسلة ‪ ،‬ومقدارالضجيج في المستقبل الراداري وحساسيته‪ .‬لألسف الشديد زيادة الطاقة في‬
‫النبضة المرسلة تتطلب زيادة عرض النبضة ‪ ،‬وهذا يسئ إلي دقة القياس وقدره التمييز ورؤية‬
‫األجسام البعيدة والقدرة على دقة تحديد مكانها ‪ .‬أي أن هناك تضارب بين عاملين هامين هما‬
‫مدي عمل كبير ودقة قياس عالية‪ .‬لقد تجلت تأثيرات ‪ DSP‬على الرادار بثالث نقاط‪:‬‬
Advances in Radar Technology
 Modern analog radar signals can be converted to digital
information.
 Active electronically scanned arrays (AESA) are
revolutionizing the performance of modern radar systems,
enabling an unprecedented degree of operational flexibility
‫يتيح درجة غير مسبوقة من المرونة التشغيلية‬. An AESA, is a type of
phased array antenna, that is a computer-controlled array
antenna in which the beam of radio-waves can be
electronically steered to point in different directions
without moving the antenna (problems of mechanical parts).
 MIMO radar is a relatively new concept in the field of radar
signal processing. MIMO radars can transmit multiple signals,
via their antenna elements, that can be different from each
other, thus, resulting in waveform diversity. This gives these
systems an advantage over the traditional phased-array
radar systems which can only transmit scaled versions of
single waveform and, thus, can not exploit waveform
diversity.
Advances in Radar Technology
 The impact of cellular systems on radar
performance. MIMO radar and a cellular system
sharing spectrum such that radar waveforms are
not interfering with the cellular system.
 Placing real-time radar information on tactical
networks and viewing the data through Internet-
like interfaces may open new possibilities in
disseminating‫ نشر‬radar to those who need it and
blending information from one radar system with
another or other kinds of sensors.
‫إن وضع معلومات رادارية في الوقت الحقيقي على الشبكات‬
‫التكتيكية وعرض البيانات من خالل واجهات تشبه اإلنترنت قد يفتح‬
‫إمكانيات جديدة في نشر الرادار ألولئك الذين يحتاجون إليه ويمزج‬
‫المعلومات من نظام رادار مع نوع آخر أو أنواع أخرى من أجهزة‬
.‫االستشعار‬
Concluding Points
 The transmission and reception of radio waves is the
fundamental operation of radar waves.
 Many properties and phenomena of radio waves are crucial to
the operation of the radar system.
 The Earth’s atmosphere plays a central role in radar operation,
as it is the medium of propagation for the radio waveforms.
 The Doppler Effect also plays a vital role in practical radar
systems.
 Properties of the radar, the target, and the environment all
contribute to determine the maximum range at which the radar
can detect a target.
 Radar has numerous applications including air traffic control,
meteorology, and military applications.
 Understanding the physical and theoretical underpinnings
(fundamentals) of radar systems is essential to understanding
radar systems themselves.
Radar Block Diagram
Components of Radar Systems
 Transmitter
 Antenna
antenna
 Receiver
 Indicator
Transmitter

(?)

Pulse compression
Components Functions
 A Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron,
Travelling Wave Tube or a power Oscillator like a Magnetron. The
signal is first generated using a waveform generator and then
amplified in the power amplifier.
 Waveguides: The waveguides are transmission lines for
transmission of the RADAR signals.
 Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar
arrays or electronically steered phased arrays.
 Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a
transmitter or a receiver. It can be a gaseous device that would
produce a short circuit at the input to the receiver when
transmitter is working.
 Receiver: It can be superheterodyne receiver or any other
receiver which consists of a processor to process the signal and
detect it.
◦ A superheterodyne receiver is a type of radio receiver that uses frequency
mixing to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF)
which can be more conveniently processed than the original carrier
frequency.
 Threshold Decision: The output of the receiver is compared
with a threshold to detect the presence of any object. If the output
is below any threshold, the presence of noise is assumed.
Types of Radar
 These types depend on different number of criteria, such as:
◦ Applications.
◦ Generated waveforms.
◦ Dimensions and Ability.
◦ Etc.…
Primary and Secondary Radars
CW and Pulse Radar
 Target Range
Tx
Rx

time

t = 2 x range / speed of light

measure t, then determine Range

Example: t = .001 sec

Speed of light = c = 3x108 meters/second
Range = .001 x 3x108 / 2 = 150,000 m = 150 km
We will see that Radars work by…

Transmitting microwave pulses….

and measuring the …

•Time delay (range)
•Amplitude
•Polarization
•Frequency

… of the microwave echo in each range gate

Range Resolution
Top View: 2D

Range Resolution
ct
DRr =
2 q

Azimuth Range Resolution

DRa = R × q
 ‫‪Thanks‬‬
‫شكرا لحســن االستماع‬
‫‪April - 2018‬‬