Course Outline

1. Introduction
2. Materials of Microsystems Engineering
3. Clean Rooms/Yield
4. Thin Films
5. Lithography
6. Surface Micromachining
7. Bulk Micromachining
8. LIGA
9. Packaging Technology

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 1

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 2. Materials of Microsystem Engineering

2.1. Materials - Overview

2.2. Base Material Silicon
2.2.1 Chemical Properties
2.2.2 Crystal Structure
2.2.3 Mechanical Properties
2.2.4 Electrical Properties
2.2.5 Piezoelectric Properties
2.2.6 Thermal Properties
2.2.7 Wafer Production

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 Elasticity of Silicon and Steel

Madou, Fundamentals of Microfabrication

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 3

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 Mechanical Properties of Silicon

Absence of fatigue in crystal

silicon was decisive for the
success story of silicon in
pressure sensor elements
strain

-> steel

stress

• Single crystalline silicon shows no fatigue effects

• Single crystalline silicon shows no plastic deformation at T< 600°C

When a silicon structure is put under tensile stress, either it returns

to its original shape or it breaks.

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 2. Materials of Microsystem Engineering

2.1. Materials - Overview

2.2. Base Material Silicon
2.2.1 Chemical Properties
2.2.2 Crystal Structure
2.2.3 Mechanical Properties
2.2.4 Electrical Properties
2.2.5 Piezoelectric Properties
2.2.6 Thermal Properties
2.2.7 Wafer Production

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 2.2.4. Electrical Properties
1. Energy Bands and Energy Gap
2. Carrier Concentration at Thermal Equilibrium
3. Doped Semiconductors

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 10.11.2013

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena 6
 Formation of Energy Bands in a Periodic Arrangement

degenerate levels split up

to form bands
discrete energy levels
in individual atoms

Source[1]

Source[4]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 7

 Insulator-Semiconductor-Metal

Source[4]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 8

 Temperature Dependence of Band Gap
due to changes in crystal spacing,
the band gap is a function of
temperature

𝛼𝑇 2
𝐸𝑔 𝑇 ≈ 𝐸𝑔 0 −
𝑇+𝛽

Source[1]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 9

 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors

Source[4]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 10

Direct – indirect semiconductor

(Crystall momentum p) (Crystall momentum p)

For absorption no additional Additional momentum has to be brought up by

momentum needed phonon emission/absorption

High absorption probability near Low absorption probability near band gap
band gap minimum minimum

e.g. GaAs and other III-V- Direct transition needs high photon energies
semiconductors
e.g. elementary sc`s like Si
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 11
 Interaction with Light

Absorption spectrum of Si
and GaAs

Direct transitions of Silicon

at around 3.2eV (~290nm)

Maximum wavelength at
1.12eV  1100nm

Source: [5]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 12

2.2.4. Electrical Properties

1. Energy Bands and Energy Gap

2. Carrier Concentration at Thermal Equilibrium
3. Doped Semiconductors

10.11.2013 13
 Undoped Silicon at T > 0K

covalent bonds break up  electron hole pairs are created

generated holes and electrons are free to move
 conductivity

How many electron hole pairs are generated at some temperature T?

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 14
How many electron hole pairs are generated at some temperature T?

Basic principle that governs occupation

of electronic states is the Pauli exclusion
principle
 electrons are Fermions

Fermi-distribution controls
occupation of states:

1
f (E) 
Source[5]
1  exp  E  EF
k BT 

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 15

 Fermi Energy Level
Ec = 1.12eV
E/eV
E/eV

EF= 0,56eV

f(E;T=300K)

at E=0.08eV
occupied states
Ev = 0 eV above Ev
98% of
empty states all states
are occupied
for T= 0K probability for a state below EF to be occupied: f(E < EF) = 1.0
for T= 0K probability for a state above EF to be occupied: f(E > EF) = 0.0

for T> 0K probability for a state at EF to be occupied: f(EF) = 0.5

EF represents the chemical potential of a material

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 16

 Fermi Distribution

F(E)

EF
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 17
 Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators

Number of electrons in conduction band

density of states
Fermi distribution

18
source: [3]
 Concentration of Electons and Holes

density of states at
valence- and conduction band
edge
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 19
 Concentration of Electons and Holes

D(E)

Density of energy states D, given by:

3/2
Electron density in the conduction band:
2𝑚𝑛 1
𝐷 𝐸 = 4𝜋 ∙ 𝐸2 dn
ℎ2  f ( E )  D( E )
dE
Intrinsic semiconductor – Integration :
Hole density in the valence band:
Evac EV
dn dp
 1  f ( E ) D( E )
dp
n0  
EC
dE
dE  0 dE dE  p0  ni dE

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 20

 Concentration of Electons and Holes – Basic Relations

mass action law of intrinsic semiconductor

ni2  n0  p0

Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor:

𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑣
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑖 = + 𝑙𝑛
2 2 𝑁𝑐

intrinsic carrier concentration:

𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑣 exp⁡ −
𝑘𝑇

density of states at valence- and

conduction band edge
Source [4]
2.2.4. Electrical Properties

1. Energy Bands and Energy Gap

2. Carrier Concentration at Thermal Equilibrium
3. Doped Semiconductors

10.11.2013 22
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 23
 Dopant Impurities in the Silicon Lattice

Si Si

Si P Si Si B Si

Si Si

Substitution of some lattice atoms by donors Substitution of some lattice atoms by acceptors
(group 5 elements) group 3 elements)
e.g.: P, As, Sb e.g.: B, In, Al, Ga

 Introduction of additional
 Introduction of additional holes
electrons with low binding
energy to the atoms

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 24

 Doping of Silicon

25
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 25
 Doping

-> Extreme pureness of chemistry

in semiconductor research and
industry

Doping: 1E13cm-3 n-type -> 1E14cm-3 n-type

Conductivity: 40Ohmcm -> 400Ohmcm

1cm-3 Silicon contains approx. 1E23 atoms/cm-3

26
10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 26
Shifting of Fermi-energies due to Doping:

n-type doping: p-type doping:

EC EC
EF

EF
Ev Ev
N NA
EF  EC  kT ln D EV  EF  kT ln
NC NV
N D , N A  Donor and acceptor concentrat ion
N C , NV  Effective state density for electrons in conduction
band and for holes in valence band

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 27

 Mass Action Law Still Valid – In Thermal Equilibrium

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 28

 Occupation of Energy States in the Extrinsic Semiconductor

Source [4]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 29

 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration

Source[2]

10.11.2013 ©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 30

 References for Electrical Properties

[1] S.M.Sze, K.K.Ng, Semiconductor Devices 3rd edition, Wiley Interscience, 2007
[2] Ibach, Lüth, Festkörperphysik, Einführung in die Grundlagen, Springer-Lehrbuch 1990
[3] Zengerle, Vorlesungsskript „Mikrosystemtechnik-Technologien und Prozesse“, 2006/07, IMTEK
Karlsruhe
[4] S.M.Sze, Semiconductor Devices – Physics and Technology, Wiley Interscience 1985
[5] A. Luque (Ed.), S. Hegedus (Ed.). Handbook of Photovoltaik Science and Engineering. Wiley,
2003.

©2012, Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

10.11.2013 31
 2. Materials of Microsystem Engineering

2.1. Materials - Overview

2.2. Base Material Silicon
2.2.1 Chemical Properties
2.2.2 Crystal Structure
2.2.3 Mechanical Properties
2.2.4 Electrical Properties
2.2.5 Piezoelectric Properties
2.2.6 Thermal Properties
2.2.7 Wafer Production

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 Quartz (SiO2)
Piezoelectricity

• Silicon exhibits NO piezoeffect

• α-Quartz has a polar axis and thus

shows piezo- and electrostritive effects

• Piezoeffect is only observed in the

absence of point symmetry; no center
of inversion;
e.g. bcc crystal shows no piezo effect

• If a polar axis exists -> piezo effect

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 33

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Piezoelectricity of Quartz (SiO2)

a. Original state without stress

b. Longitudinal piezoelectric effect

E-field parallel to excitation

c. Transverse piezoelectric effect

E-field perpendicular to excitation
No E-field parallel to excitation

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 34

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 Piezoelectricity of Quartz (SiO2)

Piezoeffect
Mechanical stress induces an electical voltage

Inverse piezoeffect
Electrical voltage induces a mechanical stress
and thus a deformation of the specimen

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 35

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Piezoelectricity of Quartz (SiO2)

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 36

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 coupling factor elastic coefficient

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Application
Series Bimorph
motion

Parallel Bimorph
motion

Tube Actuator

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 38

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Piezoresistivity
Silicon is non piezoelectric, but
ALL solid materials are piezoresistive

• Mere geometric dependence of piezoresistive effect: k=2

• Metals exhibit a mere geometrical piezoresistive effect

• For semiconductors: k>> 2

• k is called „piezoresistive gauge factor“

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 39

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Piezoresistivity for Semiconductors

Deformation of crystal -> change in lattice constant

-> change of band structure
-> change of population density in conduction band
-> loss of isotropic conduction properties
-> change of conductivity (transverse, longitudinal effect)

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 40

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Piezoresistivity: Application in a Pressure Sensor

Area where piezoresistive

resistors are to be implanted

Typical arrangement of
longitudinal and transverse
piezoresistive resistors on a
quadratic membrane
-> brigde circuit

resistor

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 41

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 2. Materials of Microsystem Engineering

2.1. Materials - Overview

2.2. Base Material Silicon
2.2.1 Chemical Properties
2.2.2 Crystal Structure
2.2.3 Mechanical Properties
2.2.4 Electrical Properties
2.2.5 Piezoelectric Properties
2.2.6 Thermal Properties
2.2.7 Wafer Production

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
 Thermal Conductivity of Silicon

Properties of Silicon
• λSi = 150W m-1 K-1
(comparable to metal)
• Isotropic
• Weak dependance on doping

Consequences
• Silicon is a good thermal conductor
-> good news for:
heat „removal“; i.e. cooling of ICs
-> bad news for:
heat storage; i.e. measurement of
thermal radiation
• If thermal isolation is needed
-> implement bridges and membranes
made of Si-Nitride Thermal fluid flow sensor

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 43

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Thermal Expansion

Elongation with temperature change

α: is called linear expansion coefficient

Bimetal effect:
• Combine materials with differing thermal expansion coefficients
• Change of temperature will induce mechanical stress
• Mechanical stress will relax by deformation

Good news for: thermal actuators

Bad news for: stress between layers (i.e. depositon at elevated
temperatures) or between chip and package

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 44

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]
 Application: Bimetallic light modulator

Coefficient of thermal expansion: Au = 14,2E-6 K-1

light beam
aperture

resistance

Microsystems Engineering Prof. Dr. Michael Rüb 45

Chapter 02 Fachhochschule Jena
source: [3]