A REPORT ON

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

At
POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD.
(TELECOM)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR AWARD DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BY

()

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

(2018)
 A REPORT ON

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

At

POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD.

(TELECOM)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR AWARD DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

(2018)
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the training report entitled “Optical fibre communication” submitted by XXX, student
of Electronics & Communication,, in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering (Name of Branch) Degree of is a record of student’s own study carried
under my supervision & guidance.

This report has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any degree.

Name & Signature of Training Supervisor

Designation

ii
 DECLARATION

The work embodied in the training report entitled, “Optical Fibre Comminucation”
submitted to the department of Electronics & Communication atfor the award of degree of Bachelor
of Engineering, has been done by me. The training report is entirely based on my own work and not
submitted elsewhere for the award of any other degree. All ideas and references have been duly
acknowledged.

Name and Signature of student

Countersigned by:

(Supervisor)

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iv
 ABSTRACT

Industrial training is an important phase of a student life. A well planned, properly executed and
evaluated industrial training helps a lot in developing a professional attitude. It develop an
awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and
mode of operation of organization. The aim and motivation of this industrial training is to receive
discipline, skills, teamwork and technical knowledge through a proper training environment, which
will help me, as a student in the field of Information Technology, to develop a responsiveness of the
self-disciplinary nature of problems in information and communication technology. During a period
of six months training at PGCIL (Jammu), I learnt a lot of technical information and how theories
and implemented practically. As a result I learnt how science and engineering is helping our society.

For my industrail training, at PGCIL, I was assigned to the telecom department where I learnt how
data is transmitted and managed.

v
 CONTENTS

____________________________________________________________________

S.No. Title Page

No.
1 Certificate ii
2 Declaration iii
3 Acknowledgement iv
4 Abstract v
5 Contents vi
6 List of Figures viii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-17
1.1 PGCIL 1
1.1.1 Unique features of Powergrid’s network 2
1.1.2 Telecom backbone network 3
1.1.3 Areas of Operation of Powergrid 4
1.1.4 Power Grid’s Esteemed Customers 5
1.2 Communication 6
1.3 Multiplexing 7
1.4 Transmission types 10

1.5 Multiplexing naming convention 11

1.6 Multiplexing Hierarchies 12

1.6.1 SDH 12

1.7 Conventional method of Communication 15

Chapter 2 Optical Fibre 18-38
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Principle of operation 24
2.3 Applications 26
2.4 Optical fibre connector 28
2.4.1 Types 29

vi
 2.4.2 Colour Codes 32
2.5 Optical Attenuator 33
2.6 Fibre optic patch cord 34
2.6.1 Common types of fibre optic patch cords 35
2.6.2 Applications 38
Chapter 3 Common tools 39-44
3.1 Optical Power Meter 39
3.1.1 Power measuring range 39
3.1.2 Common fiber optic test applications 40
3.2 Fusion Splicing 41
3.2.1 Fusion Splicer 41
3.3 OTDR 44
Chapter 4 Optical Multiplexers 45
4.1 ZTE DWDM Multiplexer 45
4.1.1 ZXMP M800 Metro DWDM Multipler 46
Equipment
4.2 Tejas Multiplexers 47
4.2.1 TJ1270 47
4.2.2 TJ1400 49
4.3 SFPs 50
Chapter 5 Learning Experience 51
5.1 Fusion Splicing Process 51
5.2 Configuring Tejas Multiplexers 59
Chapter 6 Conclusion 62

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES

Fig. No. Title Page No.

1.1 Telecom Backbone of India 3
1.2 Baseband and Broadband Channels 7
1.3 Frequency Division Multiplexing 8
1.4 Time Division Multiplexing 8
1.5 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 9
1.6 Multiplexer Naming Convention 11
1.7 PDH & SDH 13
1.8 Optical Transmission 17
2.1 Bulk optical fibre 20
2.2 Wavelength Regions 21
2.3 Optical Fibre Cross-section 22
2.4 Reflected path of light in the glass rod 23
2.5 Pricnciple of Total Internal Reflection 25
2.6 LC & FC connector 30
2.7 Three types of SC connectors 32
2.8 Two types of LC connectors 32
2.9 Optical Attenuators 33
2.10 Patch cord 34
2.11 Single mode fibre patch cables 35
2.12 Multimode fibre patch cable 35
2.13 Simplex fibre optic patch cable 36
2.14 Duplex fibre optic cable 36
2.15 Ribbon fan-out cable assembly 37
2.16 Hybrid fubre optic patch cable 38
3.1 Optical Power Meter 39
3.2 Fusion Splicing 41
3.3 Fusion Splicer and Cleaver 42
3.4 Milller Stripper, No-Nik, Micro-strip 43
viii
Fig. No. Title Page No.
3.5 OTDR 44
4.1 ZTE DWDM MUX 46
4.2 TJ1270 front view 47
4.3 TJ1270 back view 47
4.4 TJ1400 front view 49
4.5 SFPs 50
5.1 Fusion Splicing at site 51
5.2 Attaching cards on TJ1270 59

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PGCIL

POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED (PGCIL) is the Central transmission utility
of India which possesses one of the largest transmission networks in the world. Incorporated in
October 1989, today it owns and operates over 40,000 circuit kms of EHV transmission lines along
with 66 sub-stations having over 33,230 MVA transformation capacity. About one third (30,000
MW) of the total generating capacity in India is transmitted through POWER GRID system.
POWER GRID takes pride in maintaining high transmission system availability and is ranked
amongst top six transmission utilities in the world. It has achieved a system availability of over 98%
during 2000-01. POWER GRID is also operating all the five RLDCs for real time monitoring and
efficient grid management. POWER GRID is accredited with ISO 9001 Quality Systems
Certificate, by NQA – Quality System Register UK. It is executing many a turnkey consultancy
contracts and its clients include Merz Mcllelan UK, Price Waterhouse, U.K & various State
Electricity Boards in India.
In Electricity Laws Amendment Act 1998, "Transmission" became separate activity and POWER
GRID was recognised as CTU to Undertake transmission of energy through inter state transmission.
Discharge all functions of planning and co-ordination related to inter-state transmission. Exercise
supervision & control for inter-state transmission system & operate RLDCs. Entrusted the task to
undertake transmission of energy though inter state transmission system by construction, operation
and maintenance of Extra High Voltage AC and High Voltage DC Transmission lines, substations,
Load Despatch Centres and communication facilities.
The inherent Communication infrastructure coupled with right of way along its extensive Power
Transmission network have made it possible to leverage these characteristics in creating
convergence of Power Transmission and Telecom technologies. POWER GRID’s telecom network
of 50,000 Kms, connecting about 60 major cities/ Metros is nearing completion. POWER GRID’s
telecom network provides a robust telecom highway at affordable cost with ultra modern and eco-
friendly implementation techniques. POWER GRID is one of the few telecom players with a marked
presence in remote areas viz. North Eastern Region, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, etc.
Most of the telecom network, connecting major cities like, Delhi, Chandigarh, Jammu, Jaipur,
Lucknow, Mumbai, Ahmadabad, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai, State capitals in North-

1
Eastern Region, etc. has already been operationalised, and balance is expected to be available
shortly.

1.1.1 UNIQUE FEATURES OF POWERGRID’S NETWORK

Most of the POWER GRID’s optic fibre backbone network is laid overhead on the extra high
voltage Power transmission lines and therefore it offers distinct advantage over the underground
optic fibre network in terms of robustness, vandalism proof, rodent and termite proof etc, thus
offering high reliability. The other advantages of leasing bandwidth capacity on POWER GRID’s
Telecom route are:

· Instant bandwidth allocation on POWERGRID’s Telecom route

· End to end connectivity

· Instant upgradation to higher capacity

· Better Service Level

· Services catering to the specific needs of the customers

· High reliability, high quality service in a cost effective manner

2
1.1.2 Telecom Backbone Network

"

Fig. 1.1 Telecom Backbone of India

3
1.1.3 Areas of Operation Of Power Grid

• Development of Inter-State transmission Systems

• Planning & Design

• Construction

• Quality Assurance & Inspection

• Operation & Maintenance

• Grid Management

• Establishment of modern Load Dispatch Centres

• Real-time Grid Operation

• Optimum scheduling & dispatch

• Energy accounting including settlements

• Diversification

• Broadband Telecom Services

• Sub-transmission

• Distribution

• Rural Electrification

4
1.1.4 Power Grid’s Esteemed Customers

➢ VSNL
➢ BHARTI
➢ HUTCH
➢ EXATNET
➢ TTSL
➢ RELIANCE TELECOM
➢ IQUARA BG BROADBAND
➢ ETV
➢ EQUANT
➢ SIFY
➢ COMSATMAX
➢ DAKSH
➢ COXWAIN TECHNOLOGIES
➢ RAILTEL
➢ ERNET
➢ GLIDE / SAB INFOTECH
➢ STPI
➢ ESTEL
➢ I2I
➢ NETV
➢ AMTRON
➢ HCL INFINET
➢ DISHNET WIRELESS
➢ TECHSPAN
➢ BLAZENET
➢ PATNI COMPUTERS
➢ IDEA
➢ TULIP
➢ GLOBAL VANTEDGE
➢ WORLDPHONE

5
1.2 COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the use of
a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both sender and receiver. It is a
process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Communication
requires that all parties understand a common language that is exchanged. There are auditory
means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such
as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing.

[1] Communication is the articulation of sending a message, through different media.

[2] Whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea,
gesture, action, etc.

➢ BASEBAND TRANSMISSION:

Baseband transmission is a type of data transmission in which digital or analog data is sent over a
single unmultiplexed channel, such as an Ethernet LAN. Baseband transmission use Time division
Multiplexing (TDM) to send simultaneous bits of data along the full bandwidth of the transmission
channel.

Here the original band of frequencies of a signal is modulated for transmission at a higher
frequency. Only a single transmission can occur at a given time. Most communications between
computers, including the majority of local-area networks, use Baseband communications.

➢ BROADBAND TRANSMISSION:

Broadband transmission is a type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry
several channel at once. It is a general term for different types of high-speed, high-bandwidth
connections to the Internet, including Cable and Digital subscriber line (DSL).

6
Many channels are available for transmission, allowing multiple network devices to transmit
simultaneously without collision. Broadband systems are capable of carrying a large quantity of
data simultaneously. Broadband techniques usually depend on coaxial or optical cable.

Fig. 1.2 Baseband and Broadband Channels

1.3 MULTPLEXING

It is the process of combining a number of individual channels into a common frequency band or
into a common bit stream for transmission.

Different multiplexing techniques are:-

I. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

II. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

III. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

7
 ➢ FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

FDM is a process in which the bandwidth is divided in frequency domain, or in other words each of
the input signal is transmitted at a different frequency (carrier) but simultaneously (or in the same
time slot). FDM is a multiplexing technique used fur analog signals

Fig.1.3 Frequency Division Multiplexing

➢ TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

Fig. 1.4 Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is a type of multiplexing in which different signals are multiplexed in different time slots. In
TDM each time slots is fixed for different signals sequentially. TDM uses full bandwidth for every
channel, but not at the same time so that every channel gats its time slot in the shared line.

8
 ➢ WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

It is a type of multiplexing in which different wavelengths for full time slots. When each
wavelength is multiplexed from different TDM signals then the multiplexing is called TDM over
WDM. WDM is widely used for the following reasons:

➢ Better utilization of fibre

➢ Low unit cost of bandwidth in high capacity systems

➢ Easily integrated with existing equipment in the network

Fig. 1.5 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

9
1.4 TRANSMISSION TYPES
• Asynchronous transmission

• Plesiochronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission

➢ Asynchronous transmission:

Asynchronous transmission is a transmission of data in which time intervals between transmitted

characters may be of unequal length. Transmission is controlled by start and stop bits at the
beginning and end of each character. Transition of signals do not occur at the same nominal rate
generally free running quartz oscillators derive the clock. There is no timing pulse sent from
transmitter to receiver.

➢ Plesiochronous transmission:

Plesiochronous is a Greek word meaning Almost Synchronous, but not fully synchronous. The
digital transitions in the signals occur at almost the same rate. There may be a phase difference
between the transitions of the two signals, and this would lie on specified limits.

➢ Synchronous transmission:

The Digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the same rate. There will be no phase
difference between the transitions of the two signals. And this would lie on specified limits. In a
synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one primary reference clock (PRC).

10
1.5 Multiplexing

Fig. 1.6 Multiplexer Naming Convention

Different technologies are used for multiplexing signals. They are frequency division multiplexing
(FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM) and (dense) wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).
Radio and television broadcasts use FDM. WDM is related to the transport of different signals
through an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. TDM is commonly used for multiplexing
digitized voice streams and data streams.
The terminal multiplexer (TM) combines (multiplexes) data from n input lines and transmits over
a higher-capacity data link. The inputs are called tributaries. The TM combines many tributaries
into one aggregate signal.
The second alternative is an Add-Drop Multiplexer (ADM) which has tributaries, but has two,
instead of one, aggregate. In an ADM we can drop traffic or we can add traffic or traffic can simply
go through it - that is called transparency. This configuration is often used in ADM rings. In an
ADM ring we can in each node terminate traffic (TP, termination point) or it can go through
transparently or traffic can be added (TP). If we compare ADM to TM, we notice that in TM we
always have to terminate all traffic, but in ADM we can let some of the traffic through it
transparently.

11
1.6 Multiplexing Hierarchies
A) SDH
B) PDH

1.6.1 SDH
SDH is very useful equipment that is used for the telecommunication sector in easy transfer of data.
Earlier PDH was widely used but due to some of its weaknesses, SDH has replaced the use of PDH.
But not everywhere. Point to Point applications are still used mainly by PDH, and also, it’s cheaper.

PDH or the plesiochronous digital hierarchy is a popular technology that is widely used in the
networks of telecommunication in order to transport the huge amounts of data over the digital
equipment for transportation like microwave radio or fiber optic systems. The term plesiochronous
has been derived from the Greek work ‘plesio’ that means ‘near’ and ‘chronos’ meaning time. This
means that the PDH works in a state when the various different parts of a network are clearly
synchronized. But with the change in technology, the PDH is now being replaced by the SDH or
what is popularly called as synchronous digital hierarchy. The SDH is useful equipment that is used
in most of the telecommunications networks.

!
12
SDH defines a hierarchy of standardized digital data rates. The lowest level, referred to as STM-1
(Synchronous Transport Module, level 1) is 155.52 Mbit/s.
SONET/SDH are true optical implementations. They take advantage of the bandwidth and high
reliability of the fibre optic medium. Because they are typically WAN standards, SONET/SDH use
point-to-point connection types. The point-to-point architecture makes the standards ideal for high
and centralized systems or WAN backbones. In addition, they use time division multiplexing over a
mesh or ring physical topology. SONET/SDH are the physical foundation for various high-end
implementations, including: FDDI, SMDS, ATM and soon IP networks.

Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) and synchronous optical network (SONET) refer to a group of
fibre-optic transmission rates that can transport digital signals with different capacities.

PDH vs. SDH — Bit Rates

Hierarchy level USA Europe

PDH
0 64 kbit/s T0 64 kbit/s E0
1 1.544 Mbit/s T1 (24x) 2.048 Mbit/s E1 (32x)
2 6.312 Mbit/s DS-2 (4x) 8.448 Mbit/s E2 (4x)
3 44.736 Mbit/s DS-3 (7x) 34.368 Mbit/s E3 (4x)
E0 4 139.264 Mbit/s E4 (4x)
E1
E2

synchronous
plesiochronous
plesiochronous
E3
E4 SDH TM STM-1
plesiochronous • E1 (2.048 Mbit/s)
• T1 (1.544 Mbit/s)
SONET SDH Data rate • DS-2 (6.312 Mbit/s)
(ANSI) (ITU-T) (Mbps) TM STM-4
• E3 (34.368 Mbit/s)
STS-1 51.84
STS-3 STM-1 155.52 • DS-3 (44.736 Mbit/s)
STS-9 466.56
STS-12 STM-4 622.08 • E4 (139.264 Mbit/s)
STS-18 933.12
STS-24 1244.16
• ATM
TM STM-16
STS-36 1866.24 • etc.
STS-48 STM-16 2488.32
STM-64 9953.28

"
Fig. 10.4 PDH vs. SDH (Bit Rates)

PDH vs. SDH — Add & Drop Function

E3
E3
E4 TM E3 TM E4
4/3 E2 4/3
E2
TM E2 TM
3/2 E1 3/2
E1
TM E1 TM
2/1 2/1

PDH SDH
E1 (2.048 kbit/s)

Six TMs needed One ADM is enough

to drop E1 to drop E1.
STM-4 ADM STM-4

Fig. 1.7 PDH vs. SDH (Add & Drop Function)

13
SDH hierarchy STM0, STM1, STM4, STM16, STM64 and STM256 bit rates.

14
1.7 CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF COMMUNICATION

WHY COMMUNICATION:

• To establish a link between sender and receiver

• To convey messages to others

• To send and receive data immediately

• To make an efficient use of technology

➢ Copper Cables:

Analogue and digital data has been transmitted from point-to-point using copper cable in a variety
of forms for decades. The two major types used for the computer and telecommunication industries
are twisted pair and coaxial cable. A twisted pair consists of a pair of individually insulated
conductors twisted together. Coaxial cable on the other hand, consists of a central copper conductor
surrounded by a single or multiple braided/solid copper outer covering. This construction provides
much better transmission characteristics than twisted pair.

LIMITATIONS OF COPPER CABLE :

• Due to the electrical properties of copper wiring, data signals will undergo some corruption
during their travels. Signal corruption within certain limits is acceptable, but if the electrical
properties of the cable will cause serious distortion of the signal, that cable must be replaced
or repaired.
• As a signal propagates down a length of cable, it loses some of its energy. So, a signal that
starts out with a certain input voltage, will arrive at the load with a reduced voltage level.
The amount of signal loss is known as attenuation, which is measured in decibels, or dB. If
the voltage drops too much, the signal may no longer be useful.
• Attenuation has a direct relationship with frequency and cable length. The high frequency
used by the network, the greater the attenuation. Also, the longer the cable, the more energy
a signal loses by the time it reaches the load.
• A signal losses energy during its travel because of electrical properties at work in the cable.
For example, every conductor offers some dc resistance to a current (sometimes called
copper losses). The longer the cable, the more resistance it offers.
15
 • Resistance reduces the amount of signal passing through the wires - it does not alter the
signal. Reactance, inductive or capacitive, distorts the signal.

Finally the most important fact is that it can support only transmission of 565Mbps data
while the requirement is increasing day by day upto Gbps that’s why we switched to
FIBRE OPTICS.

➢ Use of optical fibre Cable in Telecommunication

The use of fibre-optics was generally not available until 1970 when Corning Glass Works was able
to produce a fibre with a loss of 20 dB/km. It was recognized that optical fibre would be feasible for
telecommunication transmission only if glass could be developed so pure that attenuation would be
20dB/km or less. That is, 1% of the light would remain after travelling 1 km. Today's optical fibre
attenuation ranges from 0.5dB/km to 1000dB/km depending on the optical fibre used. Attenuation
limits are based on intended application.

The applications of optical fibre communications have increased at a rapid rate, since the first
commercial installation of a fibre-optic system in 1977. Telephone companies began early on,
replacing their old copper wire systems with optical fibre lines. Today's telephone companies use
optical fibre throughout their system as the backbone architecture and as the long-distance
connection between city phone systems.

Cable television companies have also begun integrating fibre-optics into their cable systems. The
trunk lines that connect central offices have generally been replaced with optical fibre. Some
providers have begun experimenting with fibre to the curb using a fibre/coaxial hybrid. Such a
hybrid allows for the integration of fibre and coaxial at a neighbourhood location. This location,
called a node, would provide the optical receiver that converts the light impulses back to electronic
signals. The signals could then be fed to individual homes via coaxial cable.

16
Power companies are an emerging group that have begun to utilize fibre-optics in their
communication systems. Most power utilities already have fibre-optic communication systems in
use for monitoring their power grid systems.

Fig. 1.8 Optical Transmission

17
 CHAPTER-2

OPTICAL FIBRE

2.1 Introduction

An optical fibre (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fibre that carries light along its length. Fibre optics is
the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical
fibres. Optical fibres are widely used in fibre-optic communication, which permits transmission
over longer distances and at higher data rates than other forms of communications. Fibres are used
instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are immune to
electromagnetic interference.

Light is kept in the "core" of the optical fibre by total internal reflection. This causes the fibre to act
as a waveguide. Fibres which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called
multimode fibres (MMF). Fibres which support only a single mode are called single mode fibres
(SMF). Multimode fibres generally have a large-diameter core, and are used for short-distance
communication links or for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single mode fibres
are used for most communication links longer than 200 meters.

Joining lengths of optical fibre is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of
the fibres must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing
them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.

Fibre optics is art of using photons for storing, transmitting and processing signals.

18
Fibre optics is being used to transmit television, voice, and digital data signals by light waves over
flexible hair like threads of glass and plastic. It has evolved into a system of great importance and
use since the 1980’s.

The advantages of fibre optics compared to coaxial cable or twisted pair cable, are endless.
Millions of dollars are being spent to put light wave communication systems into operation, as a
result of its performance.

19
 ➢ History

Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fibre optics possible, was first demonstrated
by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the 1840s, with Irish inventor John Tyndall
offering public displays using water-fountains ten years later. Practical applications, such as close
internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission
through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the
television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for internal medical
examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade. In 1952, physicist Narinder Singh
Kapany conducted experiments that led to the invention of optical fibre, based on Tyndall's earlier
studies; modern optical fibres, where the glass fibre is coated with a transparent cladding to offer a
more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the decade.

In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic crystal fibre
which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than total internal
reflection.

Fig. 2.1 Bulk optical fibre

➢ Evolution of Fibre Optic Transmission

After the viability of transmitting light over fibre had been established, the next step in the
development of fibre optics was to find a light source that would be sufficiently powerful and
narrow. The light-emitting diode (LED) and the laser diode proved capable of meeting these
requirements. Lasers went through several generations in the 1960s, culminating with the
semiconductor lasers that are most widely used in fibre optics today.

Light has an information-carrying capacity 10,000 times greater than the highest radio frequencies.

20
Additional advantages of fibre over copper include the ability to carry signals over long distances,
low error rates, immunity to electrical interference, security, and light weight.

Aware of these characteristics, researchers in the mid-1960s proposed that optical fibre might be a
suitable transmission medium. There was an obstacle, however, and that was the loss of signal
strength, or attenuation, seen in the glass they were working with. Finally, in 1970, Corning
produced the first communication-grade fibres. With attenuation less than 20 decibels per kilometer
(dB/km), this purified glass fibre exceeded the threshold for making fibre optics a viable
technology.

Further developments in fibre optics are closely tied to the use of the specific regions on the optical
spectrum where optical attenuation is low. These regions, called windows, lie between areas of high
absorption. The earliest systems were developed to operate around 850 nm, the first window in
silica-based optical fibre. A second window (S band), at 1310 nm, soon proved to be superior
because of its lower attenuation, followed by a third window (C band) at 1550 nm with an even
lower optical loss.

Today, a fourth window (L band) near 1625 nm is under development and early deployment. These
four windows are shown relative to the electromagnetic spectrum in Figure

Fig. 2.2 Wavelength Regions

21
 ➢ Composition of optical fibre

● Silica based glass or plastic filaments are spun and packed into bundles of several hundreds
or thousands. Bundles may be put together as rods or ribbons and sheets.

● These bundles are flexible and can be twisted and contorted to conduct light and images
around corners

● The thin glass center of the fibre where the light travels is called the “core”.

● The outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core is
called the “cladding”.

● In order to protect the optical surface from moisture and damage, it is coated with a layer of
buffer coating.

Fig. 2.3 Optical Fibre Cross-section

How Fibre Works

The main job of optical fibres is to guide light waves with a minimum of attenuation (loss of
signal). Optical fibres are composed of fine threads of glass in layers, called the core and cladding
that can transmit light at about two-thirds the speed of light in a vacuum. Though admittedly an
oversimplification, the transmission of light in optical fibre is commonly explained using the
principle of total internal reflection. With this phenomenon, 100 percent of light that strikes a
surface is reflected. By contrast, a mirror reflects about 90 percent of the light that strikes it.

● Light is ejected into the glass core at the correct angle and transmitted; it will reflect back
repeatedly with internal reflections, even when the rod is curved. Light cannot escape from

22
 a fibre optics cable. A bundle of rods of fibres is capable of taking an image projected at
one end of the bundle and reproducing it at the other end.

● In a fibre optic system, there are a few major components to perform the task of
communication.

● The Input Modulator is needed; this modulates the incoming signal with a light beam.

Fig. 2.4 Reflected path of light in the glass rod

● A light emitting device is used; it can be either a light emitting diode (LED) or a
semiconductor laser diode.

● A fibre optic cable is used as a transportation medium.

● A fibre optic system converts an electrical signal to an infrared light signal, and then transmits
the signal onto an optical fibre.

● An Output Modulator is used to separate the signal from the light beam.

● Special connectors must be used to couple the light from the source to the fibre and from the
fibre to the detector.

23
2.2 Principle of Operation

An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis, by the
process of total internal reflection. The fibre consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer. To
confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the
cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fibre, or
gradual, in graded-index fibre.

• Index of refraction

The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in
a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is 300,000 kilometers per
second, or 186,000 miles per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light
in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is
therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fibre is 1.46. The core
value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the more slowly light travels in that
medium.

• Total internal reflection

When light travelling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical
angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibres
to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fibre bouncing back and forth off of the
boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle less than the critical angle, only
light that enters the fibre within a certain range of angles can travel down the fibre without leaking
out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fibre. The size of this acceptance cone
is a function of the refractive index difference between the fibre's core and cladding.

Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while passing through a
different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the angle at which light strikes the
interface between an optically denser and optically thinner material).

24
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:

• Beams pass from a more denser to a less dense material. The difference between the optical
densities of a given material and a vacuum is the material’s refractive index.

• The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence at
which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.

The principle of total internal reflection within a fibre core is illustrated in Figure. The core has a
higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that surface at less than the
critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the critical angle requirement and is
refracted.

Fig. 2.5 Principle of Total Internal Reflection

25
 2.3 Applications:

Optical fibre can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible
and can be bundled as cables.

[1] It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates

through the fibre with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to
be spanned with few repeaters.

[2] Additionally, the light signals propagating in the fibre can be modulated at rates as high as 40
Gb/s .

[3] Each fibre can carry many independent channels, each by a different wavelength of light
(wavelength-division multiplexing).

Over short distances, such as networking within a building, fibre saves space in cable ducts because
a single fibre can carry much more data than a single electrical cable. Fibre is also immune to
electrical interference, which prevents cross-talk between signals in different cables and pickup of
environmental noise. Also, wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and
there are concentric dual core fibres that are said to be tap-proof. Because they are non-electrical,
fibre cables can bridge very high electrical potential differences and can be used in environments
where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition.

➢ Fibres have many uses in remote sensing:

In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fibre. In other cases, fibre is used to connect a
non-fibre optic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fibre may be used
because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or
because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fibre by using different wavelengths
of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fibre through each
sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.

Optical fibres can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities
by modifying a fibre so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase,
polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fibre.

Extrinsic fibre optic sensors use an optical fibre cable, normally a multimode one, to transmit
modulated light from either a non-fibre optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an
optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are
otherwise inaccessible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement,
velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting.
26
Other uses of optical fibres
➢ Fibres are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in
medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a
clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibres are used to route sunlight from the
roof to other parts of the building (see non-imaging optics).

➢ Optical fibre is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibres is used, sometimes
along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to
view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive
exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see fibrescope or
bore scope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors.

➢ An optical fibre doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as the
gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Optical fibres doped with a wavelength shifter
are used to collect scintillation light in physics experiments.

➢ Optical fibre can be used to supply a low level of power (around one watt) to electronics
situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-
powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission
equipment.

27
2.4 Optical fiber connector

An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables quicker connection
and disconnection than splicing. The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers
so light can pass.Better connectors lose very little light due to reflection or misalignment of the
fibers. In all, about 100 different types of fiber optic connectors have been introduced to the market.

Applications

Optical fiber connectors are used to join optical fibers where a connect/disconnect capability is
required. Due to the polishing and tuning procedures that may be incorporated into optical
connector manufacturing, connectors are often assembled onto optical fiber in a supplier’s
manufacturing facility. However, the assembly and polishing operations involved can be performed
in the field, for example, to terminate long runs at a patch panel.
Optical fiber connectors are used in telephone exchanges, for customer premises wiring, and
in outside plant applications to connect equipment and cables, or to cross-connect cables.
Most optical fiber connectors are spring-loaded, so the fiber faces are pressed together when the
connectors are mated. The resulting glass-to-glass or plastic-to-plastic contact eliminates signal
losses that would be caused by an air gap between the joined fibers.
Performance of optical fiber connectors can be quantified by insertion loss and return loss. The
standard gives five grades for insertion loss from A (best) to D (worst), and M for multimode. The
other parameter is return loss, with grades from 1 (best) to 5 (worst).
A variety of optical fiber connectors are available, but SC and LC connectors are the most common
types of connectors on the market.The main differences among types of connectors are dimensions
and methods of mechanical coupling. Generally, organizations will standardize on one kind of
connector, depending on what equipment they commonly use.
n many data center applications, small (e.g., LC) and multi-fiber (e.g., MTP/MPO) connectors are
replacing larger, older styles (e.g., SC), allowing more fiber ports per unit of rack space and higher
data rate application such as 40-Gigabit Ethernet and 100-Gigabit Ethernet.

28
Features of good connector design:

• Low insertion loss

• High return loss (low amounts of reflection at the interface)
• Ease of installation

• Low cost
• Reliability
• Low environmental sensitivity
• Ease of use

2.4.1 Types
Many types of optical connector have been
developed at different times, and for
different purposes. Most commonly used
connectors are FC, LC , SC and ST.

• FC

- Long form: Ferrule Connector

or Fiber Channel

- Coupling Type: Screw

- Ferrule Diameter: 2.5mm
- Applications:Datacom, telecom,
measurement equipment, single-
mode lasers.

29
• LC
- Long Form: Lucent Connector, Little
Connector, or Local Connector

- Coupling Type: Snap

- Ferrule Diameter: 1.25mm

- Applications: High-density connections, SFP

and SFP+ transceivers, XFP transceivers

• SC

- Long Form: Subscriber connector

or square connector or standard
connector

- Coupling type: Snap (push-pull

coupling)

- Ferrule Diameter: 2.5mm

- Applications:Datacom and telecom; GPON; EPON; GBIC; MADI

LC is half of SC in size.

Fig. 2.6 LC and FC connector

30
• ST

- Long Form: Straight Tip

- Coupling type: Bayonet

- Ferrule Diameter: 2.5mm

- Applications: Datacom

31
2.4.2 Colour Codes

It is important to remember the colour codes.

- Beige is used for multi mode installations.

- Blue is used for single mode installations.
- Green is used as code for single mode installations, without reflections, which means that the
signal does not tolerate reflections. Commonly used in analog tv installations

It is important never to mix differently coloured connectors.

Fig. 2.7 Three types of SC connectors

Fig. 2.8 Two types of LC connectors

32
2.5 Optical attenuator

An optical attenuator, or fiber optic

attenuator, is a device used to reduce
the power level of an optical signal, either
in free space or in an optical fiber. The
basic types of optical attenuators are
fixed, step-wise variable, and
continuously variable.

Fig. 2.9 Optical Attenuators

- Applications
Optical attenuators are commonly used in fiber optic communications, either to test power level
margins by temporarily adding a calibrated amount of signal loss, or installed permanently to
properly match transmitter and receiver levels. Sharp bends stress optic fibers and can cause losses.
If a received signal is too strong a temporary fix is to wrap the cable around a pencil until the
desired level of attenuation is achieved. However, such arrangements are unreliable, since the
stressed fiber tends to break over time.

- Principles of operation
The power reduction is done by such means as absorption, reflection, diffusion, scattering,
deflection, diffraction, and dispersion, etc. Optical attenuators usually work by absorbing the light,
like sunglasses absorb extra light energy. They typically have a working wavelength range in which
they absorb all light energy equally. They should not reflect the light or scatter the light in an air
gap, since that could cause unwanted back reflection in the fiber system. Another type of attenuator
utilizes a length of high-loss optical fiber, that operates upon its input optical signal power level in
such a way that its output signal power level is less than the input level.

33
2.6 Fiber optic patch cord

Fiber optic patch cable, often called fiber optic patch cord or fiber jumper cable, is a fiber optic
cable terminated with fiber optic connectors on both ends. It has two major application areas:
computer work station to outlet and fiber optic patch panels or optical cross connect distribution
center. Fiber optic patch cables are for indoor applications only.

Fig. 2.10 Patch cord

General Characteristics

Fiber optic patch cords are characterized by:

• Low insertion loss;

• High return loss;

• Good repeatability;

• Good interchange;
• Excellent environmental adaptability.

34
2.6.1 COMMON TYPES OF FIBER OPTIC PATCH CABLES

Fiber optic patch cables can be divided into different types based on fiber cable mode, cable
structure, connector types, connector polishing types and cable sizes.

- Fiber Cable Mode:

1. Single mode fiber patch cables:

Single mode fiber optic cables use single
mode fiber optic connectors at both ends.
Single mode fiber optic cable jacket color is
usually yellow.

Fig. 2.11 Single mode fibre patch cables

2. Multimode fiber patch cables:

Multimode fiber optic patch cables are
terminated with multimode fiber optic
connectors at both ends. Multimode fiber
optic cable jacket color is usually orange

Fig. 2.12 Multimode fibre patch cable

35
- Fiber Cable Structure:

1. Simplex fiber optic patch cables: Simplex

fiber patch cable has one fiber and one
connector on each end.

Fig. 2.13 Simplex fibre optic patch cable

2. Duplex fiber optic patch cables: Duplex fiber patch cable has two fibers and two connectors on
each end. Each fiber is marked “A” or “B” or different colored connector boots are used to mark
polarity.

Fig. 2.14 Duplex fibre optic cable

36
3. Ribbon fan-out cable assembly: For ribbon
fan-out cable assembly, one end is ribbon fiber
with multi fibers and one ribbon fiber
connector such as MTP connector (12 fibers),
the other end is multi simplex fiber cables with
connectors such as ST, SC, LC, etc.

Fig. 2.15 Ribbon fan-out cable assembly

- Connector Types
1.Same connector type fiber patch cable: This fiber optic patch cable has the same type of
connector on both ends, such as ST, SC, LC, FC, etc.

Fig. 2.16 Same connector type fiber patch cable

37
2. Hybrid fiber optic patch cables: This fiber
optic patch cable has different connectors on
each end. One end can be SC and the other end
can be LC, ST, FC, etc.

Fig. 2.17 Hybrid fubre optic patch cable

2.6.2 Applications

Patch cables are used for connections to CATV (Cable Television), telecommunication networks,
computer fiber networks and fiber test equipment. Applications include communication
rooms, FTTH (Fiber to The Home), LAN (Local Area Network), FOS (fiber optic sensor), Fiber
Optic Communication System, Optical fiber connected and transmitted equipment, Defense combat
readiness, etc.

38
 CHAPTER-3

COMMON TOOLS

3.1 Optical Power Meter

An optical power
meter (OPM) is a device
used measure the power
in an optical signal. The
term usually refers to a
device for testing average
power in fiber
opticsystems.
A typical optical power
meter consists of
a c a l i b r a t e d s e n s o r,
measuring amplifier and
d i s p l a y. T h e s e n s o r
primarily consists of
a photodiode selected for
the appropriate range
of wavelengths and power
levels. On the display unit, Fig. 3.1 Optical Power Meter (OPM)

the measured optical power and set wavelength is displayed. Power meters are calibrated using a
traceable calibration standard.
3.1.1 Power measuring range
A typical OPM measures accurately under most conditions from about 0 dBm (1 milli Watt) to
about -50 dBm (10 nano Watt), although the display range may be larger. Above 0 dBm is
considered "high power", and specially adapted units may measure up to nearly + 30 dBm ( 1 Watt).
Below -50 dBm is "low power", and specially adapted units may measure as low as -110 dBm.

39
3.1.2 Common fiber optic test applications

• Measuring the absolute power in a fiber optic signal. For this application, the power meter
needs to be properly calibrated at the wavelength being tested, and set to this wavelength.

• Measuring the optical loss in a fiber, in combination with a suitable stable light source.
Since this is a relative test, accurate calibration is not a particular requirement, unless two or
more meters are being used due to distance issues. If a more complex two-way loss test is
performed, then power meter calibration can be ignored, even when two meters are used.

• Some instruments are equipped for optical test tone detection, to assist in quick cable
continuity testing. Standard test tones are usually 270 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz. Some units can also
determine one of 12 tones,[1] for ribbon fiber continuity testing.

40
3.2 Fusion Splicing

Fusion splicing is the process of fusing or welding two fibers together usually by an electric arc.
Fusion splicing is the most widely used method of splicing as it provides for the lowest loss and
least reflectance, as well as providing the strongest and most reliable joint between two fibers.

Fig. 3.2 Fusion Splicing

Fusion splicing may be done one fiber at a time or a complete fiber ribbon from ribbon cable at one
time.
3.2.1 Fusion Splicer
Fusion splicing machines are mostly automated tools that require you preset the splicing parameters
or choose factory recommended settings that will control the splicing process itself. All require the
use of a precision fiber cleaver that scribes and breaks (cleaves) the fibers to be spliced precisely, as
the quality of the splice will depend on the quality of the cleave. Most splicing machines come with
a recommended cleaver.
Proper use of both the splicing machine and the cleaver require carefully following the
manufacturer's directions. Each manufacturer's product is slightly different and requires somewhat
different procedures. Reading the manuals and practice with the machine are important, especially
if the operator has not been trained on the particular splicer in use.

41
 Fig. 3.3 Fusion Splicer and Cleaver

- Automatic Fiber Alignment

The ends of the fibers are on moveable stages which are used to align the fibers and set the end gap
automatically.

42
Splicing machines also generally have a heating device for heat shrinking a protective sleeve over
the finished splice to protect it from moisture or other environmental hazards.

In addition to the splicer and cleaver, the tech doing the splicing will need a set of cable preparation
and fiber stripping tools.

Fig. 3.4 Miller Stripper, No-Nik & Micro-Strip

Fusion splicing requires stripping a longer length of bare fiber than termination, so the choice of
stripper is important. There are three types of fiber strippers available, known as (from Left) the
Miller Stripper, No-Nik and Micro-Strip. All three can work equally well, and most techs choose
the one they are most familiar with.

43
3.3 OTDR

An optical time domain reflectometer

(OTDR) is a device used to precisely
detect faults in an optical fiber link of
a communication network. Its function
includes generation and transmission
of a series of high-speed optical pluses
within the fiber.

Fig. 3.5 OTDR

Fiber communication system maintenance depends on optical time domain reflectometers. An

OTDR simply generates a pulse inside a fiber to be tested for faults or defects. Different events
within the fiber create a Rayleigh back scatter. Pulses are returned to the OTDR and their strengths
are then measured and calculated as a function of time and plotted as a function of fiber stretch. The
strength and returned signal tell about the location and intensity of the fault present. Not only
maintenance, but also optical line installation services utilize OTDRs. Additionally, nationwide
telephone exchanges and poles within the network use OTDRs for smooth functioning.

44
 CHAPTER-4
OPTICAL MULTIPLEXERS
Mainly multiplxers of following manufaturers are used at PGCIL,
A. ZTE
B. Tejas
C. Nortel
D. Fibrehome

4.1 ZTE DWDM Multiplexer

- DWDM : Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that puts data from
different sources together on an optical fiber, with each signalcarried at the same time on its own
separate light wavelength. Using DWDM, up to 80 (and theoretically more) separate
wavelengths or channels of data can be multiplexed into a lightstream transmitted on a single
optical fiber.
Each channel carries a wave division multiplexed (WDM) signal. WDM is a method of combining
multiple signals on laser beams at various infared (IR) wavelengths for transmission along fiber
optic media. In a system with each channel carrying 2.5 Gbps (billion bits per second), up to 200
billion bits can be delivered a second by the optical fiber.

Since each channel is demultiplexed at the end of the transmission back into the original source,
different data formats being transmitted at different data rates can be transmitted together.
Specifically, Internet (IP) data, Synchronous Optical Network data (SONET), and asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) data can all be travelling at the same time within the optical fiber.

45
4.1.1 ZXMP M800 Metro DWDM Multiplexer Equipment

Fig. 4.1 ZTE DWDM MUX

ZXMP M800 offers transmission capacities of 80Gbit/s, 320Gbit/s, 400Gbit/s and even 800Gbit/s,
and enables access of optical signals in multiple formats including STM-N (N=1, 4, 16, 64)
These Muxes are divided in subracks or cards. There are air filters between them which needs to be
cleaned periodically.
Connections are made across the subracks using optical patch cords. ZTE racks are generally deep
blue in colour.

46
4.2 Tejas Multiplexers
Tejas Networks is a leading optical equipment manufacturer in Inida.
Following are the two commonly used Tejas multiplexers at PGCIL;
A. TJ1270
B. TJ1400
4.2.1 TJ1270
-Introduction
TJ1270 is an ultra-compact and cost effective bandwidth provisioning (supplying) equipment
designed to meet low or medium capacity bandwidth service demands. The TJ1270 is an STM-1/4,
1U high, single-slot product, supporting cross-connect fabric, timing/synchronization subsystem,
and control processor subsystem on the base card. It also has redundant power supply modules
enabling power supply redundancy as well as power source redundancy.
The TJ1270 can be configured as a Terminal Multiplexer (TMUX) or an Add-Drop Multiplexer
(ADM).
Its colour is green.

Fig. 4.2 TJ1270 front view

Fig. 4.3 TJ1270 Back View

47
- Cards Overview
Table gives a brief overview of the cards supported by TJ1270.

48
4.2.2 TJ1400
-Introduction
TJ1400 is a 2 unit base chassis supporting redundant switch fabric, timing/synchronization
subsystem and control processor subsystem.
It is black in colour.

Fig. 4.4 TJ1400 frontview

- Cards Overview
Table gives brief overview of cards supported by TJ1400.

49
4.3 SFPs
SFPs are used to connect patch cords to the multiplexers.
SFP or Small Form-factor Pluggable is a small transceiver that plugs into the SFP port of a network
switch (multiplxers) and connects to Fibre Channel and Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) optical fiber cables
at the other end.
The SFP converts the serial electrical signals to serial optical signals and vice versa. SFP modules
are hot swappable and contain ID and system information for the switch.

Fig. 4.5 SFPs

SFPs are of different types based on data transfer distance, work rate etc.

50
 CHAPTER-5
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
5.1 Fusion Splicing Pocess

Fig. 5.1 Fusion Splicing at site

A. Prepare the cables to be spliced

• Strip jacket, removing an adequate amount of jacket, usually 2-3 m, for splicing and dressing the
buffer tubes and fibers in the splice closure. Leave the proper amount of strength members to
attach the cable to the closure. Refer to the splice closure directions for lengths needed. Clean all
water-blocking materials using appropriate cleaners.
• Remove buffer tubes exposing fibers for splicing. Generally splice closures will require ~1 m
buffer tubes inside the closure to and ~ 1 m fiber inside the splice tray. Clean all water-blocking
materials.

B. Prepare the fibers to be spliced

The process is the same for all splice types: strip, clean & cleave.
• Each fiber must be cleaned thoroughly before stripping for splicing.
• When ready to splice a fiber, strip off the buffer coating(s) to expose the proper length of bare
fiber.

51
• Clean the fiber with appropriate wipes.
• Cleave the fiber using the process appropriate to the cleaver being used.
• Place the fiber into the guides in the fusion splicing machine and clamp it in place.

"

Repeat for the other fiber to be spliced

52
C.Running the splicer program
• Choose the proper program for fusion splicing the fiber types being spliced
• The splicer will show the fibers being spliced on the video screen.

"

• Fiber ends will be inspected for proper cleaves and bad ones like the one on the right above will
be rejected.

D. Automated Splicing

"

Fibers will be moved into position

Prefuse cycle will remove any dirt on the fiber ends and preheat the fibers for splicing

53
• The fibers will be aligned using core alignment method for that splicer
• The fibers will be fused by an automatic arc cycle that heats them in an electric arc and feeds the
fibers together at a controlled rate
• When fusion is completed, the splicing machine will inspect the splice and estimate the optical
loss of the splice. It will tell the operator if a splice needs to be remade.
• The operator will remove the fibers from the guides and attach a permanent splice protector by
heat-shrinking or clamping clam shell protectors.

E. Evaluating Splices
- Good Splices
Visually inspect splice after the program has run, using both X and Y views. Some flaws that do not
affect optical transmission are acceptable, as shown. Some fibers (e.g. fluorine-doped or titanium
coated) may cause white or black lines in splice region that are not faults.

54
- Bad Splices
Some flaws are unacceptable and require starting the splicing process over. Some, like black spots
or lines, can be improved by repeating the ARC step, but never more than twice. For large core
offsets, bubbles or bulging splices, always redo.

"

55
- Splice Problem Troubleshooting
Here are some common problems and likely causes.
• Not Fused Through

"
Fusion current too low
Prefusion time too short

• Matchheads

"
• Contaminated electrodes
• Fusion current much too high
• Prefusion time much too long
• Prefusion current much too high
• Autofeed too small
• Gap too large

• Constriction

"
• Current too high
• Feed rate too slow
• Gap too wide
• Contaminated electrodes

56
• Enlargement

"
• Autofeed too fast
• Incorrect current

• Bubble or Inclusion

"
• Contaminated fiber end faces
• Poor cleave
• Fusion current too high
• Prefusion current or time too low

- Additional Problems
Fusion splicers generally have stored programs for most fibers and the user can modify those
program parameters or create new ones. Refer to the instruction manual or ask the manufacturer is
there is any question about using the splicer with the fiber you are installing.
It is sometimes necesary to splice older fibers, either in restoration or modifying networks. Older
fibers may become brittle and hard to strip .

- Splice Closures
After fibers are spliced, they will be placed in a splice tray which is then placed in an splice
closure. Outside plant closures will be carefully sealed to prevent moisture damage to the
splices. The closure placed in a designated protected place to complete the installation.

57
All cables that contain metallic elements like armor or strength members must be grounded and
bonded at each splice point. Closures are designed to clamp cable strength members to provide
strength to prevent pulling the cable out and seals to prevent moisture damage to the splices.

"

- Testing
Fusion splicers are used to create long cable lengths by splicing multiple cable segments. Although
the splicer will give an estimate of the splice loss, the only way to test it is with an OTDR. Since
OTDRs have directional errors, testing may be required from both directions and averaged.
Generally long concatenated cables are tested with an OTDR and traces kept for documentation in
case of restoration.

58
5.2 Configuring Tejas multiplexers
Configuration of Tejas Multiplexers are very simple.
First we have to equip the mux with desired cards then we have to configure it by going on the ip of
the mux.

Fig. 5.2 Attaching cards on TJ1270

- After duely screwing the cards to the mux, we have to connect the power card to the power
supply.
- Then we have to the mux with a pc using LAN cable.

59
- Then we have to open Network and Sharing Centre on the PC’s control panel.
- Select Local Area Network then Properties then IPV4.
- Then fill the IP, Subnet mask, Default Gateway etc.

- We may check if the mux is connected and configured to the pc by pinging it using CMD of pc.
This is called ping test. Just type “ping 192.168.1.123” in cmd.

60
- Now open a browser ( chrome, Firefox or explorer) and type the ip to open the configuration
page of the Mux.
- Log in using default Tejas’ username and password.

- After loging in, configuration page will open.

- Configure the mux for desired operation.

61
 CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
Praise to the Lord for six months I undergo my internship that begins on early January this year till
May, I finally successfully completed my Industrial training report. As an undergraduate I would
like to say that this training program is an excellent oppurtunity for us to get to the ground level of
appreciation of science and experience the things that we would have never gained in theories. I am
grateful for giving me this oppurtunity.
I am very gareteful to PGCIL Jammu especially its telecom branch, for accepting me as a trainee
and letting me experience its atmosphere. The main objective of the industrial training is to provide
an opportunity to undergraduates to identify, observe and practice how engineering is applicable in
the real industry. It is not only to get experience on technical practices but also to observe
management practices and to interact with fellow workers. It is easy to work with sophisticated
machines, but not with people. The only chance that an undergraduate has to have this experience is
the industrial training period. I feel I got the maximum out of that experience. Also I learnt the way
of working in an organization, the importance of being punctual, the importance of maximum
commitment, and the importance of team spirit.
I now have a glance of how engineering is making daily life easier, how the data is transmitted over
a network, how to manage the system and how to troubleshoot the faults.
The training program was a lot more useful throughout the whole six months. In my opinion, I have
gained lots of knowledge and experience needed to be successful in a great engineering challenge,
as in my opinion, Engineering is after all a Challenge, and not a Job.

62