Surveying Theory and Practice

I. Concepts on Surveying

II. Basic Survey Measurements

III. Survey Operations

IV. Mapping

V. Types of Surveys
I. Concepts on Surveying
 Surveying
 Uses of Surveying
 Types of Surveying
 Survey Measurements and Adjustments

II. Basic Survey Measurements

 Distance Measurement
 Vertical Distance Measurement
 Angle and Direction Measurement

III. Survey Operations

 Traverse
 Intersection and Resection
 Triangulation and Trilateration
 Astronomic Observation
 Modern Positioning Systems

IV. Mapping
 Mapping and Map Drafting
 Map Projections

V. Types of Surveys
 Land Surveys
 Mining Surveys
 Hydrographic Surveys
 Route and Construction Surveys
 CONCEPTS ON SURVEYING

SURVEYING

Definition
- is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between
objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction
of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements. – Davis, Foote, etc.

- is the art of making such measurements of relative positions of

points on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural
and artificial features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or
vertical relationships. – Clarke

- is the art and science of determining angular and linear

measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of
points, lines and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other
extraterrestrial bodies through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques. – La Putt

General Classifications of Surveying

1. Plane Surveying - is that type of surveying in which the earth is

considered to be a flat surface, and where distances and areas
involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the earth is
disregarded.

2. Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extent that takes into

account the spheroidal shape of the earth.

SURVEY MEASUREMENTS

Measurement - is the process determining the extent, size, or dimensions

of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. ex. angles,
lengths, elevations, etc.

Methods of Obtaining Measurements

1. Direct Measurements – is a comparison of the measured quantity

with a standard measuring unit.

2. Indirect Measurements – the observed value is obtained by its

relationship with other known values.
Units of Measurement

1. Linear, Area, Volume – ex. meter, hectare, liter or cubic meters

2. Angular – 2rad = 360 degs = 400 grads = 6400 mils

SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM

A circle of 360 degrees

1 degree = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds

CENTESIMAL SYSTEM

A circle of 400 grads

100C centesimal minutes per grad
100CC centesimal seconds per centesimal minute

MIL SYSTEM

Divides the circle into 6400 increments or mils

One mil subtends an arc of approximately 0.98 unit on a
circle of 1000 unit radius.

RADIAN SYSTEM

Is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc

equal in length to the circles radius.

Degrees Grads Mils Radians

1 deg 1 1.11111 17.77778 0.017453

1 grad 0.9 1 16.0 0.015708
1 mil 0.05625 0.0625 1 0.000875
1 radian 57.29578 63.66198 1018.59164 1
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

Errors – are defined as the difference between the true value

and the measured value of a quantity
 beyond the control of the surveyor, therefore is inherent in
all measurements

Mistakes - are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because

of carelessness, inattention, poor judgment and improper
execution of the surveyor

Blunder - is a large mistake

Types of Errors

1. Systematic Errors – always have the same sign, thus

accumulating. It occurs because of instrumental factors, natural
causes and human limitations.

2. Accidental Errors – occurrences are matter of chance, varying in

signs, hence compensating. Also called random, compensating,
irregular and erratic errors.

Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental Errors – imperfections in to the instrument like

measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length

2. Natural Errors – caused by variations in of nature such as

changes in magnetic declination, wind, temperature, etc.

3. Personal or Human Errors – caused by limitations of the sense

of sight, touch, hearing; hence errors committed by humans.

Accuracy – indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or

true value of the quantity measured.

Precision – refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which

the physical measurement is made.
Theory of Probability

– is defined as the number of times something will probably occur

over the range of possible occurrences
- is useful only if accidental errors are present, systematic errors are
corrected
- is based on the following assumptions:

1. Small errors are numerous than large errors.

2. Very large errors do not occur.
3. Errors are as likely to be positive as negative.
4. The true or ideal value of quantity is taken as the mean of an
infinite number of like observations.

- results obtained after adjustments are not the true values, but most
probable values or MPV

True Value
- an ideal value that can never be obtained.

Most Probable Value or MPV

- refers to a quantity which, based on the available data, has more
chances of being correct than any other. Based on the arithmetic mean.
_
MPV or X = X / n = (X1 + X2 + X3 + ……. + Xn) / n

Residual or Deviation – is the difference of the measured value of a

quantity and it’s most probable value.
_
v=X-X

where v = the residual

X = measurement of a particular quantity
X = MPV of the quantity measured

Probable Error or PE– is a quantity which, when added to or subtracted

from the MPV, defines a range within there is a 50% chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside or outside the limits thus set.

PES = + 0.6745 wv2 / (n-1)

 PEm = + 0.6745 wv2 / n(n-1)

where PES = PE of any single measurement

PEm = PE of the mean
v2 = summation of the squares of the
residual
n = number of observations

If the MPV of a value is say 425.4 and the PEm is + .20 then the expression
of the probable limits of precision is

425.4 + .20

Relative or Precision - is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of

the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator.

The RE of the above example is .20 / 425.4 or 1: 2127

Weighted Observation – is defined by the reliability of the observations in

terms of conditions in the field, repetitive observations, etc.

Adjustments of Weighted Observation

1. The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding

probable errors.
2. The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.
3. Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of distances.

Interrelationship of Errors

1. Summation of Errors

PESum = + w PE12 + PE22 + PE32 + …… PEn2

 where PESum = probable error of the sum
PE1,PE2, etc = PE of each measurement

Ex. Find the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the
perimeter of a triangle whose sides are A = 125.41 + 0.04, B= 362.01 +
0.10 and C = 35.24 + 0.07.

2. Product of Errors

PEpro = + w (Q2 x PE1)2 + (Q1 x PE2)2

where PEpro = probable error of the product

PE1 and PE2 = PE of corresponding quantities
Q1 and Q2 = measured quantities

Ex. Determine the area of the lot and the probable error if the sides of a
rectangular lot is as follows: L = 45.23 + 0.05 and W = 10.56 + 0.02.
 BASIC SURVEY MEASUREMENTS

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Methods of Distance Measurements

I. Pacing – consists of counting the number of steps or paces in required

distance.

Pace – length of a step in walking (from toe to toe, heel to heel)

Stride – two paces or a double step

Pace factor – is determined by dividing the known distance by the

average paces required to traverse it.

Ex. A 50 m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a GE student for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial
taken is shown in the accompanying table.

Trial Line Taped No. of paces

Distace
1 AB 58
2 BA 57
3 AB 50.0 m 59
4 BA 57
5 AB 58
6 BA 60

Determine the following.

a) The pace factor

b) If the student then took 551, 553, 555, 552 and 556 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c) Assuming that the taped length of the line CD is 478 m, what is the
relative precision?
II. Taping – consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two points
and reading the distance indicated on the tape.

Gunter’s Chain – 66 feet long consisting of 100 links with each link
measuring 7.92 inches.

INCORRECT LENGTH OF TAPE

Applying corrections caused by incorrect length of tape is a simple

matter but should be carefully considered. Assume that the actual
length of a 100 m tape is 99.98 m, and a distance between fixed
points measured with this tape was recorded as 1322.78 m. Since
each full tape length was short by 0.02 m, the correct length is:

1322.78 - 0.02 * (1322.78) = 1322.78 – 0.26 = 1322.52 m

100.00

However, if a certain distance is to be established, such as in

staking out, with a tape known to be too short, the reverse is true. So
add the 0.26 m – i.e. lay out a length of 1323.04 m.

Corrections for incorrect tape lengths

WHEN TAPE IS TO LAY OUT A TO MEASURE A LINE

DISTANCE BETWEEN FIXED
POINTS

Too long Subtract Add

Too short Add Subtract

Correction in Taping

1. due to SLOPE or ALIGNMENT

fig.
B

s
h

A d
s = slope distance between A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = horizontal distance AC
Ch = slope correction = s – d

For gentle slopes (less than 20%): Ch = h2 / 2s

For steep slopes (20% to 30%): Ch = h2 / 2s + h4 / 8s3

For very steep slopes ( > 30% ): Ch = s ( 1-cosθ )

2. due to TEMPERATURE

 when temperature increases, tape expands causing the tape to

be too long.
 When temperature decreases, tape contracts causing the tape to
be too short.

Ct = α L (T – To)

Ct= correction
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
L = measured length
T = temperature at which measurement is taken
To= standard temperature
α = 0.0000116 units / oC
α = 0.00000645 units / oF
3. due to TENSION
 when tension or pull is great, tape elongates causing the tape to
be too long.

CP = ( P – PO ) L
AE

CP = correction
P = applied tension
PO = tension on which tape is standardized
L = length
A = cross sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity

4. due to SAG or WIND

 sag causes the tape measurement longer and layout shorter.

CS = w2L3 = W2L
24p2 24p2

CS = correction
w = weight of tape, lb/ft or kg/m
W = total weight of tape between supports, lb or kg
L = distance between supports
P = applied pull

5. STANDARDIZATION OF TAPE LENGTH

CD = ( SL  correction ) ( D/L )

SL = standard length of tape

L = length of tape used
D = measured distance
III. Graphical and Mathematical Computations– distances on the
ground are calculated by photogrammetry, trilateration and
triangulation.

IV. Mechanical and Electronic Devices - like the odometer, optical

rangefinder, measuring wheel, edm apparatus (geodimeter,
tellurometer) and total station.

V. Tachymetry and Tacheomatry – is based on the optical geometry of

the instruments employed and is an indirect method of measurement.
A transit or a theodolite is used to determine subtended intervals and
angles on a graduated rod or scale from which distances are computed
by trigonometry. It is performed by either subtense bar method or
stadia method.

1. Subtense Bar Method – is done by measuring a horizontal angle

between two vertical planes formed by the azimuth axis of the
theodolite and the respective ends of the subtense bar. Any inclination
has no effect.

Subtense Bar – 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube

through which runs an invar rod.

Principle:

A B

Horizontal Distance (HD)

note: subtense bar XY is set up perpendicular to line AB,

Tan (θ/2) = (XY/2) -------- AB = (XY/2)

AB Tan (θ/2)

and since XY is equal to 2.00 m and HD = AB, we have

HD = 1 / Tan (θ/2)

where: HD = horizontal distance

θ = subtended horizontal angle

2. Stadia Method – is done by observing through the

telescope the apparent locations of the two stadia hairs in a vertically
held rod.

A. Horizontal Sight

Stadia rod
B

a a’ F horizontal
b b’
c f
C d A

by ratio and proportion:

f/i = d/s

d = (s) f/i

D = c+f+d

= s (f/i) + (f + c)

If K = f/i = stadia interval factor

 C = f + c = stadia constant

then D = Ks + C

usually K = 100

B. Inclined Sights

V = 1/2Kssin2 + Csin

H = Kscos2 + Ccos
by ratio and proportion:

f/i = d / s cos θ

d = f/i s cos θ

H = ( f + d + c ) cos θ

H = (f / i)s cos2 θ + (f + c)cos θ

V = ( f + d + c ) sin θ

V = (f / i)s cos θ sin θ + (f + c)sin θ

V = (f / i)s sin 2θ + (f + c)sin θ

2
Or better yet:

Id = Ks(cos θ) + C

Hd = (Ks(cos θ) + C) cos θ

Vd = (Ks(cos θ) + C)sin θ

De = HI + Vd - RR

where: De = Difference in Elevation

HI = Height of Instrument
RR = Rod reading
 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

Leveling

Leveling - is the procedure used to determine differences in elevation

between points.

Elevation - is the vertical distance above or below a reference datum.

Vertical line - is a line from the surface of the earth to the earth’s center. It
is also referred to as a plumb line or a line of gravity.

Level line - is a line in a level surface.

Level surface - is a curved surface parallel to the mean surface of the

earth. It is best visualized as the surface of a large body of water at rest.

Horizontal line - is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line.

Bench Mark (BM) - is a permanent point of known elevation.

Temporary Bench Mark (TBM) - is a semi permanent point of known

elevation.

Turning Point (TP) - is a point temporarily used to transfer elevations.

Backsight (BS) - is a rod reading on a rod of known elevation in order to

establish the instrument line of sight.

Height of Instrument (HI) - is the elevation of the line of sight through

the level.

Foresight (FS) - is a rod reading taken on a turning point, benchmark, or

temporary benchmark in order to determine its elevation.
  These two equations completely describe the differential leveling
process:

Existing elevation + BS = HI

HI – FS = new elevation

Example

Given that the elevation of point A is 410.26 m above sea level, determine
the elevation of B.

Rod

Rod
FS = 2.80 HI = 414.97 BS = 4.71

B
Ground surface

Solution:
Elevation of point A = 410.26
Backsight rod reading at A = +04.71 BS
Height (Elev) of Instrument = 414.97
Foresight rod reading at B = -02.80 FS
_________
Elevation of point B = 412.17 m
Methods of Leveling

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – commonly used method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of set-up of a leveling
instrument some distance apart. It is the most precise method of leveling,
and is used when a high degree of accuracy is required. Some forms of
direct leveling are:

a) Differential leveling

Ex. 1 Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary arithmetic check.

STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM1 1.211 129.032
TP1 1.115 1.688
TP2 1.235 1.752
BM2 1.174 2.264
BM3 1.065 2.710
TP3 1.832 2.666
BM4 2.567

Check: BS - FS = Elevinitial - Elevfinal

Ex. 2 Prepare and complete the differential notes for the information shown
in the accompanying illustration. Also do the necessary checks.
b) Double Rodded Leveling - determines elevation between points by
employing two level routes simultaneously.

Ex. 1 Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line
from BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.

STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM1 1.946 250.549
1.946
TP1H 2.781 1.104
TP1L 2.926 1.549
TP2H 1.393 1.794
TP2L 1.785 2.201
TP3H 0.215 2.989
TP3L 0.679 3.412
BM2 2.632
2.632

Ex. 2 Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line
from BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.

STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM1 2.768 146.890
2.768
TP1H 3.079 0.488
TP1L 3.732 1.137
TP2H 3.024 0.329
TP2L 3.366 0.674
TP3H 0.267 2.628
TP3L 0.834 3.000
BM2 3.434
3.436
c) Three-wire Leveling – three horizontal hairs are read rather tham a
single horizontal hair. The most precise.

Ex. 1 Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary arithmetic check.

STA BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT ELEV

HAIR MEAN S HAIR MEAN S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
BM1 1.152 502.321
0.935
0.718
TP1 2.784 1.117
2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682
TP2 1.713 1.900
1.440 1.537
1.166 1.172
TP3 2.591 1.450
2.094 1.177
1.599 0.904
TP4 0.913 2.210
0.730 1.714
0.547 1.218
BM2 1.593
1.410
1.227
2. Reciprocal Leveling – used when the two intervisible points are located
at a considerable distance apart and which leveling methods cannot be
performed in the usual manner. Leveling across a wide river, across a
ravine or canyon are instances to use this method.

3. Profile Leveling – is used to determine differences in elevation between

points at designated short measured intervals along a established line to
provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted.

4. Trigonometric Leveling – is employed in determining the difference in

elevation between two points from measurements of it’s horizontal or
slope distance and the vertical angle between the points by trigonometric
computations.

Fig. Set-up for trigonometric leveling

Formulas: V = dtan θ or s(sin θ)

DE = dtan θ + HI – RR or s(sin θ) + HI - RR
 However if the horizontal distance is greater than 300 meters,
there will be an additional hcr correction. Hence,

DE = dtan θ + HI – RR + 0.067(d/1000)2
= s(sin θ) + HI – RR + 0.067(d/1000)2

+ if the sight is inclined upward

- if the sight is incline downward

5. Rise and Fall Leveling – is based on the principle that two consecutive
readings from the same instrument position gives the difference in
elevation of the two points sighted.

Ex. Complete the profile level notes.

ROD READINGS DIFFERENCE IN ELEV REDUC STA

BS IFS FS RISE FALL ED
LEVEL
1.24 525.28 BM100
2.35 0+00
1.76 +30
2.50 +50
2.73 +90
3.00 1+00
2.72 +10
1.93 +60
1.05 +95
0.86 2+00
2.06 2.78 TP-1
0.68 2+50
0.98 +70
1.29 3+00
2.45 +30
2.67 +65
2.36 BM101
 6. Inverse Leveling – used when the line of sight is higher than the
leveling rod, or when obstructions exist. The rod is placed upside down
and its base is placed up at the desired point.

7. Stadia Leveling – combines the features of direct leveling with those of

the trigonometric leveling.

Ex. Complete the table given the following set of stadia level notes. The
instrument used has a stadia interval factor of 100 and equipped with an

Sta Backsight Foresight Ele Elev

v
interc Vert RR inter Vert RR
ept angle (V cept angle (Vd)
(s) (θ) d) (s) (θ)
Bma 1.55 -5O25’ 1.50 550.50

TP1 1.74 +8O15’ 1.68 1.76 +10 O30’ 1.48

TP2 0.95 -4O48’ 1.77 1.98 +12 O08’ 1.66

BMb 2.49 -12O50’ 2.53 1.06 +7 O 22’ 2.05

TP3 2.14 +14O05’ 1.79 2.67 -15 O32’ 1.92

TP4 1.92 -9O41’ 1.33 2.16 -7 O 59’ 1.25

BMc 2.65 +7 O 32’ 1.88

internal focusing telescope.

8. Altimeter Surveys

Ex. Given the following data gathered from an altimeter survey: Elevation of
the high base, 518 m; elevation of the low base, 122 m; altimeter reading at
the high base, 5954; and altimeter reading at the low base, 2708. If the
altimeter reading is 4150, determine the elevation of the station.

9. Barometric Leveling

Ex. 1 The barometric reading at the base of the hill was 74.5 cm of
mercury and the observed temperature was 29O C. The other barometer on
top of the hill reads 70.8 cm of mercury and the temperature was 21OC. If
the barometers were read simultaneously, determine the difference in
elevation between 2 points of observation.
Ex. 2 The reading on the altitude scale at one station is 146.41 m and the
temperature was 27.8O C. At another station, the barometer reading is
830.52 m and the temperature is 21.0O C. Find the difference in elevation
between the two points.
Errors in Leveling Works

1. Instrumental Errors

- Instrument out of adjustment

- Rod not standard length
- Defective tripod

2. Personal Errors

- Bubble not centered

- Parallax
- Faulty rod readings
- Rod not held plumb
- Incorrect setting of target
- Unequal backsight and foresight distances

3. Natural Errors

- Curvature of the earth

- Atmospheric Refraction
- Temperature Variations
- Wind
- Settlement of the Instrument
- Faulty turning points

Mistakes in Leveling Works

1. In correct rod reading

2. Incorrect recording

3. Erroneous computations

4. Rod not fully extended

5. Moving turning points

Errors in Leveling Works Problems

1. A line of levels 8 km long is run between elevation of 64.305 m. It was

found out however that the line of sight of the instrument is inclined
upward by 0.003 m for every 10 meter distance. If BS and FS distances
are consistently 100 m and 150 m respectively, determine the correct
elevation of BM2.

2. Differential leveling is run from BM1 to BM2 at a distance of 6 km.

Average length per set-up is 250 m. The average backsight reading is 2.3
m and every time it is taken, the rod is inclined to the side from the
vertical by 2O. What would be the correct elevation of BM2 if the recorded
elevation is 189.54 m a.s.l.?
GE BOARD
A line of levels was run from BM1 to BM2 covering a distance of 5 km. BS
and FS distances every set-up averages 100 m each. If at every turning
point, the rod settles by 0.04 m, compute the correct elevation of BM2 if its
computed elevation is 126.42 m.

GE BOARD
Two points, A and B, are 600 meters apart. A level is set-up on the line
between A and B and at a distance of 200 meters from A. If the RR of A is
2.150 and B is 4.321, determine the difference of elevation between the two
points, taking into account the effects of curvature and refraction.
Level Tube

The level tube is a sealed glass tube mostly filled with alcohol or a similar
substance. The degree of precision of a surveyor’s level is partly a function
of the sensitivity of the level tube; the sensitivity of the level tube is directly
related to the radius of curvature of the upper surface of the level tube.

The larger the radius of curvature, the more sensitive the level tube is.

Sensitivity is usually expressed as the central angle subtending one division

(usually 2mm). The sensitivity of many engineer’s levels is 30’’; that is for a
2-mm arc, the central angle is 30’’ (R=13.75 m or 45 ft).

Establishing an angle/arc ratio:

30’’ = 0.002
360O 2R

R = (360/0.00833) x (0.002/2)

R = 13.75 m (or 45 ft)

GE BOARD
To check the sensitiveness of the bubble of a transit, a rod 100m away is
sighted and the rod reading was 1.389 m. The bubble in the tube is allowed
to move over 5 divisions and the new reading was 1.421 m. If 1 division is
2mm, determine the radius of curvature of the level tube and find the
angular value of one division of the level tube.
Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction

Error!
Point of Tangency
Horizontal line

Line of sight
c&r

Level line

Atmospheric Refraction – causes the ray of light slightly to bend

downwards. Approximately (-) 0.0110 per kilometer.

Earth’s curvature - Approximately 0.0785 per kilometer.

hcr = combined effect of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction

K = distance from the point of tangency to the point observed (point of

observation)

hcr = 0.0675 k2 hcr in meters K in kilometers

hcr = 0.574 k2 hcr in feet K in miles

hcr = 0.0206 M2 hcr in feet M in thousands of feet

Peg Method of Adjustments

CASE I: Instrument set at A and B

The difference in elevation is equal to the mean of the difference in rod

reading of the two set-ups.

GE BOARD

In the two-peg test of the dumpy level, the following observations were
taken: instrument is set-up at A, rod reading at A was 1.723 m and the
foresight at B is 2.775 m. The instrument is transferred at B. The rod
reading at B was 1.527 m and the foresight reading at A was 0.471 m. Find
the correct rod reading at A with the instrument still at pt B to give a level
line of sight.
CASE II: Instrument set between A and B

1st set up - inst. set between A & B, nearer to A than to B.

2nd set up - inst. set between A & B, nearer to B than to A.

In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following observations were taken:

ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET UP INSTRUMENT SET UP

NEAR A NEAR B
On Point A 1.505 m 0.938 m
On Point B 2.054 m 1.449 m

a) Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment

b) If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod reading
on A with the instrument still set up near B.
c) Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following observations were taken:

ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET UP INSTRUMENT SET UP

NEAR A NEAR B
On Point A 0.296 m 1.563 m
On Point B 0.910 2.140

a) determine the true difference in elevation between points A and

b) check if the line of sight needs further adjustment.
c) determine the following: “false” difference in elevation, inclination of the
line of sight, and the error in the reading on the far rod.
PROBLEM

To make a peg adjustment, the following data were taken;

wye level @ 1 wye level @ 2

Rod reading @ A 1.926 m 3.778 m
Rod reading @ B 0.914 m 2.748 m

Point 1 is along line AB and midway the points A and B. Point 2 is along line
AB as well but not between the two points, but is 24 m from A and 260 m
from B. With the instrument at point 2, what is the correct rod reading at A
for a level sight?
 MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLE AND DIRECTIONS

Locating Points

Meridians – fixed reference line

Types of Meridian

1. True Meridian – line passing through the poles

2. Magnetic Meridian - lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the
earth
3. Grid Meridian – parallel to the central meridian of the system of plane
rectangular coordinates
4. Assumed Meridian – line taken in convenience

Designation of North Points

1. True North
2. Magnetic North
3. Grid North
4. Assumed North

Direction of Lines

1. Interior Angles and Exterior Angles – angles between adjacent lines

in a close polygon.

Total inner angle = (n-2) 180

2. Deflection Angles( L or R) – angle between the a line and a

prolongation of the preceding line.
- in any closed polygon, the sum of all the
deflection angles is 360 deg.
3. Angles to the Right – angles measured to the right from the
proceeding to the succeeding line

4. Bearings (forward and back) - is the acute horizontal angle between

the reference meridian and the line
N

NW NE

90 W 90 E

SW SE

5. Azimuths (forward and back) – the angle between the meridian and
the line measured in a clockwise direction from either the north or south
branch of the meridian.

Note: in the Philippines, azimuths are reckoned from the south.

Compass – is a hand-held device for determining the horizontal direction of
a line with reference to the magnetic meridian.

Magnetic Declination – is the horizontal angle and direction by which the

needle of a compass deflects from the true meridian at any particular
locality.

Ex. 1 The magnetic declination of a locality is 1 O 20’ W. Find the true

bearing and true azimuth reckoned from the south of the following magnetic
bearings.

a) OA, S 25 O 40’ E
b) OB, N 12 O 20’ W
c) OC, N 85 O 45’ E
d) OD, S 34 O 20’ W
Ex. 2 In a compass survey made 20 years ago the observed magnetic
bearing of a reference line OP was N 45 O 20 E with a magnetic declination of
6 O 25 W. Lately you were hired to survey again the area and found that the
area’s magnetic declination changed to 5 O 40 E. Determine the:

a) true bearing
b) True azimuth from the south
c) New Magnetic bearing
d) Latest Magnetic Azimuth from south
Variation in Magnetic Declination

1. Daily Variation – also called “solar-diurnal variation. It is a periodic swing

of the magnetic needle occurring each day.
2. Annual Variation – a small annual swing distinct from the secular
variation.
3. Secular Variation – is a slow, gradual, but unexplainable shift in the
position of the Earth’s magnetic meridian over a regular cycle.
4. Irregular Variations – uncertain and cannot be predicted, most likely to
occur in sun spot’, and auroral display

Isogonic – lines connecting points of same magnetic declination

Agonic – lines connecting points of zero magnetic declination

Local Attraction – is any deviation of the magnetic needle of a compass

from it’s normal pointing towards magnetic north. Caused by iron deposits,
current fluctuations. or any objects made of steel and iron.

Magnetic Dip – is the characteristic phenomenon of the compass needle to

be attracted downward from the horizontal plane due to the earth’s magnetic
line of force.

Isoclinic – a line connecting points of same magnetic dip

Ex. 1 The Magnetic Bearing of line OP was N 48 O 15’ W with a declination of

3 O 20’ E. Also there exist a local attraction of 2 O 10’E. Determine the true
bearing of the same line and the true azimuth.

Ex. 2 In 1980, the magnetic bearing of the line was S 40 O 24’ W. At that
time the declination was 0 O 30’ E. The secular variation per year was
0O30’E. What is the new magnetic bearing of the same line in the year
2000?
Compass Surveying – one of the most basic and widely used method of
obtaining relative location of points where a high degree of precision is not
required.

Types of Compass Surveys

1. Open Compass Traverse

2. Close Compass Traverse

Sources of Errors in Compass Work

1. Bent Needle
2. Bent Pivot
3. Sluggish Needle
4. Plane of Sight not Vertical
5. Electrically charged Compass Box
6. Local Attraction
7. Magnetic Variations
8. Errors in Reading the Needle

Ex. 1 Adjustment of an Open Compass Traverse

Line Length Observed Bearings

Forward Back
O
AB 400.63 N 25 45’ E S25 O 40’ W
O
BC 450.22 S 20 30’ E N 20 O 25 W
CD 500.89 S 35 O 30’ W N 35 O 30’ E
DE 640.46 S 75 O 30’ E N 75 O 25’ W
EF 545.41 N 58 O 50’ E S 58 O 15’ W
FG 700.05 N 22 O 05’ E S 21 O 55’’ W
Ex. 2 Adjustment of Closed Compass Traverse

Line Length Observed Bearing

Forward Back
AB 46.50 S 30 O 40’ W N 30 O 40’ E
BC 75.15 S 83 O 50’ E N 84 O 30’ W
CD 117.35 N 02 O 00’W S 02 O 15’ E
O
DE 74.92 S 89 30’ W Due East
O
EA 60.25 S 28 50’ E N 28 O 00’ W
Index Error and Correction

The correct value of the vertical angle is just the mean of the readings taken
in both normal and reverse position since both measurements are made
independent each other.

θt = (θn + θr)/ 2

Index Error – due to inclination of the vertical axis, LOS not parallel to the
level tube, and the vertical circle does not read zero when the telescope
bubble is centered.

Ie = (θn - θr)/ 2

Index Correction – same magnitude but opposite sign from index error

Ex. 1 A vertical angle θ was measured above the horizontal as 45 O 09’ with
the telescope in direct position and as 45 O 11’ in reversed position.
Determine the index error, index correction and the corrected vertical angle.
What if it is measured below the horizontal?
Measurement of Angles by Repetitions – used to reduce if not totally
eliminate mistakes, to gain better accuracy beyond the least count of the
instrument.

Number of Repetitions – 3 for most engineering surveys, 6-8 for precise

geodetic surveys

Telescope Position – half taken direct, half reverse

Procedure…

Ex. 1 A horizontal angle was measured by repetitions eight times with an

engineer’s transit. Prior to measurement, the horizontal scale was set at
00-00-00 and the reading on the scale was 65-35-20 after the angle was
measured once. If the final reading was 162-36-12, determine the average
value of the angle measured.
Ex 2. Assume that a horizontal angle was measured with a transit three
times direct and three times reversed, starting with an initial backsight
reading of 0-34-20. After the first and sixth measurements the readings on
the horizontal scale were 130-20-20 and 61-46-00.
Determine the average value of the angle measured.

Ex. 3 An angle is repeated three times direct and three times reversed with
an engineer’s transit. The circle reading for the initial backsight is 321-45-00
and after the first repetition is 150-25-00. If the circle reading after the sixth
repetition is 140-25-00, determine the average angle measured.
 Survey Operations

Traverse

Traverse – is a series of lines connecting successive points, whose lengths

and directions are determined from field observations.

Traversing – is the process of measuring the lengths and directions of the

lines of a traverse for the purpose of locating the position of certain points

Traverse Station – any temporary or permanent point of reference over

which the instrument is set-up

Traverse Lines – lines connecting traverse stations whose length and

direction is determined

Types of Traverse

1. Circuit Traverse – a traverse that closes to the point of origin

2. Loop Traverse – a traverse starting from a station and closing into

another station of the same or another traverse

3. Connection Traverse – a traverse which does not close into another

station of the same or any other traverse

Methods of Running a Traverse

1. Interior Angle Traverse – used principally in land surveying

Ex. The interior angles of a 5 sided closed traverse were measured as

follows:

A = 55-50 C = 68-10 E=?

B = 104-20 D = 196-12

If all angles are assumed to be correct, determine the angle E and find
the bearing of each line if AB is N 20-15 E.
2. Deflection Angle Traverse – is used frequently for the location survey
of roads, railroads, pipelines, etc. and other similar types of survey

Ex. Following are the observed deflection angles of a closed traverse:

A = 28-25-00 (L) E = 108-13-30 (L)

B = 68-03-30 (L) F = 16-50-00 ( R )
C = 120-34-00 (L) G = 110-00-30 (L)
D = 58-30-00 (R)

Compute the error of closure and adjust the angular values by assuming
that the error is the same for each angle.

Note: For any closed traverse that the sides do not cross one
another, the difference of deflection angles should be equal to
360 degrees. If the lines cross once or any odd number of time,
the sum of the Left and Right deflection angles should be equal.
3. Traverse by Angle to the Right – is employed for city, tunnel, and
mine surveys, and in locating details for a topographic map.

Ex. A five sided closed traverse proceeds in a clockwise direction and the
angle to the right of each station were observed as follows:

A = 240-40 D= 220-04
B = 238-15 E – 271-13
C = 289-53 n= 5

Determine the error of closure and adjust the observed values on the
assumption that the error is the same for each angle.

Note: If clockwise = (n + 2) 180deg

If counterclockwise = (n-2) 180 deg
4. Azimuth Traverse

Ex. Given the tabulation of data of a closed traverse, determine the bearing
and the angle to the right of each station,.

Sta Occ. Sta Obs. Distance Azimuth from

South
A E 210.10 90-28
B 170-30
B A 155.34 350-30
C 123-05
C B 206.85 303-05
D 56-13
D C 174.50 236-13
E 357-58
E D 330.00 177-58
A 270-28
Traverse Computations

For a closed traverse, some computations include:

1. Determining latitudes and departures

2. Calculating the total error of closure
3. Balancing the survey
4. Determining the new coordinates
5. Computing the Area
6. Subdivision of tracts of land

Latitude – the projection of a line in the reference meridian or north-

south line
- is either North (+) or South (-)

Departure - the projection in the reference parallel or east-wast line

- is either E (+) or West (-)
N

Lat (-) = d Cos θ Dep (-) = d Sin θ

W E

d
θ

Error of Closure

- the algebraic sum of the north and south latitudes should be zero
and the algebraic sum of east and west departure should zero, else there
exist an error.
Linear error of closure - a short line of unknown length and direction
connecting the initial and final stations of the traverse

2
LEC = wCL + CD2 and Tan θ = - CD /- CL

where: LEC = linear error of closure

CL = Closure in latitude or the algebraic sum
of the north and south latitudes
CD = closure in departure or the algebraic
sum of the east and west departures
θ = bearing angle of the side error

Relative precision - is defined by the ratio of the linear error of closure to

the perimeter or total length of the traverse

RP = LEC / D

where: LEC = linear error of closure

D = total length of the perimeter
RP = Relative precision

Ex. 1 In a given closed traverse the sum of the north latitudes exceeds the
sum of the south latitudes by 2.74 m and the sum of the west departures
exceeds the sum of the east departures by 3.66 m. Determine the linear
error of closure and the bearing of the side of error.
Ex. 2 Given the observations data of a closed traverse, determine:

a) latitude and departure

b) LEC
c) bearing of the side error
d) Relative precision

Line Length Azimuth Latitude Departure

from N
N (+) S(-) E(+) W(-)
AB 233.10 122-30
BC 242.05 85-15
CD 191.50 20-00
DE 234.46 333-35
EF 270.65 254-08
FA 252.38 213-00
Sum
Traverse Adjustment (Balancing a traverse)– the procedure of
computing the linear error of closure and applying corrections to the
individual latitudes and departures for the purpose of providing a
mathematically closed figure.

Methods of Traverse Adjustment

1. Arbitrary Method – adjustment by the discretion of the surveyor’s

assessment of the conditions surrounding the survey.

2. Compass Rule or Bowditch Rule – is based on the assumption that all

lengths were measured with equal care and all angles taken with
approximately the same precision. It is also assumed that the errors in
the measurement are accidental and that the total error in any side of
the traverse is directly proportional to the total length of the traverse.

cl = CL(d/D) and cd = CD(d/D)

where: cl = corr. to be applied to the lat. of any course

cd = corr. to be applied to any dep. of any course
CL = Closure in latitude or the algebraic sum
of the north and south latitudes
CD = closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the
east and west departures
d = length of any course
D = total length or the perimeter of the course

3. Transit Rule – is based on the assumption that angular measurements

are more precise than the linear measurements and that the errors in
traversing are accidental.

cl = Lat(CL)/(NL - SL) and cd = Dep(CD)/(ED - WD)

where: cl = corr. to be applied to the lat. of any course

cd = corr. to be applied to any dep. of any course
CL = Closure in latitude or the algebraic sum
of the north and south latitudes
CD = closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the
east and west departures
NL = summation of north latitudes
SL = summation of south latitudes
ED = summation of east departures
WD = summation of west departures
4. Least Squares Method – is based on the theory of probability where it
is employed to simultaneously adjust the angular and linear
measurements to make the sum of the squares of the residual a
minimum.

5. Crandall Method – is an application of the theory of least squares and is

suitable for use if the linear measurements made are less precise than
the angular measurements.

6. Graphical Method – is basically an application of the compass rule by

graphically moving each traverse point parallel to the error of closure by
an amount proportional to the distance along the traverse from the initial
point to the given point.

7. Coordinate Method – is also an application of compass rule since the

corrections applied are still proportionate to the lengths being adjusted.

Note: In the board exam, you only need to know 1 or 2 methods of

adjustment and the easiest, in my experience are the transit rule and
compass rule.

Adjusted Lengths and Directions

Because there was an adjustment in the latitudes and departures, it

follows that the lengths and directions of each corrected course are changed.
To get the adjusted length and directions:

L = eLatcorr2 + Depcorr2 and Tan θ = Depcorr /Latcorr

Ex. 1 Adjust the tabulated data using the compass rule and transit rule. Also
determine the linear error of closure, bearing of the side of error, and the
relative error of closure.

Course Distance Bearing Latitude Departure

N (+) S(-) E(+) W(-)
AB 495.85 N 05 O 30’ E
BC 850.62 N 46 O 02’ E
CD 855.45 S 67 O 38’ E
DE 1020.87 S 12 O 25’ E
EF 1117.26 S 83 O 44’ W
FA 660.08 S 55 O 09’ W
Sum
Ex. 2 Given in the accompanying tabulation are the known and computed
coordinates of stations along a traverse. The traverse originates on station
Baguio whose known coordinates are X = 6,208.67 and Y = 8,601.44, and
closes on station Acupan whose known coordinates are X = 5,226.10 and
Y=5,782.62. Adjust the coordinates of the traverse stations and tabulate
values accordingly.

Sta Computed Coordinates

X Y
Baguio 6,208.67 8,601.44
A 7,030.45 8,299.54
B 6,984.53 7,698.69
C 7,001.14 7,260.00
D 7,112.99 6,774.08
E 6,586.70 5,941.82
F 6,147.28 6,058.24
G 5,467.06 6,066.64
Acupan 5,226.18 5,782.98
Angular Error of Closure

Allowable Angular Error of Closure:

Primary Traverse- 2.5”SP (Least Reading of 1”)

Secondary Traverse– 10”SS (Least Reading of 15”)

Tertiary Traverse– 30”ST (Least Reading of 1’)

Ex. 1 In a secondary traverse of 60 stations has an azimuth error of 30”.

How many groups should the traverse be divided in order to distribute the
error?

Ex. 2 Find the correct azimuth of line T3-T4

Sta. Occ. Sta Obs Azimuth

T1 28-00
T4
T4 313-55
T3
T3 215-00
T2
T2 143-20
T4 208-01
T1

Ex. 3 A 180 primary station traverse has an angular error of closure of +4

sec. What is the correct azimuth of P109-P110 if the azimuth is 121-32-12?
Methods of Determining Area

1. Area by Triangles (MATH)

1. Known Base and Altitude

A = (1/2) bh

2. Two Sides and Included Angle Measured

A = ( ½ ) a b sin θ

3. Three Sides Measured

A = s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
where: s = (1/2)(a + b + c)

2. Area by Coordinates (MATH)

A = (1/2) X1 X2 X3 …… XN X1
Y1 Y2 Y3 ….… YN Y1
Ex. 1 A Surveyor sets-up a transit at P which is located in the middle portion
of a four sided tract of lnad and reads the direction and measures distances,
as given below. Find the Area.

Line Bearing Distance

PA N 41-30 W 410.52
PB N 39-10 E 532.18
PC S 70-20 E 450.75
PD S 60-15 W 590.08
Ex. 2 Assuming that the origin of the coordinate system is at station 1,
determine the area using coordinate method.

Line Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure

(+) N (-) S (+) N (-) S
1–2 490.71 47.27
2- 3 587.12 608.89
3–4 327.41 786.78
4–5 1002.76 218.32
5- 6 122.67 1116.62
6 –1 375.01 544.64
Sum 1452.84 - 1452.84 1661.26 - 1661.26

Tabulated Solution

Sta Coordinates Double Areas

Total Lat Total Dep (+) AREAS (-) AREAS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SUMS
3. Area by Double Meridian Distance (DMD) Method or Double
Parallel Distance (DPD) Method

Meridian Distance of a Line – is the shortest distance from the

midpoint of the line to the reference meridian.

Double Meridian Distance (DMD) of a Line - meridian distance of a

line times 2

Parallel Distance of a Line – the distance from the midpoint of the line
to the reference parallel or east-west line.

Double Parallel Distance of a line – parallel distance of a line times 2

Rules:

1. The DMD(DPD) of the first course is equal to the departure(latitude)

of the course.
2. The DMD(DPD) of any other course is equal to the DMD(DPD) of the
preceding course, plus departure(latitude) of the preceding course,
plus the departure(latitude) of the course itself.
3. The DMD(DPD) of the last course is numerically equal to the
departure(latitude) of the initial course, but with an opposite sign.

Double Area = DMD(Latitude) or DPD(Departure)

A = (1/2) (NDA + SDA) or (1/2) (EDA + WDA)

Note: Make sure that the enclosed traverse data is already balance
before computing for areas.
Ex. Find the Area by DMD and DPD method.

Line Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure

(+) N (-) S (+) N (-) S
1–2 490.71 47.27
2- 3 587.12 608.89
3–4 327.41 786.78
4–5 1002.76 218.32
5- 6 122.67 1116.62
6 –1 375.01 544.64
Sum 1452.84 - 1452.84 1661.26 - 1661.26

Tabulated Solution for DMD

Sta DMD Double Areas

(+) NDA (-) SDA
1–2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-1
SUMS

Tabulated Solution for DPD

Sta DPD Double Areas

(+) EDA (-) WDA
1–2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-1
SUMS
4. Area by offsets from a Straight Line

1. Trapezoidal Rule – the assumption in using the trapezoidal rule is

that the ends of the offsets in the boundary line are assumed to be
connected by straight lines, thereby forming a series of trapezoids.

fig.

A = d (h1 + hn + h2 + h3 + h4 … +hn-1)
2

where: A = Summation of areas of the trapezoids

d= common spacing between offsets
n= number of offsets
h1= first offset
hn = last offset
h2 ,h3, etc = intermediate offset
hn-1 = last intermediate offset

Ex. A series of perpendicular offsets were taken 2.5 meters apart and
were measured in the following order; 0.0, 2.6, 4.2, 4.4, 3.8,
2.5,4.5,5.2,1.6 and 5.0 meters. Obtain the area included between the
transit line, curve boundary, and the end offsets using the trapeziodal rule.
 2. Simpson’s One-Third Rule – is based on the assumption that the
curved boundary consists of a series of parabolic arcs, where each arc
is continuos over three adjacent offsets that are equally spaced.

Note: This rule can only be used when there is an odd number of
offsets and if they are equally spaced. If it is even, the area can be
obtained up to the 2nd to last offset, in which trapezoidal rule must be
used.

fig.

A = (d/3) [(h1 + hn) + 2(Hodd) + 4(Heven)]

where: A = area of the tract

d= common spacing between offsets
n= number of offsets
h1= first offset
hn = last offset
Hodd = summation of odd offsets
   Heven = summation of even offsets

Ex. Using Simpson’s One-third rule, compute the area of defined by

the edge of the river, transit line and a perpendicular offsets of 0.5, 1.4, 2.5,
5.6, 8.5, 7.4, 3.8, 5.1, and 2.3 meters separated equally by 4 meters.
5. By Planimeteric computations – areas are being measured from a
amp drawn to scale by an instrument called planimeter.

Practice Problem

Determine the Area by DMD, DPD and Coordinate Method. Also get the LEC,
bearing of the side error and relative precision. Adjust by using transit and
compass rule.

Sta. Occ. Sta Obs Azimuth Distance Bearings

T1 28-00 88.12
T4
T4 313-55 15.65
T3
T3 215-00 81.35
T2
T2 143-20 25.64
T4 208-01
T1
Omitted Measurements – where sometimes its is not practical or possible
to determine by field observation the length and direction of lines in a closed
traverse, missing quantities can be determined by analytical method as long
as they do not exceed two in number.

Limitations: provides no check, throws all possible errors in the computed

length and direction, mistakes can not be detected

Advantages: useful for partition of land, able to solve problems like rugged
terrain, lack of time, unfriendly landowners, etc.

Common Types of Omitted Measurements

1. Omitted Measurements are in One Side

1st Case: Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown

Ex. Given the following data in the closed traverse, calculate the
bearing of line 2-3.

Line Bearing Distance Latitude Departure

1-2 S 35-49 W 44.37 -35.98 -25.97

2-3
3-4 N 11-39 E 12.82 12.56 2.59
4-5 N 73-57 E 63.83 17.65 61.34
5-1 S 49-18 E 105.80 -68.99 80.21
2. Omitted Measurements Involving Adjoining Sides

1st Case: Length of One Side and Bearing of Another side Unknown

Ex. Find the missing quantities

Line Length Bearing Latitudes Departures

AB 1,084.32 S 75-48 E -265.99 1,051.19

BC 1,590.51 S 15-18 W -1,534.14 -419.69
CD 1,294.74 S 68-06 W -482.92 -1,201.31
DE N 28-39 W
EA 1,738.96
 2nd Case: Bearing of Two Sides Unknown

Ex. From the technical description of a closed traverse, det. the

bearing of line AB and line BC

Line Distance Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 64.86
BC 107.72
CD 44.37 S 35-30 W
DE 137.84 N 57-15 W
EA 12.83 N 1-45 E
 3rd Case: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown

Ex. Determine the unknown Quantities of a closed traverse.

Line Distance Bearing Latitudes Departure

AB 639.32 N 09-30 W 630.55 -105.52

BC N 56-55 W
CD S 56-13 W
DE 570.53 S 02-02 E -570.17 20.24
EA 1,082.71 S 89-31 E -9.13 1,082.67
3. Omitted Measurements Involving Non-Adjoining Sides

1st Case: Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side Unknown
2nd Case: Bearing of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
Subdivision of Land

Procedures:

1. Resurvey
2. Determine Lat. and Dep.
3. Balance the Traverse
4. Compute the Area
5. Using the Adjusted Lat. and Dep., Subdivide the Area

Methods of Subdividing Parcel of lands

1. Dividing an Area into Two Parts by a Line between Two Points

Ex. Give the following data, determine the areas of the two lots produced if
a line from F to C was used to divide it. Also determine the length and
bearing of FC.
2. Dividing A tract of Land by a Line Running in a Given Direction

Ex. Given the following data of land, find the area of each of the two parts
into which the tract of land is divided by a line through A with a bearing of N
75-30 E.

Course ADJ Lat ADJ Dep DMD Double Area

AB 490.71 47.27
BC 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -1,116.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
Sum 0.00 0.00

C
Fig.

F
3. To Cut Off a Required Area by a Line Through a Given Point.

Ex Subdivide into two equal parts, with the dividing line passing through
corner B.
4. To Cut Off a Required Area by a Line in a Given Direction

Ex. Divide the area into two equal parts using a east-west line, compute the
length of the dividing line, and determine the distances from the line to the
adjacent traverse station.
Problems

50
25-00-00
1.

20

100

Find the length of dividing line if the lot is divided into two equal parts.

Note: L = S(mb12 + nb22) / (n + m)

100

2.

50

Find the area appropriated for the road with a right of way of 10m.
 Modern Positioning System

Some of the Modern Positioning System

1. Electronic Positioning System (EPS) – consists of specially designed

short-to-medium range electronic distance measuring (EDM) devices
mounted on a instrument measuring direction such as theodolite whose
result is a single instrument that can be used to determine distances and
directions from a single instrument setup.

2. Inertial Positioning System (IPS) – a system that provide an

instantaneous position when set down to on any point of the earth’s
surface. Referred to as the “black box”.

3. Doppler Positioning System (DPS) – a system whose underlying

concept is the Doppler phenomenon. Determining the position of an
object through the change on the pitch an observer receives.

4. Global Positioning System (GPS) – a system that uses a constellation

of satellites in providing an exact position of a point.

The Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Shortened form of NAVSTARS GPS (NAVigation System with Time and

Ranging Global Positioning System). Developed by the US Department
of Defense after the WWII as solution for their positioning problems.

GPS Components

1. The Space Segment

– consists of the 24 satellites orbiting the earth at around 20200 km. On
board are atomic clocks that keep their time synchronized. Their orbits
were designed to cover the whole earth’s surface 24 hours a day and
have at least 4 satellites available at a clearance of 15 deg at any
point at any one time.

2. The Control Segment

– consists of 1 master control station ( Colorado Springs) and 5
monitoring control stations and 4 ground antennas (Ascension, Diego
Garcia, Kwajalein and Hawaii) located roughly around the earth’s
equator for the purpose of monitoring and maintaining the satellites
 from their orbits, tracking and updating their orbital position, and
synchronizing their clocks.
– another important task of the control segment is to predict the
determine the orbit of each satellite and predict its path for the
following 24 hours (the ephemeris of the satellites).

3. The User Segment

– comprises of anyone using GPS receiver to receive the GPS signal to
determine their position and/or time.

Point Positioning in GPS

1. Range/Distance
– the range/distance of the satellite to the point of observation is
determined using the time of travel of the radio waves to reach the
receiver multiplied by the velocity of the radio wave (the speed of
light).
Range = Velocity X Time

2. Point Position
 the principle of point positioning is similar to a resection problem. To
locate a point by resection, three points are needed (the intersection
of three sphere is a point). In GPS, three satellites simultaneously
transmitting signal will determine the latitude, longitude and the
height of the point. But since the clocks of the receiver and of the
satellites are not synchronized, time element is unknown. To eliminate
this unknown, a fourth satellite is needed.
 in GPS, point positioning requires 4 simultaneous observation of
satellites (4 unknowns, 4 equations).

Errors in GPS

1. Satellite Error – due to the clock model of the satellites and the orbital
uncertainties of the satellites.

2. Observation Errors – due to the fact that signals of the satellites are
being transmitted via radio waves.

3. Receiver Error – since receivers are instruments, they are subject to

errors too like the instruments being used in surveying.

4. Multipath Error – the signal that the receiver supposed to receive

should come directly from the satellites but since radio waves can be
 reflected, some signal that the receiver receives are bounced from
obstruction, thus multipath error are being introduced.
Accuracy of GPS

 Before the Selective Availability (SA) in GPS were suspended, accuracy

of GPS observations ranges from 30 to 100 m for navigational
receivers. When the SA was removed navigational receivers obtained
around 5 to 15 m accuracy.
 for Survey Grade type of Receivers (this type of receivers are being
used usually in surveying operations using Differential Positioning),
they can have a submeter accuracy.

Dilution of Precision (DOP)

 in GPS, this is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the
satellites being tracked at the time of measurement.

1. GDOP – Geometrical Dilution of Precision, gives accuracy degradation

in 3D position and time (lat, long, height, time).
2. PDOP – Positional Dilution of Precision, gives accuracy degradation in
3D position (lat, long, height).
3. HDOP – Horizontal Dilution of Precision, gives accuracy degradation in
horizontal measurements (lat, long).
4. VDOP – Vertical Dilution of Precision, gives accuracy degradation in
vertical measurements (height).

Differential GPS

 this method is used to minimize errors in measurements using GPS

and to increase accuracy of observation.
 in this method, two receivers are being used to observed the same set
of satellites. The first receiver (the references) is stationed on a known
point and the second receiver (the rover) takes observations on
unknown points.
 This method yields to a submeter accuracy and are used for geodetic
operations such as control point surveying.
 Types of Survey Operations

MINE SURVEYING

Mine Surveying – includes underground surveying as practiced in mining

as well as the surface operations associated with.

Mining Terminology
 vein – thin deposit of minerals between definite boundaries
 strike – line of intersection between the vein and the horizontal plane
 dip – angle of inclination of the vein from the horizontal plane
 drift – passage following the direction of the vein
N

sin θ = BD / AD

tan DIP = CD / BD grade = CD / AD

Borehole Problems

1. Three boreholes were made to locate a vein of ore. The depth of these
holes (A, B, C) from the surface and the surface measurements
connecting them are as follows: elevation at surface A= 1583 m., depth
of hole is 1166 m., elevation at B= 1640 m., depth of hole is 953 m.,
elevation at C= 1596 m., depth of hole is 693 m., azimuth of AC= 40-02,
distance of AC= 440 m., azimuth of AB= 60-10, azimuth of CB= 120-00.
Determine the strike and dip of the vein.
2. A vein of ore is being located driving boreholes from the surface. Three
boreholes at A, B, and C were made. Elevation of A, B, and C in the
surface are 200, 320, and 160 m respectively. Azimuth of the line
connecting A and B is 228-32 whose distance is 600 m. Azimuth of the
line joining B and C is 50-30 with distance 1000 m. Determine the striker
and the dip of the vein.
Eccentric Telescope Problems

1. Point B at the bottom of a winze has a vertical angle of -65O23’ sighted

with the top telescope of a mining transit. The slope distance to point B
from the instrument at A is 90.5 m. The eccentricity of the telescope is 8
cm. Calculate the correct vertical angle. Find also the elevation of B if
point A has an elevation of 140 m and an HI of 1.5 m.

2. A horizontal angle is measured with a side telescope and the following

measurements are recorded.

Sta. Occ. Sta. Obs. H. Angle Inc. Dist. V. Angle H.I. H.P.T

T-6 83-42 224.82 -(4-27) -1.0

T-4 0 153.27 +(5-23)
T-5 +5.0

If the eccentricity of the side telescope is 5 inches, compute the

corrected horizontal angle.
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING

Hydrographic Surveying – is the process employed in gathering

information concerning any body of water and its adjacent land areas.

Hydrographic Surveying Terms

 Hydrography – the study, description, and mapping of bodies of water

and its underwater terrain.
 Sounding – the process of measuring the depth of a body of water at a
particular point.
 Stream Gauging – the process of making measurements in streams and
rivers for the purpose of predicting the rate of discharge at various water
levels or stages.
 Fathom - a unit used for the measurement of water depth and is equal to
6 feet.
 Hydrographic Chart – a map or chart used in navigation, it is basically
similar to a topographic map except that the depths, navigational markers,
and the character of underwater surface are indicated.
 Tidal Datums – are specific tide levels, which are used as surfaces of
reference for depth measurements in the sea and as a base for the
determination of elevation on land.
 Discharge – the volume of water flowing past a section of stream, canal,
flume, and other waterways. It is usually expressed in cubic unit per
second.
 Stream – a current or steady flow of water running along the earth’s
surface
 Dredging – the process of scooping or sucking up mud, sand, rocks and
other materials underwater for the purpose of enlarging, deepening or
clearing channels, harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water.
 Subaqueous Contour – an imaginary line on the surface of the earth
found underwater, all points of which are of the same elevation. They are
sometimes known as depth curves or bathymetric contours.
Scow Measurements – is used to determine the quantity of material
dredged from any body of water. In this method the draft of the scow
before and after loading is measured, and an estimate of the volume of
water displaced during the loading process is obtained (since the volume of
water displaced is proportional to the materials loaded on the scow)

Fig.

Formulas:

Vw = (1/2)( Wd + Lb)(Du)(Wd) … Volume of water displaced

when the scow is not loaded
Disp = (1/2)(Ll + Lb)(Dl)(Wd) … displaced loaded
Ww = (Disp – Vw) (WtDw) … Weight of the water displaced (kg.)
bythe load, WtDw is the weight density of water
Vm = Ww/ WtDm … Volume of material loaded in the scow deck where
WtDm is the weight density loaded in the scow

Where: Lb = length of scow bottom

Ld = length of scow deck
Wd = width of scow deck
Ls = length of vertical side of scow
Ll = length of the waterline when scow is loaded
Lu = length of wterline when scow is unloaded
Du = draft of unloaded scow
Dl = draft of loaded scow
Ex. A rectangular deck scow 30.50 m long, 6.10 m wide and 3.66 m high
has a draft of 1.22 m when light and a draft of 3.05 m when loaded. The
bottom length of the scow is 23.15 m. The waterline is 29.26 m long when
the scow is loaded with rocks and 25.60 meters long when light. If sea
water weighs 1026 Kg/cu m and the loaded dredged material weighs 3208
kg/ cu m, determine the following:

a. volume of water displaced when loaded or light

b. displacement loaded
c. weight of the water displaced by the load
d. volume of the loaded rock
Measurement of Stream Discharge – is done in connection with the
design of water supply systems, flood protection works, hydroelectric power
development, irrigation systems and framing structures. The principle
information sought in a discharge measurement is the volume of water
flowing past a measuring section of a stream in a given period of time (cu m
/sec).

1. Velocity-Area Method

Qt = AtVm
V= aN + b

where: N = no. of rev. per second

Qt = Total discharge
At= Total Area
Vm= mean velocity
a,b = meter constant

Ex. 1 Given the data taken from a current meter notes, determine the total
discharge:

Diatance Depth No. of Time Meter Constant

Rev. a b
5 0
10 1.2 10 30 0.232 0.022
15 2 22 28 0.232 0.022
20 2.6 35 32 0.232 0.022
25 1.6 28 29 0.232 0.022
30 0
2. Slope-Area Method

R=A/P

V = C SRS (Chezy Formula)

Q = A (V) or Q = A(C SRS)

C = (1/n) + 23 + (0.00155/S) …. Kutter’s

1 + (n/SR)(23 + 0.0155/S)

= R1/6/ n …. Manning’s

Where: Q = discharge of the stream (cu m/sec)

V = mean velocity (m/sec)
A = mean cross-sectional area in the reach (sq m )
C = Kutter’s variable coefficient or Manning’s
R = hydraulic Radius (m)
S = longitudinal slope of the water surface (m/m)
P = wetted perimeter
n = roughness coefficient

Ex. Given the following data for a stream of uniform flow:

A = 6.97 sq m P = 9.76 m
S = 0.007 n = 0.025

Assuming constant stream bed slope and little variation in the cross section
and the condition of the bed, determine the ff:

a) Hydraulic Radius
b) Average Velocity of the stream using Manning’s Coefficient, and the
disacharge
c) Average Velocity of the Stream using Kutter’s coefficient, and the
discharge
Obtaining Volume

1. End-Area Method

Ve = (A1 + A2)*(L/2)

2. Prismoidal Method

Vp = (A1 + 4Am + A2) L/6)

Prismoidal Correction (applicable only to triangular, trapeziodal or three

level section)

Cv = (C1-C2)*(D1-D2)*(L/12)
Vp = Ve – Cv

Types of Cross Section

Triangular

Five Level
Rectangular

Trapeziodal

Irregular
Three Level
Capacity of Lakes and Reservoirs

1. Contour Method

Ex. The area bounded by the water line of a reservoir is determined

by using a planimeter. The contour interval is 2 m. A1= 20,400, A2 =
18,600, A3 = 14,300, A4= 10,200, A5= 8,000, A6 = 4,000.
Determine the capacity of the reservoir using:

a) End Area Method b) Prismoidal Method

2. Cross Section Method

Ex. The MWSS Engineers conducted a hydro survey on one of the reservoirs
in order to determine its capacity and to check out whether this reservoir is
capable of serving the water needs of the adjacent municipalities. Parallel
Ranges were established along the reservoir and sounding was taken at
certain distances as shown below. What would be the capacity of this
reservoir using a) End Area Method; b) Prismoidal Method?

20m 40m 30m 30m

1 22 5

2 4

Section 2

10 10 12m 12 8

4 6 5 4.2
Section 3

6 8 10 12 10 6

3 8 10 7 4

Section 4

12 14 14 10

6 10 8
 ROUTE SURVEYING

HORIZONTAL CURVES

Geometry of the circular curve:

 An inscribed angle is measured by one-half its intercepted arc (), and

inscribed angles having the same or equal intercepted arcs are equal. In
the figure below, the angle ACB is one half of the central angle AOB
subtending the arc AB. Note that angles DAB and ACB are equal and are
equal to ½ where in, C is an arbitrary point on the (arc of the) circle.

 An angle formed by a tangent and a chord is measured by one-half its

intercepted arc. Thus, in the figure, AD is tangent to the arc at point A
and the angle formed by it and the chord AB (i.e., DAB) is one-half the
central angle AOB. This is a special case of the proposition above where
the arbitrary point C coincides with point A.

D 

½ B
A


½

C O

 The two tangent distances to a circular curve, from the point of

intersection of the tangent to the points of tangency are equal. Thus, in
the figure above, where in line AD is tangent to the curve at A and line
BD is tangent to the curve at B, lines AD and BD are said to be of equal
length.
Types of Horizontal Curves

1. Simple Curve
 is an arc of a circle joining one tangent to another.

Elements of a Simple Curve

 Point of Curvature (PC) – the point where the circular curve begins
from the first tangent.
 Point of Tangency (PT) – the point where the circular curve ends
and meets the second tangent.
 Vertex (V) – the point of intersection of the two tangents.
 Tangent Distance (T) - the distance from the vertex to the either
the PC or the PT.
 Radius (R) – the radius that determines the curve.
 External Distance (E) – the distance measured from the vertex to
the midpoint of the curve.
 Middle Ordinate – the distance measured from the midpoint of the
curve to the midpoint of the chord.
 Intersection Angle (I) – the angle subtended by the curve.
 Long Chord (Lc) – a straight line connecting PC and PT.
 Length of Curve (Lcu) – length of the curve from PC to PT.

V
I

T
E
D

½I M

A B
C = AB F
PC PT

½I
R

O
Simple Curve Formulas

From triangle OAV,

T/R = tan I/2

T = R tan I/2 = tangent distance

E = R sec I/2 – R = R [1/cos(I/2) – 1] = external distance

From triangle AOF, in which AF = C/2,

Lc = 2R sin I/2 = long chord

M = R – R cos I/2 = R (1 – cos I/2) = middle ordinate

From triangle AVF, in which VAF = I/2 and AF = C/2,

Lc /2 = T cos I/2

Lc = 2T cos I/2

Laying out a curve by deflection angles

Curves are staked out usually by the use of deflection angles turned at P.C.
from the tangent to stations along the curve. Consider the figure below.
Given the radius R, deflection angle D and I, it is required to locate the
stations a, b, c and d along the arc.

P.C. a V = P.I.
A
b
I

d D

D
d
D
P.T.
d B

O
From the figure, d is an odd angle or mathematically, it is the excess angle
or a fraction of D such that 2d + nD = I where n is the maximum number of
stations of arc angle D possible given the intersection angle I. If for
example we are given I = 80 and D = 15, d = 2.5. (80/15 = 5 1/3, i.e,
there are 5 stations of deflection angles of 15 and an odd angle of 1/3 of
15 which, when divided by two- for either side of the curve- is 2.5) In
most cases however, I is divisible by D, thus d = 0.

Thus, for the figure above, the deflection angles are:

VAa = d/2
VAb = d/2 +D/2
VAc = d/2 +D/2 + D/2 = d/2 + D
VAd = d/2 + D + D/2 = d/2 + 3/2 D
VAB = d/2 + 3/2 D + d/2 = I/2 = ½ I

Given the deflection angles, we can compute for the length of the chords Aa,
Ab, Ac, Ad and AB using the formulas for the simple curve given above.

2. Compound curves

 Compound curve consists of two or more simple curves that deflect in

the same direction, are tangent to one another, and have two or more
centers on the same side of the curve. For two compound curves,
there will be two variables for the intersection angle I (I1 and I2),
radius R (R1 and R2) and tangent distance T (T1 and T2). Likewise for
n number of compound curves, there’ll be n number of variables for
I, R and T.

Elements of Compound Curve

 Common Tangent (V1V2) – the line where the two curves is tangent
to.
 Vertex (V) – is the point of intersection of the two tangents of the
curves.
 Point of Curvature (PC) – is the point where the first curve begins.
 Point of Tangency (PT) – is the point where the last curve ends. It
is the point where the curve meets the forward tangent.
 Length of the Compound Curve (Lcu) – is the total length of the
curves from PC to PT.
 Tangent Distance of the Compound curve (TL or TS) – is the
distance measured from the vertex to either PC (TL) or PT (Ts).
 Back Tangent of the Compound Curve (TL) – is the tangent where
PC is located.
 Forward Tangent of the Compound Curve (TL) – is the tangent
where the PT is located.
 Angle of Intersection (I) – is the angle subtended by the forward
and backward tangents.
 Point of Compound Curvature (PCC) – is the common point
contained by the two curves. It is the point of tangency of the two
curves and the common tangent.
 Radii (R1, R2) – radius of the two curves respectively.
 Tangents Distances (T1, T2) – are tangent distances of the curves
respectively.
 Long Chord of the Compound Curve – is the line connecting the
points PC and PT of the compound curve.

TL TS

I1

(T1+T2)
I2
V1 PCC

V2

T1

C1 C2 T2

Long Chord
PC
PT
I2

R2
R1

I1 O2

O1
Useful Formulas in Compound Curves

R1 – (R1-R2) cos(180+I1) + R2 cos(180+I2)

TS =
cos (90+I)

TL = R2 sin(180+I) + (R1–R2) sin(180+I) + TR sin(90+I)

Example:

The long chord of a compound curve is 200 m. and the angles it makes with
the tangents of the curves are 12 and 10 deg respectively. If the long chord
is parallel to the common tangent, determine the radius of the first and the
second curve.

Compound Curve Problems

1. A compound curve have radii equal to 780.64 m. and 248.52 m.

respectively for R1 and R2 and have central angle 12 and 18 deg.
Determine the length of the long chord if it is parallel to the common
tangent.
2. The length of the common tangent of a compound curve is 300m. if the
radii of the two curves are 290 m. and 740 m. respectively for R1 and R2,
and the central angle of the second curve is equal to 42 deg. Determine
the central angle of the second curve.

3. Determine the total length of a compound curve if the and the long chord
if the central angles of the two simple curves are 53-54 and 30-00
respectively and with radii 200 m. and 290 m. respectively.
3. Reversed Curve

 is composed of equal or different radii bending in opposite directions with

a common tangent at their junction. Their centers are located on opposite
sides of the curve.

V1
I1

O2

T1
T1
R2
LC1 I2 R2

PC
PRC PT
LC2

I1 T2
R1 R1 T2

I1
O1 V2

Types of Reversed Curve

1. Reversed Curve with Parallel Tangents – is a type of reversed curve

whose forward and backward tangents are parallel.
O2

PC V1 I2

R1
R2 D
PRC

I1

V2
Pt
O1
Example

The center lines of two parallel highways is 300 m. apart and are to be
connected by a reversed curve with a common radius of 1500 m. If the
intermediate tangent between the two simple curves is 415 m., find the
central angle of the reversed curve.

2. Reversed Curve with Equal Radii- is a type of reversed curve that

contain two simple curves that have equal radius called the common
radius.

I2

O1

PT
R
PRC

I1 R
R
PC

O2
Example

Three roads are to be connected by a reversed curve. Road1 has a length of

57.6 m. bearing due east, Road2 has a length of 91.5 m. bearing N 68 E,
and Road3 has a length of 109.2 m. bearing S 48 E. Find the length of the
common radius of the new center line of the three roads (the common
radius of the reversed curve).

3. Reversed Curve with Converging Tangents – is a type of reversed

curve where the back tangent intersects the forward tangent at an angle
equal to I.

O2
PC

I2

I1

R1 PRC

R2

I2 I2 

I1 PT

O1
Example

Two converging tangents of a reversed curve with unequal radii have

azimuths of 300 and 270 deg respectively while that of the common tangent
is 320 deg. If the radius of the first simple curve is 285.5 m. and the
distance from the point of convergence of the tangents to the point of
intersection of the second curve is 160 m. find the radius of the second
curve.

4. Reversed Curve with Diverging Tangents – is a type of reversed

curve whose back and forward tangents separates a distance or diverges.
This type of reversed curve is similar to converging tangents only in
reversed.

O1 PT
Forward Tangent

I1
I2

PRC

I1

Back Tangent PC

I2

O2
4. Spiral Curve

 Transition curves that provide easement between tangents and circular

curves. Such curves are clothoid, in which the curvature varies inversely
as the radius increases linearly from zero, at the tangent to spiral (T.S.),
to the degree of curvature of the simple curve at the point where the
spiral is tangent to the curve.

Elements of a Spiral Curve

Ls  length of spiral
I  angle of intersection of spiral
Ic  angle of intersection of simple curve
Es  external distance of spiral
Ec  external distance for the curve
Ss  spiral angle
xs  offset distance
L.T.  long tangent
S.T.  short tangent
i.c.  deflection angle
P  throw
e  superelevation
Rc  radius of the simple curve
Ts  tangent distance for spiral
Useful Formulas for Spiral Curve

l2
1. Ss =
2RcLs
 spiral angle at any point on the spiral

Ls2 Ls
2. S.C =
2RcLs
=
2Rc  spiral angle at S.C.

Sc
3. i.s. =
3  deflection angle at any point on the spiral

l3
4. X=
6RcLs
 offset distance at any point on the spiral

Ls3 Ls2
5. Xc =
6RcLs
=
6Rc  offset distance at S.C.

6. Y= l -
l5  distance of any point on the spiral along the
40Rc2Ls2 tangent from T.S.
Ls5 Ls3  distance of S.C. along the tangent
7. Yc = Ls - = Ls -
40Rc2Ls2 40Rc2 from T.S.
Xc Ls2
8. P= =
4 24Rc

Ls Xs
9. Ts = + (Rc + )tan ( ½ I)
2 4

Xs
10. Es = (Rc + )sec (½ I) – Rc
4

11. Ic = I – 2Sc

0.036 k3  length of curve given velocity in kph and

12. Ls =
Rc radius of the simple curve
0.079 k2  super elevation “e” given the velocity in
13. e=
Rc kph and the radius of the simple curve
Vertical Curves

 vertical parabolic curves is a curve used to connect two intersecting

grades. It is a curve tangent to two intersecting grade lines.

+G -G2
1

BC EC

L1 L2

Elements of a Vertical Parabolic Curve

 Vertex (V) – is the point of intersection of the grade lines.

 Beginning of the Curve (BC) – is the point where the curve starts.
 End of the Curve (EC) – is the point where the curve ends and meets
touches the negative grade line.
 Back Tangent – the line that contains BC.
 Forward Tangent - is the line that contains EC.
 Grades (G1, G2) – the slope of the intersecting tangents express in
percent.
 Length of the Vertical Curve (L) – the horizontal distance between BC
and EC.

Types of Vertical Parabolic Curve

1. Symmetrical Parabolic Curves – is a type of vertical curve where the

horizontal length from BC to Vertex is equal to the horizontal length from
Vertex to EC.

2. Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve – is a type of vertical curve where the

horizontal length from BC to Vertex is not equal to the horizontal length
from Vertex to EC.
Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

H y2
G1 G2
y1
H
PC PT
L1 L2
L1 = L2 ; L1 + L2 = L
x1 x2

Useful formulas in vertical Curve

Squared property of a parabola

Y1 H y2 H
2 = 2 ; 2 =
x1 (L/2) x2 L2

Location of highest or lowest point on the curve

g1 L g2 L
S1 = or S2 =
g1 + g2 g1 + g2
Where S1 is measured from P.C. and S2 is measured from P.T. g1 and g2 are
in their absolute values.

By similar triangles:

2H L/2 (g1 + g2)

=
L/2 L
or
L (g1 + g2)
H =
4

Note: H is not necessarily the highest or lowest point on the curve.

Derivation of the Formulas

From the general equation of a parabola: y = ax2 + bx + c, taking the first

derivative of the curve, we get its slope… dy/dx = 2ax + b

The rate of change of the slope is given by its second derivative d2y/dx2 =2a

when x = 0, the slope dy/dx = g1,

and when x = L, the slope dy/dx =g2.
Thus,
g1 = 0 + b and g2 = aL + b

the equation of the parabola becomes:

(g1 + g2 ) x2
y = + g1 x + c
L 2

where c is the elevation at the beginning of the vertical curve (B.V.C)

Note: ax2 = vertical distance from the grade to the parabola

g1x = vertical distance from the horizontal to the grade

likewise,

dy g1 + g2
= ( ) x + g1
dx L

Deriving the high or low point on a vertical curve…equate dy/dx to zero

Example Problem

A symmetrical parabolic curve connects two grades of +6% and –4%. The
length of the 240 m. if the vertical distance from the intersection of the
tangents to the curve is 1.5 m., determine the elevation at a point A on the
curve at a distance of 80 m. from the BC whose elevation is 150 m.
Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve

g1 L1

H
y2 G2
G1 y1 g2 L1
H
PC PT
L1 L2

x1 x2

Useful Formulas for Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve

Highest or lowest point

g1 L1 g1 (L1)2
If H > ; S1 =
2 2H

S1 is measured from P.C.

g1 L1 g2 (L2)2
If H < ; S2 =
2 2H

S2 is measured from P.T.

Example Problem

The length of curve on the side of the back tangent of an unsymmetrical

parabolic curve is 100 m. and that on the side of the forward tangent is 60
m. if the forward tangent grade is –4% and the back tangent grade is +7%.
Determine the vertical distance from the curve at the point of intersection of
the tangents.
Earthworks

Earthworks - is defined as the construction of large open cutting, or

excavation involving both cutting and filling of material
other than rock.

Excavation - is the process of loosening and removing earth or rock from

its original position in a cut and transporting it to a fill or a
waste deposit.

Embankment- describes the fill added above the low points along the
roadway to raise the level to the bottom of the pavement
structure.

Road Cross-Sections

1. Level Section
2. Three Level Section
3. Five Level Section
4. Irregular Section
5. Side Hill Section

Methods of Determining the Volume of Earthworks

1. By Average End Areas- is a method used when getting the volume of a

section whose end areas are equal.

V = L/2 (A1 + A2)

where: V = volume of earthworks between stations

1 and 2 in cubic meters.
A1, A2 = cross-sectional area of end sections in
square meters.
L = perpendicular distance between the end
areas.

Example Problem

Find the volume of earthwork of a 1 km excavation divided into 5 sections

with equal area of 1200 m2.
2. By Prismoidal Formula – is a method used when getting the volume of
a section whose end areas are not equal but parallel and have the same
number of sides.

V = L/6 (A1 + 4 Am + A2)

where: V = volume of the section of earthwork between

stations 1 and 2 or the volume of the
prismoid in cubic meters.
A1, A2 = cross-sectional area of end sections in
square meters.
Am = area of middle section parallel to the end
sections and which will be computed (the
dimensions of the middle section) as the
average of the respective end section
dimensions.

Prismoidal Correction – the correction applied for the Prismoidal

Formula in determining volume of earthworks.

Cp = L/12 (b1 – b2) (h1 – h2)

Where: Cp = prismoidal correction; it is subtracted

algebraically from the volume as
determined by the average end areas
method to give the more nearly correct
volume as determined by the prismoidal
formula.
L = perpendicular distance between two parallel
end sections.
b1 = distance between slope stakes at first end
section where the altitude is h1
b2 = distance between slope stakes at second
end section where the altitude is h2.
h1, h2 = altitudes of end sections.