ThimWalledStructures Vol. 27, No. I, pp.

13-29, 1997
Copyright i l t996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0263-8231/97 $15.00
ELSEVIER PI I :S0263-823 I (96)000 I 7- 1

Flange/Web Distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel

Sections in Bending

C. A. Rogers & R. M. Schuster

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada N2L 3GI

ABSTRACT

Recent experimental tests o['cold-lormed steel C- and Z-sections in bending

have revealed unconservative results in the prediction o[" the bending
moment resistance, using the current North American Design Standards.
The failure mode of these tests was identified as .l'lange/web distortional
Buckling. This mode of failure initially involves a rotation of the lip/flange
component about the .lTange/web corner, which typically occurs jor short
ha([~wavelength distortional buckling. Near ultimate failure, an apparent
lateral movement q/" the Jlange/web corner, which includes transverse
bending o[ the web, is experienced. Various analytical methods that predict
the moment resistance of sections which experience short half-wavelength
distortional buckling were investigated and compared with the applicable
test data. The mod(fied Lau and Hancock 2 Model, with S136-94 Standard
calculated ~J]bctive section modulus, is recommended for use as the North
American predictor modeljor the /lange/web distortional buckling moment
resistance o[ cold-[brmed steel sections in bending. Copyright ~i 1996
Elsevier Science Ltd.

1 INTRODUCTION

Cold-formed steel products have been used extensively in the building

construction industry for more than 50 years. The popularity of these
products has dramatically increased in recent years due to their wide range
of application, ease of fabrication and high strength-to-weight ratios.
More recently, cold-formed steel C-sections have been used as studs, joists

13
14 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

and rafters in residential construction in place of typical timber structural

framing. These C-sections are dimensioned similar to common wood studs
and joists, i.e. using 41 mm (1~') lipped flange widths for the full range of
section depths from 92 (3~") to 305mm (12"). Experimental tests have
shown that sections designed from high strength steels with narrow flanges
and web slenderness ratios of up to 200 can fail by flange/web distortional
buckling, ~'2 which is not specifically addressed at the present time in the
North American Design Standards. 3"4
Short half-wavelength distortional buckling includes two possible
buckling modes, i.e. lip/flange and flange/web, as shown in Fig. 1. Lip/
flange distortional buckling mainly involves a rotation of the lip/flange
component about the flange/web corner. Flange/web distortional buckling
initially consists of a rotation of the lip/flange component about the
flange/web corner. However, this buckling mode is influenced by an
apparent lateral movement of the flange/web corner, which includes
transverse bending of the web near ultimate failure. Both failure modes
must be distinguished from the lateral-distortional buckling mode where
the lip-flange component, as well as the web, buckles laterally at longer
half-wavelengths. The difference between the half-wavelengths of the
lateral-distortional and short half-wavelength distortional buckling modes
is shown in Fig. 3.12 of Hancock. 5 Distinction between local and short
half-wavelength distortional buckling modes can be observed during
experimentation through comparison of the final position of the lip/flange
and flange/web corners. Local buckling occurs when both corners remain
in longitudinal alignment, with the adjoining lip, flange and web elements
buckling by plate flexure alone, as shown in Fig. I. Local buckling occurs
at half-wavelengths comparable with the flange width and much shorter
than distortional buckling (see Fig. 3.12 of HancockS).
An analytical method for the prediction of short half-wavelength
distortional buckling has recently been presented by Hancock 6, and

F p
l tarfioaal auckl
Flaage/Web
nu ai
Fig. 1 Localand short half-wavelengthdistortional bucklingmodes.
 Buckling of cold-Jormed steel sections 15

submitted for publication by Hancock e t al. 7 The method is similar to that

of Lau & Hancock s'9 for compression members, but involves a modified
torsional restraint stiffness, k~, at the flange/web corner. The modified
torsional restraint stiffness is calculated on the basis of an assumed elastic
distortional buckling stress, fed', of the lip/flange component, and the
compressive stress distribution in the web element (see eqn 1). Sections in
which the compressive lip/flange component torsionally restrains the web
element, i.e. develop a negative torsional restraint stiffness, typically have
large web slenderness ratios, i.e. h / t > 150, and tend to fail by flange/web
distortional buckling. However, it is also possible to observe experimen-
tally flange/web distortional buckling of sections which have low positive
torsional restraint stiffness values. The procedure used to calculate the
assumed elastic distortional buckling stress and the resulting torsional
restraint stiffness is given in Appendix A.

_ 2Et 3 1.1 lfed' 12.5624 + 2. +

ks -- 5.46(bw + 0.062d) 1 Et 2 192b4w 13.3922b~

(1)

2 FLANGE/WEB DISTORTIONAL B U C K L I N G

The main objectives of this paper were to investigate available analytical

short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods and to propose a
suitable design method which could be used to predict the bending
moment resistance of cold-formed steel sections that are subject to flange/
web distortional buckling. The objectives were accomplished by first
completing laboratory tests of cold-formed steel C-sections in bending at
the University of Waterloo. ~° In addition to these tests, applicable avail-
able test data found in the literature were collected and included in this
study, j'2. it The scope of this work also included a comparison of avail-
able analytical short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods with
the current North American Design Standards. 3"4 Test-to-predicted
bending moment ratios were determined for all analytical methods inves-
tigated, based on the applicable Waterloo and available test data.

2.1 Applicable Waterloo and available test data

Fifty-nine beam specimens were tested in the structures laboratory at the

University of Waterloo in order to accomplish the stated objectives of this
work. Of these specimens, four were observed to fail in the flange/web
distortional buckling mode.l°
16 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

A number of different analytical investigations regarding the flexural

behaviour of C- and Z-sections were reviewed and summarised. The
applicable available test specimens were required to meet the following
criteria: (1) the cross-section was either a C- or a Z-shape, (2) adequate
lateral support was provided during testing, (3) the section did not have
web perforations and (4) all edge stiffeners were simple lips at right angles
to the flange. The applicable sections were chosen based on the failure
descriptions provided by the respective researchers and the extent to which
the tests were unconservatively predicted by the S136-94 Standard. 3 Data
from the following researchers was used: Schuster, I Shan e t al. 2 and
Moreyra & Pek6z.l~
Schuster ~ investigated the effect of perforation size on the bending
capacity of standard industry type C-sections commonly used as light-
weight steel framing members. The solid web specimens tested as part of
Schuster's investigation are included in this paper. The work completed
by Shan e t al. 2 comprised of an investigation into the behaviour of
perforated C-sections subjected to bending, shear and combined bending
and shear forces. Of these tests, six bending specimens with solid web
elements are used as data in this investigation. The work completed by
Moreyra & Pek6z ~ consists of research concerning the effect of a vary-
ing lip size on the bending moment resistance of standard C-sections.
Six of the specimens tested by Moreyra & Pek6z l~ are applicable to this
study.
In a recent study completed by Hancock et al., 7 comparisons were made
with a wide range of flexural test results and various analytical methods
used to predict the nominal bending moment resistance of local and short
half-wavelength distortional buckling modes of failure. All test specimens
included in this paper were compared with the North American Design
Standards 3'4 and the modified Lau & Hancock s'9 short half-wavelength
distortional buckling method.

2.2 Short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods

The following researchers have developed various analytical methods to

model short half-wavelength, lip/flange distortional buckling of cold-
formed steel sections in bending: (1) Lau & Hancock, s'9 (2) Marsh 12 and
(3) Moreyra & Pek6z ~. Although these methods are based on the beha-
viour of lip/flange distortional buckling it is assumed that they are
applicable to flange/web distortional buckling for this paper. In each case,
Sharp's 13 effective column approach is used as the basis for the analytical
method. Sharp's distortional buckling formulae are based on the geomet-
ric properties of an effective column, i.e. one half-wavelength of the lip/
 Buckling of cold-formed steel sections 17

flange component restrained about the flange/web corner. These methods

are used in an attempt to predict the nominal bending moment resistance
of sections which are subject to flange/web distortional buckling. The
methods recommended by each of the above researchers are outlined in
the following sections.

Lau and Hancock.

The short half-wavelength distortional buckling method detailed below is

a modification of the distortional buckling method presented by Lau &
Hancock 8"9 for uniformly compressed members (columns). The modified
Lau & Hancock method is divided into two models, which differ in the
formulation of the strength expressions used to determine the inelastic
critical buckling stress, fc. These strength curves are based on the column
strength expressions presented by Hancock et a[. 14 for postbuckling
behaviour, as well as the interaction of buckling and yielding.

Strength curve 1.
for .Ld > 2.2Jy
.L : L (2)
for .fed ~< 2.2j}

' : - - f, (3,

Strength curve 2:

for .Lo > 3.18fy

.t;, =.1~. (4)

for ./ca ~< 3.18j~,

.L --./7, t,L )
0.6)
where./ed is calculated using a modified Sharp 13 approach (see Appen-
dix A). The full unreduced section modulus is used to calculate the bend-
ing moment resistance when the web element torsionally restrains the lip/
flange component, i.e. the torsional restraint stiffness, k¢, is greater than
or equal to zero. For sections where the lip/flange component torsionally
restrains the web element, i.e. the torsional restraint stiffness is less than
18 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

zero, the effective section modulus is used. When required, effective widths
of the lip, flange and web elements are calculated using either the S136-94
Standard 3 or AISI Specification 4 at stressf~. The effective section modulus
is determined with the plate buckling coefficient for the flange set at
k = 4.0 in the effective width equation for local buckling, and the assumed
stress for the edge stiffener is set at the maximum compression stress in the
section, f~. An outline of the procedure recommended by Hancock, 6 as
well as Hancock et al. 7 to calculate the nominal bending moment resis-
tance for sections which are subject to short half-wavelength distortional
buckling is given in Appendix A.

Marsh.

The method developed by Marsh 12 is being considered for adoption by the

International Standards Organization n5 for the analysis of the short half-
wavelength distortional buckling mode of failure of cold-formed alumi-
nium sections. Modifications were made to ensure that the method is
applicable to non-symmetric sections in bending. The Marsh method is
unique with respect to the current North American Design Standards 3'4
and the other short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods
discussed in this paper. A difference exists in the calculation of effective
section properties, where a reduced thickness is used for compressive
elements instead of the reduced effective width concept.
The elastic distortional buckling stress is a function of the geometric
properties of the compressive lip/flange component and is determined in
accordance with the strength expressions specified in the current S136-94
Standard. 3 An overall normalized section slenderness is calculated and
compared with the normalized slenderness of the compressive lip, flange
and web elements. Elements which have a normalized slenderness greater
than that of the overall section are reduced in thickness. The overall
section slenderness and normalized overall section slenderness are given as
follows:

( GJ + 2(ECwk6) t/2
) 1/2
(6)

= -rc2v/rf (7)

w h e r e f i s the maximum compressive stress in the section, e.g. fy, Ip is the

polar moment of inertia of the lip/flange component about the flange/web
corner, and Cw and J are the warping constant and torsion constant of the
 Buckling ~/ coht-/ornwd steel sections 19

lip/flange component, respectively. The normalized inelastic critical buck-

ling stress,./~,, is calculated as follows:

for ~v~
=./(l - 7/4) (8)
for ~>v/2
.L = .t/ ;,- (9)

The slenderness and normalized slenderness of the compressive flange

element is then calculated, where m = 1.6 for flanges supported by a
simple edge stiffener:

).f = mbt,/t (10)

~zVE
If ~f > ~. then the reduced thickness of the compressive flange, t'i., is used
to calculate the effective section modulus:

lfzt (12)

for 2f
./i = (I - 2r2/4) (13)
for >V2
./i = 1/2c" (14)
Similar expressions to determine the normalized slenderness of the
compressive lip and web elements have been developed by Marsh ~2 (see
Rogersl°).

Moreyra and Pek6z

Moreyra & Pek6z jl presented a new method to model short half-wave-

length distortionai buckling of cold-formed steel sections in bending. This
method consists of a one-step nominal edge stress equation, developed
from a finite element parametric study. Once the initial nominal edge
stress is calculated, Sharp's ~3 approach is used to determine the effective
width of the flange element. The current AISI Specification4 and the
S o o i 16 effective web approach are used to determine the effective widths of
20 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

the simple edge stiffener and web elements, respectively. Three modifica-
tions of the Moreyra & Pek6z method are included in the procedures used
in this paper. Initially a nominal edge stress, fn, is calculated:

A= JY
(b_~) 2/3 (0.186 + 0.114 b~)2 ~<.fy (15)

Two models are used in this comparison study, with the flange/web
torsional stiffness term, k~, as the only variation. The section dimensions
used by Moreyra & Pek6z ~, bf and bw, are measured as the flat widths of

2ow(_, /
the flange and web, respectively.

2 bf ; model l (16)
k~ - bw l + 3bw

4Dw Q 1 / ; model 2 (17)

k,- b~- 1 + ~ b ~ ]

Sharp's approach is based on a uniformly compressed member subject to

short half-wavelength distortional buckling (see Fig. 2a), whereas the
Moreyra & Pek6z ~*method was developed to model a section in bending. The
web element of a section in bending is under a stress gradient (see Fig. 2b) and
must only resist the torsional forces of one compressive flange, therefore, the
torsional restraint stiffness term, k~, is increased by a factor of two.

D w . 4D.

Co.mp~ ~
12(1 g')
Fig. 2. Flange/web torsional stiffness relationship.
 Buckling of cold-Jormed steel sections 21

The normalized buckling slenderness ratio of the compressive flange is

calculated as follows:

(18)

1.65 bf (19)
t
,-g+2
The ratio of shear modulus to elastic modulus, G/E, used in eqn (19) was
simplified to a constant of 0.375 by Sharp ~3 and also by Moreyra &
Pek6z.I 1 The base variables terms G and E are used in this paper because
the values of the shear and elastic moduli differ for aluminium and steel.
Moreyra & Pek6z j~ include a limit for the flat width ratio of the lip, d/t,
to eliminate the possibility of negative values for the warping coefficient,
Cw, of the lip/flange component. The warping coefficient is defined as zero
for sections with a d/t value outside this limit. For certain test specimens,
positive Cw values were calculated for sections where the d/t requirement
caused the warping coefficient to be zero. For this reason, the flat width
ratio limit was removed from the Moreyra and Pek6z method and
replaced with a C,,. ~<0 constraint:

Cw = b,." /vc 12 J >~0 (20)

where Iyc is the moment of inertia of the lip/flange component about its
own centroid, i.e. Yc axis.

2.3 Comparison of applicable test data

The applicable Waterloo and available test data were combined and
analysed, with the results presented in Table 1. Test-to-predicted bending
moment ratios for individual specimens can be found in Table B1 of
Appendix B. The Marsh ~2 method results in an accurate prediction of the
flange/web distortional buckling moment resistance of the test specimens
based on the statistical evidence. The modified Lau & Hancock 8 9 models,
as well as the Moreyra & Pek6z ~l models also result in adequate predic-
tions of the flange/web distortional buckling moment resistance of the test
specimens used in the comparisons. The Moreyra & Pek6z models are
slightly conservative and do not provide the best data fit, as indicated by
the larger standard deviations and coefficients of variation. The modified
22 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

TABLE 1
Mv/Mp Statistical Comparisons

Test S136 AIS1 L&H1 L&H1 L&H2 L&H2 Mar M&PI M&P2
specimen S136 AISI S136 AISI
Rogers data I° (4 test specimens):
Mean 0.909 0.817 0.933 0.835 0.959 0.854 0.982 1.10 1.10
SD 0.017 0.016 0.023 0.021 0.022 0.020 0.043 0.012 0.012
CoV 0.032 0.035 0.043 0.043 0.040 0.041 0.075 0.019 0.018
Available data 1'2" t t (17 test specimens):
Mean 0.899 0.825 0.973 0.965 1.01 1.00 1.03 1.09 1.06
SD 0.078 0.065 0.065 0.074 0.067 0.079 0.072 0.188 0.182
CoV 0.093 0.085 0.071 0.082 0.071 0.084 0.075 0.185 0.184
Rogers and available data (21 test specimens):
Mean 0.900 0.823 0.966 0.941 1.00 0.975 1.02 1.09 1.06
SD 0.070 0.059 0 . 0 6 1 0.085 0.065 0.093 0.069 0.168 0.164
CoV 0.082 0.075 0.066 0.095 0.068 0.101 0.071 0.163 0.162

Note: L&H, Mar and M&P refer to the modified Lau & Hancock 8'9, Marsh 12 and
Moreyra & Pek6z ~ short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods, respectively.

Lau & Hancock models show improved statistical values, however, they
are slightly unconservative, except for model 2 (S136-94 Standard3).

2.4 Comparison of short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods

The North American Design Standards 3"4 are based on a unified effective
width approach, where the flat width of an element is reduced according
to the effective width equation. Although the short half-wavelength
distortional buckling model proposed by Marsh ~2 yields accurate test-to-
predicted bending moment ratios, it does not follow the unified effective
width approach. Element thickness, instead of width, is reduced according
to the slenderness of the cross-section. Since the Marsh method requires a
change in design philosophy from the North American Design Standards,
it is not recommended as a predictor method for the flange/web distor-
tional buckling mode of failure of sections in bending.
The modified Lau & Hancock, 8'9 as well as the Moreyra & Pek6z ~
short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods were developed in
accordance with the unified effective width approach. Based on the
statistical results of the test-to-predicted bending moment ratios (see
Table 1), the modified Lau and Hancock 2 Model, with S136-94 Stan-
dard 3 calculated effective section modulus, yields the most accurate
moment resistance predictions. The Moreyra and Pek6z methods have
conservative mean values, however, the standard deviations and coeffi-
 Buckling of cold-formed steel sections 23

cients of variation indicate a lack of precision in the predicted bending

m o m e n t resistance. In addition, the procedures specified by Moreyra and
Pek6z involve a nominal buckling stress equation, f . , which was derived
from the results of a finite element parametric study that used only simple
edge-stiffened C-sections in bending. Hence, the nominal buckling stress
equation may not be valid for other cross-section configurations. The
nominal buckling stress equation does not have a theoretical origin and is
not dependent on the dimension of the simple edge stiffener. Furthermore,
the Moreyra and Pek6z method first requires a reduced nominal buckling
stress, then further reduces this stress in the calculation of the effective
compressive flange width according to the Sharp j3 approach. Sharp's
approach is itself a method with which the elastic distortional buckling
stress of the equivalent column can be determined. Therefore, the initial
nominal buckling stress calculation is a doubling of the elastic distortional
buckling stress reduction procedure and is unnecessary.
The modified Lau & Hancock s'9 models follow a revised version of the
procedures recommended by Sharp ~3 for the calculation of the equivalent
column elastic distortional buckling stress. The models vary only in the
required column strength expression, and the method used to calculate the
effective section modulus. The modified Lau and Hancock models consist
of an adaptation of the original column strength expressions to account
for postbuckling, as well as the interaction of buckling and yielding.
Models 1 and 2 have also been recommended by Hancock, 6 as well as
Hancock e t a / . 7 based on an investigation of local and short half-wave-
length distortional buckling of members in bending. Since the modified
Lau and Hancock 2 Model, with S136-94 Standard 3 calculated effective
section modulus, accounts for postbuckling, as well as the interaction of
buckling and yielding, and provides an accurate prediction of the nominal
bending moment resistance, it is recommended to be used as the North
American predictor model for the flange/web distortional buckling
moment resistance of cold-formed steel sections in bending.

3 CONCLUSIONS

Based on the statistical results of the test-to-predicted bending moment

ratios for the applicable test specimens, the modified Lau and Hancock 2
Model, with S136-94 Standard 3 calculated effective section modulus,
yields the most accurate m o m e n t resistance predictions for methods
developed in accordance with the unified effective width approach. The
modified Lau and Hancock 2 Model accounts for postbuckling and the
interaction of buckling and yielding. It has also been favourably compared
24 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

to a wide range of data by Hancock, 6 as well as Hancock et al. 7 Therefore

the modified Lau and Hancock 2 Model, with S136-94 Standard calcu-
lated effective section modulus, is recommended for use as the North
American predictor model for the flange/web distortional buckling
m o m e n t resistance o f cold-formed steel sections in bending.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute and
the National Research Council's Industrial Research Assistance
P r o g r a m m e for their financial support. The comments o f Professor G.J.
Hancock o f the University of Sydney, Australia, and Professor C. Marsh
o f Concordia University, Canada, are also appreciated.

REFERENCES

1. Schuster, R.M., Testing of perforated C-stud sections in bending. Report for

the Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute, University of Waterloo, Water-
loo Ontario, March 1992.
2. Shan, M.Y., LaBoube, R.A., Yu, W.W., Behavior of web elements with
openings subjected to bending, shear and the combination of bending and
shear. Final report, Civil Engineering Study 94-2 Structural Series, University
of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla MO, May 1994.
3. S136-94, Cold Formed Steel Structural Members, Canadian Standards
Association, Rexdale (Toronto) Ontario, Canada, 1994.
4. American Iron and Steel Institute, Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members, August 19, 1986 Edition with December
11, 1989 Addendum, Washington D.C., USA, 1989.
5. Hancock, G.J., Design of cold-formed steel structures (to Australian Stan-
dard AS 1538-1988) 2nd edn, Australian Institute of Steel Construction,
Sydney, 1994, p. 38.
6, Hancock, G.J., Design for distortional buckling of flexural members. Thin-
Walled Structures, this issue,
7. Hancock, G.J., Rogers, C.A. & Schuster, R.M., Comparison of the distor-
tional buckling method for flexural members with tests. Proc. 13th Int.
Speciality Conj. Cold-jbrmed Steel Structures, University of Missouri-Rolla,
Rolla, MO, October 1996.
8. Lau, S.C.W. & Hancock, G.J., Distortional buckling formulas for channel
columns. J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 113 (ST5) (1987) 1063 1078.
9. Lau, S.C.W. & Hancock, G.J., Inelastic buckling of channel columns in the
distortional mode. Thin- Walled Structures, l0 (1990) 59-84.
10. Rogers, C.A., Local and distortional buckling of cold formed steel channel
and zed sections in bending. M.A.Sc. thesis presented to the Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo Ontario, May 1995.
 Buckling of cold-formed steel sections 25

11. Moreyra, M.E. & Pek6z, T., Behavior of cold-formed steel lipped channels
under bending and design of edge stiffened elements. Research report 93-4,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca,
NY, June 1993.
12. Marsh, C., InYluence of lips on local and overall stability of beams and
columns. Pr(~c. Structural Stability Research Council, Annual Technical
Session, 1990, pp. 145-153.
13. Sharp, M.L., Longitudinal stiffeners for compression members, J. Struct.
Div. ASCE, 92 (ST5) (1966) 187-211.
14. Hancock, G.J., Kwon, Y.B. & Bernard, E.S., Strength design curves for thin-
walled sections undergoing distortional buckling. J. Constr. Steel Res., 31
(1994) 169-186.
15. ISO/TC 167/SC3, Aluminium Structures Material and Design Part I: Ulti-
mate Limit State - - Static Loading, Technical Report, June 1993.
16. Sooi, T.K., The behavior of component elements of aluminium members. A
thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University,
Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1993.

APPENDIX A

Modified Lau & Hancock s'9 bending moment resistance for short half-
wavelength distortional buckling, recommended by Hancock, 6 as well as
Hancock e t al. 7

Lip~[lange component geometric properties

Af = t(bf + bl) (Al)

(A2)
h~ + bt

.5 - b~/2 + bl b;
(A3)
br + bl
13
Jt" ----~-(br + b0 (A4)

I,-r bt" t 3 t b~
- 12 + - ~ + b f t ~ 2 + b l t ( b l / 2 - y ) 2 (A5)

t b{ bl t 3
!,f = - ( ~ + ~ - + bf t (2 - b f / 2 ) z + bl t (br - .~,)2 (A6)

!,,f = hf t (br/2 - £c)(-f~) + bl t (bl/2 - ~)(bf - £c) (A7)

26 C. A. Rogers, R. M . Schuster
AY
b
Colnp. P ,y "1 __.+_I< +":,, ,I
' b I
lib, "f--L- ..... --'x

Aw
i

I
i

I r- i- ";
!

. . . .
I
~ . . . . . . X

Y Tens.
,

y
t J, I
?
No~: Cent.a" line
dimemiom used.

Fig. A1. Lau & Hancock 8 C-section and lip/flange component.

Step 1

fl'=22+X,, Af ]] (A8)
0.25
4 /xf bf bw i f ,~m < )Ld t h e n )~d = '~m (A9)
')~d = "80 ' -~3 "

(A10)

~ : ~(l,,.b~
7/ 2 + 0 . 0 3 9 J r 22) (All)

~2 = n I,+ + ~ ? bf I~,r (AI2)

rl 2 2
(AI3)

fed = ~ f (0~1 Jr- 0~2) -4-- (@1 -l- (X2)2 -- 4@3 (smaller positive value)
(AI4)

2Et 3 [ 1 11/ed'
k4' = 5.46(bw + 0.062d) [! Et z -12.56,~a4 + 2.19264w + 13.39,t~bw
(AI5)
 Buckling of cold-formed steel sections 27

Step 2

Ifk,>~0 then:
k~
~/ (!,-f b~ + 0.039 Jr 22) + - - (AI6)

,O,,f T] 2
fbf) 2
(AI3)

.Ld = ~ f (0¢1 q- 0¢2) q- (0¢1 q- @2)2 -- 40¢3 (smaller positive value)

(AI7)

If k4, < 0 then:

2Et 2
(A18)
k, = 5.46(bw + 0.062a)

~, = y~/( ! , f b ~ + 0.039Jr 22) + - - k¢ (A16)

fll T1E

0~3 = T] 0q!rr - rl I xyfbf (A13)

.led = ~ f f (~1 q- 0¢2) -[- ,/ (~1 q- 0¢2)2 -- 4¢X3 } (smaller positive value)
(A17)

Strength curve 1

for ./ed > 2.2fy

.1; =.1~ (A19)

for .fed~<2.2fy

(A20)
28 C. A. Rogers, R. M. Schuster

Strength curve 2

for Jed > 3.18fv

L=L (A21)

for Jeo ~<3.18Jy

\Zy/
(,_ ) (A22)

Nominal moment resistance

If k~ ~>0 then:
Mn = S~,L (A23)

If k~ < 0 then:
M. = Se.L (A24)

Sf z section modulus of the full unreduced section for the extreme

compression fibre.
&= section modulus of the effective section calculated at stressj~ in the
extreme compression fibre, with k = 4.0 for the flange, and.f=.f~
for the edge stiffener. Note: the effective width calculation proce-
dure for the web subject to a stress gradient differs for the S136
Standard 3 and AISI Specification.4
m distance between restraints which limit rotation of the lip/flange
component about the flange/web corner.
 Buckling o[ cold-[brined steel sections 29

APPENDIX B

TABLE B1
Local a n d Short H a l f - W a v e l e n g t h D i s t o r t i o n a l M+/Mp R a t i o s

Mr S136 AISI
L&HI L&HI L&H2 L&H2 Mar M&PI M&P2
SI36 AISI S 1 3 6 AISI
Specimen (kNm) MT/Mp MT/Mp MT/'Mp MT/Mp MT/Mp MT/,~I4p MT/Mp MT/Mp Mi,'Mr,

Rogers L(~
C 1-DW30-2 24.3 0.91 0.83 0.95 0.85 0.98 0.87 1.02 I.I I 1.11
C 1-DW40-2 24.9 0.93 0.84 0.95 0.85 0.98 0.87 1.02 I. 11 1.1 I
CI-DW60-2 25.6 0.90 0.81 0.91 0.82 0.94 0.84 0.96 1.10 1.10
C1-DW80-2 26.1 0.89 0.80 0.91 0.81 0.94 0.83 0.93 1.09 1.09

Moreyra & Pek6z tt

A-W 14.0 0.93 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.03 1.02 0.96 0.92
A-TB 14.4 0.87 0.80 0.95 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.91 0.88
B-W 13.2 0.87 0.81 0.96 0.96 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.92 0.89
B-TB 14.0 0.91 0.82 0.96 0.96 1.00 1.00 1.01 0.92 0.89
C-W 15.6 1.12 1.02 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.22 1.24 1.14 1.09
C-TB 15.0 [ .00 0.90 1.04 1.04 1.09 1.09 l. ] 0 1.00 0.96

Schuster t
BS1 8.46 0.93 0.82 0.99 0.99 1.03 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.10
BS2 8.61 0.95 0.84 1.01 1.01 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.15 1.12
CS I 9.05 0.83 0.76 0.90 0.90 0.94 0.94 0.96 1.05 1.01
CS2 9.05 0.83 0.76 0.90 0.90 0.94 0.94 0.96 1.05 1.01
CS3 9.29 0.86 0.78 0.93 0.93 0.97 0.97 0.98 1.07 1.04

Shah el a/?
8A,14,7&8(N) 15.3 0.88 0.80 0.96 0.96 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.89 0.87
8A,14,9&10(N) 15.7 0.90 0.82 0.99 0.99 1.02 1.02 1.01 0.91 0.89
8A,20, I &2(N) 4.07 0.89 0.86 0.96 0.96 1.03 1.03 I. 13 1.49 1.44
8A,20,3&4(N) 4.12 0.89 0.85 0.96 0.96 1.02 1.02 I. 13 1.50 1.45
12B, L6,t&2(N) 22.5 0.78 0.74 0.90 0.84 0.93 0.86 0.94 1.19 1.16
12B,16,3&4(N) 23.4 0.82 0.78 I).95 0.88 0.98 0.90 1.00 1.25 1.21

Note: L&H, Mar and M&P refer to the modified Lau & H a n c o c k ~'9, M a r s h 12 a n d
Moreyra & Pek6z ~ short half-wavelength distortional buckling methods, respectively.