Phased Array Technical Guidelines

Phased Array Technical Guidelines
Useful Formulas, Graphs,

and Examples
R/D Tech Corp.

Phased Array Technical Guidelines: Useful Formulas, Graphs, and Examples
Coordinator: Noël Dubé
Technical reviewers and advisers:
Dr. Michael D. C. Moles (R/D Tech, Canada)
Mark Davis (Davis NDE, Inc.)
Chris Magruder (R/D Tech Houston)
Petru Ciorau (OPG, Canada)
Layout, graphics, editing, proofreading, and indexing: R/D Tech’s Technical
Communications Service
Published by: R/D Tech Corp., 48 Woerd Avenue, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
Marketing and distribution: R/D Tech Corp.
This booklet and the products and programs it describes are protected by the
Copyright Act of Canada, by laws of other countries, and by international treaties,
and therefore may not be reproduced in whole or in part, whether for sale or not,
without the prior written consent from R/D Tech Corp. Under copyright law,
copying includes translation into another language or format.
The information contained in this document is subject to change or revision
without notice.
R/D Tech number: DUMG069A
© 2005 by R/D Tech Corp.
All rights reserved.
Printed in Canada
First edition, May 2005
ISBN 0-9735933-1-8
Notice
To the best of our knowledge, the information in this publication is accurate;
however, the Publisher does not assume any responsibility or liability for the
accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information.
This book is intended for informational purposes only. Final determination of the
suitability of any information or product for use contemplated by any user, and
the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user. The Publisher
recommends that anyone intending to rely on any recommendation of materials
or procedures mentioned in this publication should satisfy himself or herself as to
such suitability, and that he or she can meet all applicable safety and health
standards.
Trademarks
R/D Tech, the R/D Tech logo, OmniScan, and PipeWIZARD are registered
trademarks, and MCDU-02, MultiScan MS5800, QuickScan, Tomoscan FOCUS,
Tomoscan III, and TomoView are trademarks of R/D Tech inc. in Canada, the
United States, and/or other countries, licensed from R/D Tech Corp. Ethernet is a
trademark of Xerox Corporation. Hamikleer is a registered trademark of the
Harry Miller Corp. Hypertronics is a registered trademark of Hypertronics Corp.
Monel and Inconel are registered trademarks of Inco Alloys/Special Metals.
Lucite is a registered trademark of Lucite International, Inc. Microsoft is a
registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other
countries. Monel and Inconel are registered trademarks of Inco Alloys/Special
Metals. Plexiglas is a registered trademark belonging to ATOFINA. Rexolite is a
registered trademark of C-Lec Plastics Company. Zircaloy is a trademark of
Westinghouse Electric Company. All other product names mentioned in this book
may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners and are
hereby acknowledged.
This booklet belongs to:
Name: _________________________________________________
Department: ____________________________________________
Section: ________________________________________________
Tel.: ___________________________________________________
E-mail: _________________________________________________
(To avoid smudging, use a permanent marker.)
R/D Tech iii

Table of Contents
Preface ......................................................................................... ix
Introduction ................................................................................ 1
1. Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General

Features ............................................................................... 3
2. Phased Array Probes—General Features ................... 11

2.1 Types of Phased Array Probes ........................................... 11
2.1.1 1-D Annual Array ...................................................... 11
2.1.2 1-D Plan Linear Array ............................................... 13
2.1.3 2-D Planar Matrix Probe ........................................... 14
2.1.4 2-D Plan Segmented Annular Array ....................... 15
2.1.5 1.5-D Plan Matrix Probe ............................................ 16
2.1.6 1-D Plan Circular Probe ............................................ 17
2.2 Properties of 1-D Plan Linear Array Probe ...................... 17
2.3 Phased Array Probe on the Wedge .................................... 18
2.4 Field Properties of Phased Array Probe ........................... 27
2.5 Time-Frequency Response Features .................................. 33
2.6 Electrical Features ................................................................ 35
2.7 Probe Characterization ........................................................ 35
2.8 Recommended Blocks for Probe Characterization ......... 36
2.9 R/D Tech Phased Array Probes .......................................... 38
2.10 Recommended Features for Probe Checking ................... 42
3. Focal Laws—General Examples ................................... 45

3.1 Generalities ........................................................................... 45
3.2 Beam Deflection (Scan) Patterns ........................................ 47
3.3 Examples of Focal Laws and Beam Deflections .............. 52
3.3.1 Linear Scan .................................................................. 52
3.3.2 Depth Scan .................................................................. 56
3.3.3 Azimuthal Scan .......................................................... 57
3.3.4 Focal Laws for OmniScan—Examples .................... 61
4. Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts ..................... 65

4.1 Scanning Patterns ................................................................. 65
4.1.1 Bidirectional Scan ...................................................... 66
4.1.2 Unidirectional Scan ................................................... 66
R/D Tech Table of Contents v

4.1.3 Linear Scan ................................................................. 67
4.1.4 Skewed Scan .............................................................. 68
4.1.5 Helicoidal Scan .......................................................... 69
4.1.6 Spiral Scan .................................................................. 70
4.1.7 Other Scanning Patterns .......................................... 71
4.1.8 Free Running Sequence ............................................ 71
4.1.9 Scanning Based on Time (Internal Clock) ............. 72
4.2 Basic Views ........................................................................... 73
4.2.1 Rectified A-Scan ........................................................ 73
4.2.2 Unrectified A-Scan .................................................... 74
4.2.3 B-Scan ......................................................................... 75
4.2.4 C-Scan ......................................................................... 75
4.2.5 D-Scan ......................................................................... 76
4.2.6 S-Scan .......................................................................... 77
4.3 Other Useful Views ............................................................. 80
4.3.1 Strip Views (Position) ............................................... 80
4.3.2 Strip Views (Amplitude) .......................................... 81
4.3.3 TOFD View ................................................................ 82
4.3.4 Polar View .................................................................. 82
4.4 Special Views ....................................................................... 83
4.4.1 FFT View .................................................................... 83
4.4.2 Calibration Views ..................................................... 84
4.4.3 Beam Simulation View ............................................. 85
4.5 Layouts ................................................................................. 85
4.5.1 One-Line Scanning ................................................... 85
4.5.2 Raster Scans ............................................................... 87
5. Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic

Checking ........................................................................... 89
5.1 Ultrasound Settings—TomoView ..................................... 90
5.2 Ultrasound Settings—OmniScan .................................... 102
5.3 Calibration Operations—Generic ................................... 104
5.3.1 Vertical Linearity ..................................................... 105
5.3.2 Horizontal Linearity ............................................... 108
5.4 Calibration Operations—Specific to TomoView ........... 110
5.5 Calibration Operations—Specific to OmniScan ........... 116
5.6 Periodic On-Site Equipment Checking .......................... 119
5.6.1 Integrity of Probe Elements Checking ................. 120
5.6.2 DDF Board Functionality Checking ..................... 121
5.6.3 Refracted Angle and Index Point Checking ........ 123
6. Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas ........................ 125

6.1 Constants and Useful Formula Tables ........................... 125
6.2 Ultrasonic Field Graphs ................................................... 131
6.3 Snell’s Law .......................................................................... 134
6.4 Detectability Curves ......................................................... 136
6.5 Reflectors and Reflectivity Laws ..................................... 137
6.6 Axial and Lateral Resolutions ......................................... 140
6.7 Defect Height Measurement ............................................ 142
6.7.1 Relative Arrival Time Technique (RATT) ............ 142
6.7.2 Absolute Arrival Time Technique (AATT) .......... 143
vi Table of Contents R/D Tech

6.7.3 Delta Technique ....................................................... 144
6.8 Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique—TOFD LW ....... 145
6.9 Mode-Converted Techniques ........................................... 150
6.10 Defect Location and Plotting on Flat Surfaces ............... 152
6.11 Defect Location and Plotting on Curved Surfaces ........ 157
6.12 Curvature Effect on Probe/Wedge Size and Gain
Setting .................................................................................. 161
6.13 Immersion Techniques ...................................................... 164
6.14 Focused Probes in Immersion for Bar Inspection ......... 167
Appendix A: Unit Conversion ............................................ 169
Appendix B: Support and Training .................................... 171
Selected References ............................................................... 173
Index ......................................................................................... 175
R/D Tech Table of Contents vii

Preface
R/D Tech, as a world leader in ultrasonic and eddy current

nondestructive inspection equipment and know-how, pioneered the
phased array ultrasonic technology at the beginning of the 1990s. The
phased array ultrasonic technology reached a mature status by the
beginning of the 21st century. Year 2003 marked yet another milestone
for R/D Tech with the introduction of the first battery-operated
phased array ultrasonic flaw detector—OmniScan™—to the NDT
market. The gap between conventional portable equipment and
advanced, multiplexing automated systems was filled by this clever
piece of equipment.
The new technology of the 21st century must be made available to the
NDT ultrasound practitioner. R/D Tech issued a guideline entitled
Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications: R/D Tech
Guideline.1 This book details the basic principles of the phased array
technology and types of phased array probes. It also defines scanning
patterns and data representation. An extensive application chapter
was added to illustrate the broad domain of the phased array
ultrasonic technology. The guide also contains basic formulas and a
comprehensive reference section. The Guideline targets a large
audience, being a generic introduction to phased array ultrasonic
technology and its industrial applications.
This new Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet is a hands-on

technical aid and a refresher for phased array ultrasonic technology.
The booklet is not a training manual, but a simplified aide-mémoire
with some practical examples. Its main purpose is to be carried in
your pocket, as a day-to-day reminder tool. This booklet represents
12 years of phased array development and successful NDT
applications.
The booklet includes an appendix on support and training. Please feel

free to send your comments or suggestions about this booklet to our
sales and marketing team. Your input will help us improve this
booklet, and develop new books and guidelines to fit your needs.
R/D Tech is committed to an intensive training program on the

advanced phased array ultrasonic technology and inspection
equipment. R/D Tech is currently building a new development
program that will include training manuals about generic and specific
R/D Tech Preface ix

applications for different levels (beginner, level II/III, advanced,
engineer).
Training will be provided in R/D Tech Training Centers and/or in

collaboration with major authorization bodies and research
institutions, such as:
• Lavender International NDT Consulting Services Ltd

• Eclipse Scientific Products
• T.E.S.T NDT Inc.
• Davis NDE, Inc.
Specific training schedule for different levels and applications may be
found on our Web site under the “Training” link.
Finally, R/D Tech management and marketing department wish to

express their thanks to our employees and to our dedicated customers
who—through their persistence, talent, and hard-working hours—
made the phased array ultrasonic technology a nondestructive testing
reality of the 21st century, and the Phased Array Technical Guidelines
booklet available to you.
Thanks to the reviewers and advisers for their effort to provide

valuable comments and improvements to the booklet.
Special thanks to Ontario Power Generation and namely to Petru

Ciorau for their contribution to Phased Array Technical Guidelines:
reviewing, advising, and allowing R/D Tech to use some of their
specific applications in this booklet.
Alain Allard
President and CEO
R/D Tech
May 2005
x Preface R/D Tech

Introduction
One of the major contributors to the reliability of any nondestructive

testing (NDT) method is the human factor. The personnel involved in
the phased array ultrasonic inspection must be trained and certified.
Through his or her skills, education, and training, the NDT practitioner
must demonstrate that he or she can handle specific requirements
related to the procedure and equipment (phased array ultrasonic
instrument, scanners, probes, software, analysis layouts, and
reporting). The practitioner must be familiar with the basic features of
phased array ultrasonic technology applied to specific components.
The customer-oriented philosophy of R/D Tech resulted in the

publication of the first book dedicated to phased array ultrasonic
technology: Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology
Applications: R/D Tech Guideline. This Guideline was intended for a
large audience, with extensive chapters on basic ultrasonic testing,
data representation and scanning patterns, phased array probes, and
applications. The Guideline contains more general information
compared to the booklet. The Guideline can be purchased by e-mail
order through our Web site.
The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet was written for the NDT
practitioner as an aide-mémoire of the basic phased array ultrasonic
technology. It is oriented toward day-to-day activities, and know-how
and how-to problems (procedure compliance, calibration,
characterization, new setup construction, and solved inspection
problem). By its contents and dimensions, the booklet was designed to
fit into a pocket. The booklet must withstand field conditions, hence
we produced the book on water- and tear-resistant synthetic paper,
with a sturdy cover and binding.
The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet contains the following:
• Chapter 1, “Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General

Features”
Describes the PAUT principles, and presents the main hardware
components and type of phased array beam forming and
movement (linear, azimuthal, depth, plane, and 3-D).
• Chapter 2, “Phased Array Probes—General Features”
Describes the PA probes and their main features required to be
used for day-to-day inspections. The examples are based on the
R/D Tech Introduction 1

1-D planar linear array, the most commonly used type of probe for
many applications.
• Chapter 3, “Focal Laws—General Examples”
Illustrates the basic steps in defining focal laws for Tomoscan III™
PA (TomoView™ 2.2R9) and OmniScan® PA for linear array
probes.
• Chapter 4, “Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts”
Presents the major data representations (A-scans, S-scans, B-scans,
C-scans, and D-scans) and the basic layouts and scanning patterns
for Tomoscan III PA (TomoView 2.2R9) and OmniScan PA.
Recommended layouts for specific applications are also noted.
• Chapter 5, “Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic
Checking”
Presents basic examples for ultrasonic settings and optimization,
equipment calibration, and in-the-field periodic checking.
• Chapter 6, “Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas”
Is a useful review of the main formulas, such as: Snell’s law, near-
field length, wavelength, beam width, half-angle beam spread.
Special emphasis is focused on defect sizing using different
methods. Besides tables and formulas, the chapter incorporates
graphs for a quick evaluation of specific features: refracted angle,
equivalent delay, and reflector size.
• Appendix A: “Unit Conversion”
Provides the metric-English conversions for units used in this
booklet.
• Appendix B: “Support and Training”
Presents the R/D Tech Web site section where you can find or post
added information related to this booklet.
• “Selected References”
Lists basic materials, which support and enrich the booklet ideas.
The booklet is written as an open dialog; we include hints, important
marks, and caution or warning signs for specific activities.
As the R/D Tech CEO and President mentioned in the preface of this
booklet, we welcome your opinion, comments, and ideas to improve
on the Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet with the aim of
making a second edition.
Please use the Web site forum link, at www.rd-tech.com, for a real-
time communication. Our marketing team thanks you in advance for
your input and will contact you for specific problems you may raise.
We hope this booklet will be a great help in carrying out phased array
ultrasonic inspections.
Noël Dubé
Business Development Vice-President, R/D Tech
2 Introduction R/D Tech

1. Phased Array Ultrasonic
Technology—General Features
The phased array ultrasonic technology is based on the following

technical features:
a) Multiplexing of a large number of identical crystals as a single

probe
b) Control of the focal depth
c) Control of the steering angle
d) Control of the beam width
e) Program of the virtual probe aperture (VPA) [see Figure 1-1]
f) Scan with a large number of A-scans
g) Display of the UT data in a generic view called S-scan
VPA2 VPA1
Probe 2 Probe 1
+∆β1
-∆β2
F1
F2 Sweep range 1
Sweep range 2
Figure 1-1 Multielement probe focusing at different depths and for different angles.
Note that the sweep range could be positive and/or negative; different numbers of
elements may be grouped to form a virtual probe aperture (VPA).
R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 3

Specific features of phased array technology include the following:
a) Probe design is based on modeling.

b) Each active element of a multielement probe is excited by an
independent pulser (see Figure 1-2).
c) The excitation time is computer-controlled and delayed
according to Fermat principle in such a way that the cylindrical
(spherical) wave front will reach in the same time (in phase) the
specific points in space.
d) The beam is cylindrically or spherically focused (see chapter 2
for more details).
e) The wave front reflected by the defect reaches the reception;
time of flight is delayed according to the focal point, refracted
angle, and number of active elements.
f) The individual amplitudes from each active element are
summed up (amplitude and same phase).
g) The focal law calculator determines the time delay on individual
elements to steer and focus the beam at different depths and
angles. See Figure 1-3 for an example of delay value (in
nanoseconds [10−9 s], that is, a billionth part of a second!). More
details are presented in chapter 3.
h) Analog signals are rectified, smoothed, averaged, and may be
compressed in an 8-bit or 12-bit option (see Figure 1-4).
i) Beam movement is linked with scanner axes and part geometry.
Data may be viewed in a single plane or through a projection
between reference and measurement cursors (see chapter 5 for
more details).
j) The focus pattern of S-scan may be changed (see Figure 1-5).
k) Inspection data is displayed in multiple views or layout; defect
amplitude is color-coded based on specific color palette
(rainbow, gray, unrectified, specific custom-built); data is
plotted into 2-D specimen for each view (see chapter 4 for more
details).
l) Data analysis is more reliable and efficient with customized
defect table and merging A-scans (see chapter 5 for more
details).
4 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

Probe Incident wave front
Emitting Pulses
Trigger
Acquisition Phased array
unit unit Flaw
Reflected wave front

Receiving Echo signals
Acquisition Phased array

unit unit Flaw
Figure 1-2 Principle of phased array emitting and receiving with a multielement
probe.
The main advantages of phased array technology can be summarized

below:
1. Faster. Phased array inspections with linear scanning are typically

an order of magnitude faster than conventional single probe raster
scanning. This saves significantly in plant downtime and operator
costs.
2. Flexibility. A single array can inspect many different components
with different inspection patterns, using electronic setup files.
3. Complex inspections. Phased arrays can be programmed to inspect
geometrically complex components, for example automated welds
or nozzles, with relative ease. Phased arrays can also be
programmed to perform special scans, for example tandem,
multiple angles, multiple modes, and zone discrimination.
4. Small array size. The small size of arrays makes them perfect for
specific applications, for example turbines and discs, where space
is limited.
5. Mechanical reliability. Fewer moving parts make a more reliable
inspection system. Replacing mechanics with electronics reduces
wear and tear, as well as increases significantly system reliability.
6. Increase the detectability of misoriented defects. Focus beam increases
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The multitude of A-scans grouped
in a sector with specific angular resolution contributes to detection
probability.

Analog
Filters Smoothing
rectification
A/D Averaging Compression
Figure 1-3 Block diagram for RF signal processing on the receiving chain, after the
summation of individual amplitudes (see Figure 1-2).
1 32 1 32 1 32
-30˚ 0˚ 30˚
Figure 1-4 Example of delay values on individual elements for steering the beam of a
longitudinal wave from −30° to +30°.
aa cc dd
bb
Figure 1-5 Different types of focusing will generate different S-scan views:
(a) projection S-scan is very useful for narrow-gap weld inspection; (b) true depth is
useful for detection and sizing defects at a constant depth (for example, inner wall
fatigue cracks); (c) half-path S-scan is the most commonly used S-scan; (d) focal
plane S-scan is useful for detection of lack of fusion along the weld geometric
preparation.

Examples of pattern recognition are given in Figure 1-6 to Figure 1-8.
Figure 1-6 Multiangle inspection of a calibration block with stacked side-drilled holes.
Left: inspection setup; right: ultrasound display—sectorial scan.
Figure 1-7 Linear (electronic) scan with a static probe over a test piece with artificial
defect of variable shape and depth. Top: scanning pattern; bottom: ultrasound
display—side (B) view.

UT
ran
β start β finish g e
0.5 t
1.5 t
Figure 1-8 Example of UT range selection and sweep range for a crack detection
and sizing with skip angles. Top: principle and UT range setting; bottom: OmniScan
results for a fatigue crack of 8 mm height.
Tip:
• For a reliable detection and sizing of inner-surface breaking

cracks ( h crack < ( 1 ⁄ 3 )t piece ), set the ultrasonic range between
( 0.5 – 1.5 ) × t piece ⁄ cos β optimum , to display the crack facets in
direct and skip detection the crack (see Figure 1-9).
• Use the zoom and software color palette functions for a better
sizing and crack orientation.

• Set the sweep range in such a way to detect the crack by at least
two angles at a difference of >10 degrees when the probe is
moved backward (see Figure 1-9).
Figure 1-9 Example of UT sweep range for a crack detection by two angles at
difference >10 degrees. Left: detection with 38.5°; right: detection with 60°. Remark
the crack facets, detected also by skip, at 60°.
Data analysis and defect characteristics (height, orientation, location)

is very reliably performed by plotting UT data into 2-D and 3-D
specimen (see Figure 1-10).
Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation Inc., Canada
Figure 1-10 Example of UT data plotting (VC S-scan) of a crack into an isometric
view of a turbine component.

2. Phased Array Probes—General
Features
This chapter describes the general features of the phased array probes.
2.1 Types of Phased Array Probes

The main phased array probes used for industrial applications and
their type of focusing and beam deflection are listed in Table 2-1 and
presented in Figure 2-1 to Figure 2-11.
Table 2-1 Main types of phased array probes used for industrial applications.
Type Deflection Beam shape

1-D plan annular Depth Spherical
1-D plan linear Depth, angle Elliptical
2-D plan matrix Depth, solid angle Elliptical/spherical
2-D plan segmented Depth, solid angle Spherical/elliptical
annular
1.5-D plan matrix Depth, small solid angle Elliptical
1-D plan circular Depth, angle Elliptical
2.1.1 1-D Annual Array

The description found in this section refers to Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2,
and Figure 2-3.
Advantages
• Spherical focusing at different depths (see Figure 2-2)
• Very good for detecting and sizing small inclusions; normal-beam
or mirror applications
Disadvantages
• No steering capability; difficult to program the focal laws
(R/D Tech’s PASS software and/or advanced calculator); requires
large aperture for small defect resolution.
R/D Tech Phased Array Probes—General Features 11

Figure 2-1 1-D annular array probe of equal surfaces.
Tip: You may generate spherical shear waves at fixed

angle if you use a rotating mirror. If the mirror has a motorized
device, the scanning is performed at variable angle (see Figure
2-3).
F1, Φ1, 0º
F2, Φ2, 0º
Figure 2-2 Focusing pattern of 1-D annular array probe at two depths.

Rotating mirror
Immersion
Figure 2-3 Detection of inter-granular stress corrosion cracks in tubes with 1-D
annular array and rotating mirror.
2.1.2 1-D Plan Linear Array

The description found in this section refers to Figure 2-4 and Figure
2-5.
Advantages
• Easy to be manufactured, easy to be mounted on the wedge,
elliptical focusing at different depths and angles, multiple scanning
patterns as probe can be placed on the wedge in different positions.
Disadvantages
• Requires large size for deeper focusing; beam divergence increases
with angle and depth, no skewing capability.
Tip:
1. You may use the 1-D plan linear array probe to generate
longitudinal waves with negative and positive angles. The
active area of the probe must be protected. Use local
immersion, or a flat Plexiglas® or Rexolite® block.
2. You may generate shear waves with a local immersion fixture
(water wedge).
3. You may improve and optimize the beam features and the
inspection range with dynamic depth focusing board (see
section 5.1, “Ultrasound Settings—TomoView”).

Figure 2-4 The 1-D plan linear array probe.
F1, Φ1, β1, x1, y1
F1, Φ1, β1, x1, y1
Figure 2-5 The 1-D plan linear array probe: focusing pattern at two different depths
and angles.
2.1.3 2-D Planar Matrix Probe

2-7.
Advantages
• Steering capability in 3-D; spherical or elliptical beam shape
Disadvantages
• Complex design and manufacturing process, expensive, difficult to
program the focal laws, requires a large number of pulser-
receivers.
Figure 2-6 2-D planar matrix phased array probe.

Figure 2-7 Detection of cracks by 2-D planar matrix phased array probe in pitch-and-
catch setup on a wedge.
2.1.4 2-D Plan Segmented Annular Array

2-9.
Advantages
• Steering capability within a solid angle (generally ±15°); spherical
or elliptical beam shape; multiple depths and angles
Disadvantages
• Complex design and manufacturing process, grating lobes with
significant amplitude, requires large number of pulser-receivers
(generally more than 64), only for longitudinal waves, difficult to
program the focal laws.

Figure 2-8 2-D plan segmented annular phased array probe.
F2, Φ2, β2, x2, y2
F1, Φ1, β1, x1, y1
Figure 2-9 Focusing and skewing patterns for 2-D plan segmented annular phased
array probe (also called rho-theta probe).
2.1.5 1.5-D Plan Matrix Probe

The description found in this section refers to Figure 2-10.
Advantages
• Small steering capability (within ±10° left and right), elliptical
focusing at different depths and different angles, reduces the
grating lobes amplitude.

Disadvantages
• Complex design and manufacturing process, difficult to program
the focal laws, requires large number of pulser-receivers.
Figure 2-10 1.5-D plan matrix phased array probe.
2.1.6 1-D Plan Circular Probe

The description found in this section refers to Figure 2-11.
Advantages
• Used to detect misoriented defects on tubes and pipes, elliptical or
spherical beam with steering capability at different depths
Disadvantages
• Limited to curved items, complex design, and manufacturing
Figure 2-11 1-D plan circular phased array probe (also called “daisy probe”).
2.2 Properties of 1-D Plan Linear Array Probe

The most commonly used phased array probe is 1-D plan linear. The
main features of this probe are (see Figure 2-12):
• Element pitch, that is, distance between the center of two adjacent
elements: p = e + g
• Element width: e

• Element gap (kerf): g
• Number of elements: n
• Active aperture: Aactive = pnactive
• Passive aperture (elevation): Wpassive
Tip:
• Active aperture ≤ probe aperture (np).

• You may use multiple active apertures with different sizes in
the same setup (channel).
Wpassive
n=8
p g
Aactive
Figure 2-12 The main features of 1-D plan linear phased array probe.
2.3 Phased Array Probe on the Wedge

The main probe positions on the wedge are presented below (see
Figure 2-13):
• Sectorial (azimuthal): beam deflection is made according to the

selected refracted angle range and resolution; deflection parallel
with the wedge length (see Figure 2-14).
• Lateral: beam deflection is made at fix refracted angle (Snell’s law
for wedge angle), but the sweeping range is made in a plane
perpendicular to the wedge length; deflection parallel with the
wedge width (see Figure 2-15).
• Sectorial with roof: beam is deflected onto a plane determined by the
3-D Snell’s law; another phased array probe with a symmetrical
roof angle and same sweep range is working as receiver (pitch-and-
catch setup).

The main features for the probe-wedge combination are:
• Index point
• Actual refracted angle
• Height of the first element on the wedge
• Active axis offset
• Passive axis offset
a) sectorial/azimuthal
b) lateral
c) sectorial/azimuthal with a roof
Figure 2-13 Probe main positions on a wedge and beam deflection:

(a) sectorial/azimuthal; (b) lateral; (c) sectorial/azimuthal with a roof (skewed).
IMPORTANT
For sectorial/azimuthal scan or sectorial/azimuthal scan with a
roof, the phased array probe must be placed with element
number 1 towards the thin part of the wedge.

Figure 2-14 Example of azimuthal scanning for 1-D plan linear phased array probe.
Beam width increases with refracted angle.
Figure 2-15 Example of lateral deflection for 1-D plan linear phased array probe.
Beam width increases with lateral deflection angle.
Other parameters required for focal law calculation and data plotting
in 2-D specimen are (see Figure 2-16):
• Wedge refracted angle

• Wedge roof angle
• Wedge velocity
• First element offset coordinates versus the reference home position
7
z
ω wedge
1
h1 x
y
0, 0
1 7
y offset
x offset
Figure 2-16 1-D plan linear phased array probe on the wedge. Top: wedge angle and
height of the first element; bottom: active axis offset (x) and passive axis offset (y)
definitions related to home position (front left corner of the wedge on top view).
IMPORTANT
1. The height of the first element depends on specimen curvature.
Use advanced calculator for an accurate calculation of delays
on concave and convex surfaces (see Figure 2-17 to Figure
2-19).
2. Scan- and index-axis offsets are very important for data
plotting into 2-D specimen layout. See more details in
chapter 3.
Probe and wedge on curved parts

The wedge must be contoured to the part curvature for a better
coupling and scanning movement (see Figure 2-17).

Figure 2-17 Probe position on curved parts for axial and transverse defect detection.
h1 x
h1
x
Figure 2-18 Height dependence on specimen curvature. Height increases for

convex-shape wedge (ID inspection—top) and decreases for concave wedge (OD
inspection—bottom).

Tip: Set the home position (reference coordinates) in an
easy way to remember and to plot data into 2-D layout. For
example, use the center line of the weld or radiographic stamping
position, the corner or edge of the component (see Figure 2-19 as
an example).
Figure 2-19 Example of probe home position for inspection of a nozzle-to-pipe weld.
IMPORTANT
1. The index point location depends on refracted angle.
2. The active aperture is maximum for “natural” wedge refracted
angle (Snell’s law). Effective aperture depends on refracted
angle. See Figure 2-20, Figure 2-21, and Figure 2-22.

75˚ 30˚
Figure 2-20 Evaluation of index point on semi-cylinder blocks. Remark the probe
movement for maximizing the amplitude from cylindrical back wall.
∆x
Figure 2-21 Example of migration of index point for a 1-D plan linear probe used to
detect and size a fatigue crack of 9-mm height.

A
αI
Aeff
Aeff = A • cosβR / cosαI
βR
Figure 2-22 Dependence of effective aperture on refracted angle.
Tip:
1. Index point can also be measured on blocks with stacked side-

drilled holes (see Figure 2-23 and Figure 2-24).
2. Index point is measured from the wedge front face.
3. Index value has a linear dependence on refracted angle. You
need at least three points to draw the line. Use the beginning,
middle, and end of the sweep range.
a1 a2 a3
h1
h2
h3
Figure 2-23 Evaluation of index point (x) and refracted angle (β) on block with
stacked SDH. Experimental setup.

tan β = (h3- h1) / (a3- a1)
h3
h2
SDH depth β
h1
x a1 a2 a3
index point Projected distance
Figure 2-24 Evaluation of index point (x) and refracted angle (β) on block with
stacked SDH. Graph method.
CAUTION
Pay attention to the maximum height of the wedge you machined.
The index point is moving backward (see Figure 2-25). Otherwise,
the defect location will be affected by large errors.
ωwedge
x
h1
∆h
∆x

8
70°
Index point variation ∆ x [mm]
Refracted angle [º]

7
60°
4 45°
35°
1
Maximum height ∆ h [mm]
0
0 1 2 3 5
Figure 2-25 Dependence of index point variation on refracted angle and maximum
wedge height variation on convex surface.
2.4 Field Properties of Phased Array Probe

The main field properties of 1-D annular and plan linear phased array
probes are:
• Near-field length [mm / in.]

• Focal depth [mm / in.]
• Depth of field [mm / in.]
• Beam width [mm / in.]
• Signal-to-noise ratio [dB / ratio]
• Beam divergence [° (degree)]
• Near-surface resolution [mm / in.]
• Far-surface resolution [mm / in.]
• Axial resolution [mm / in.]
• Lateral resolution [mm / in.]
Near-field length
Near-field length is the ultrasound distance along the axial axis (z) for
the last significant amplitude maximum. A practical formula is given
by:

A2 • f
N 0 = ------------- (2.1)
4v
where:
N0 = near-field length [mm / in.]

A = active aperture [mm / in.]
f = probe center frequency [MHz]
v = ultrasound velocity in the test piece [mm/s; in./s]
Focal depth and depth of field

The focal depth [FD] and depth of field [L−6 dB] are illustrated in Figure
2-26.
Amplitude [% FSH]
–6 dB
FD
UT path [depth]
L–6 dB
Figure 2-26 Definition of focal depth (FD) and depth of field (L−6 dB) for pulse-echo
technique.
CAUTION
1. Near-field length depends on effective aperture for specific
refracted angle. Otherwise, the programmed focal depth for
large reflector angles is smaller than the real focal depth.
2. Evaluation of near-field length for immersion probes made in
free-field technique with a hydrophone. Measurements must
be made at −3 dB drop. Otherwise, you will get wrong values
for near-field lengths.

Beam width
Beam width is measured by −6 dB drop (pulse-echo) or −3 dB drop
(immersion-hydrophone) techniques of the transverse amplitude
echo-dynamic profile (see Figure 2-27 and Figure 2-28). The beam
width on active axis and the beam length on passive axis is
determined by the formula described in Figure 2-29.
Scan axis (mm/inch)
1
2
3
4
5
7
6 8
3 6
2 7
1 8
Figure 2-27 Beam width evaluation for pulse-echo technique using echo dynamic of
SDH amplitudes. The narrowest beam width is for SDH no. 4 (focal depth). Beam
width increases with UT path (depth).

PULSE - ECHO THROUGH - TRANSMISSION
Probe Probe
–6 dB –3 dB
Hydrophone
Reflector
Beam width: ∆x–6 dB Beam width: ∆x–3 dB
Figure 2-28 Beam width evaluation for pulse-echo (probe is moving) and for through-
transmission (free-field) when the probe is fixed and EMAT (electromagnetic array
transducer) probe or hydrophone is moving.
b)
W c)
x
A
y
a)
∆X ∆Y
6 dB
6 dB
∆X –6dB ≈ 0.9 UT path λ ⁄ A cos β

∆Y –6dB ≈ 0.9 UT path λ ⁄ W passive
Figure 2-29 Beam width (∆X−6 dB) and beam length (∆Y−6 dB) definitions and their
formula for 1-D plan linear array probe.
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be given by the formula:
⎛ A defect⎞
SNR [dB] = 20 log 10 ⎜ ----------------⎟ (2.2)
⎝ A noise ⎠
The measurement method is illustrated by Figure 2-30.

Adefect
Anoise
Figure 2-30 Example of signal-to-noise (SNR) evaluation of crack last significant tip
versus the stochastic noise (electronic + coupling + structure). An acceptable value is
SNR > 3:1 (10 dB).
Tip:
1. You may also use contour feature in TomoView™ and apply it

in B-scan and VC S-scans. Pick up a zone from the base material
and a zone with significant reflector. Do not saturate the signal.
2. Use the “Averaging” function and set the value to 4 or 8. The

stochastic noise is reduced by 6–8 dB, but the file size is
increased (see chapter 5 for more details).
Near-surface resolution
Near-surface resolution [dns − ∆G (mm / in.)] (dead-zone) is the minimum
distance from the scanning surface where a reflector (SDH, FBH)
amplitude has more than 6 dB resolution compared with the decay
amplitude from the main bang (initial pulse) [see Figure 2-31]. The
dead zone increases with gain increase. See also the detectability
curves in chapter 6.
Far-surface resolution
Far-surface resolution [dfs − BW (mm / in.)] is the minimum distance
from the inner surface where the phased array probe can resolve the
amplitude ( ∆A > 6 dB ) from specific reflectors (SDH or FBH) located
at a height of 1–5 mm from the flat or cylindrical back wall (see Figure
2-31).

Near-surface resolution Far-surface resolution
IP BW
SDH
> 6 dB
> 6 dB
dns-∆G dfs-BW
Figure 2-31 The near-surface and far-surface resolution definitions. IP is initial pulse
(main bang), and BW is the back-wall echo amplitude.
Lateral resolution and axial resolution

Lateral resolution and axial resolution are defined as per chapter 6. Note
that the phased array probe is moved for lateral resolution and is static
for axial resolution. A shorter pulse duration and smaller beam width
increase both resolutions.
Lateral resolution:
∆X –6 dB
∆d = -------------------
- [mm / in.] (2.3)
4
Axial resolution:
υ test piece ∆τ –20 dB

∆z = --------------------------------------------
- [mm / in.] (2.4)
2
where:
∆d = lateral resolution along the active axis
∆z = axial resolution along the axial beam axis
∆τ−20 dB = pulse duration (in microseconds) at −20 dB drop

2.5 Time-Frequency Response Features
The main time-frequency response features of a phased array probe
are:
• Pulse duration [µs]

• Pulse length [mm / in.]
• Peak frequency [MHz]
• Center frequency [MHz]
• Bandwidth [%; MHz]
Pulse duration
Pulse duration [∆τ−20 dB (µs)] is the time-of-flight value of the radio-
frequency signal amplitude from a specific reflector (generally a
back wall) cut at −20 dB (10%) from positive and negative maximum
values (see Figure 2-32).
Pulse duration: 21.26 µs – 20.77 µs = 0.5 µs
Figure 2-32 Radio-frequency (RF) signal from R25 semi-cylinder wall of a 5 MHz
S-waves probe. Pulse duration at –20 dB: ∆τ–20 dB = 0.5 µs.
Pulse length
Pulse length [∆L−20 dB (mm / in.)] is the value in millimeters or inches
of the pulse duration for a specific type of material and type of wave.
∆L –20 dB = v∆τ –20 dB (see also axial resolution)
When the time-response RF signal is converted into frequency

response through the fast Fourier transform (FFT), the following
features are defined:
• Peak frequency [fp (MHz)] is the maximum frequency in FFT

spectrum (see Figure 2-33).
• Center frequency [fc (MHz)] is the arithmetic (or geometric) mean
between the lower and upper frequencies determined by −6 dB
drop from the peak frequency (see Figure 2-33).

( fl + fu ) in the following standards: ISO,
–6 dB
f c = ------------------------------
- ASTM, ASME, JIS.
2
f c = ( f l × f u ) 0.5 in EN 12668-2 (Europe).

–6 dB
• Bandwidth [BW (% / MHz)]

Relative bandwidth [%]:
( fu – fl )
BW = ---------------------
- (2.5)
2 ( fl + fu )
Absolute bandwidth [MHz]:
∆f = f u – f l (2.6)
Figure 2-33 OmniScan example of frequency response (FFT) for an 8-MHz phased
array probe at 45° angle S-waves. RF signal from Figure 2-32. Center frequency =
8.01 MHz; relative bandwidth = 73%. Lower frequency = 5.08 MHz; upper
frequency = 10.94 MHz.
Tip:
a) Use probes with higher bandwidth value for a better sizing

and an increased steering capability.
b) Both TomoView and OmniScan have the RF-FFT capability

for frequency and bandwidth evaluation (see chapter 4 for
details).

CAUTION
Never use compression function for FFT analysis! Time samples
may not be equally spaced. Your measurements will have large
errors.
2.6 Electrical Features

• Sensitivity [Se] is the ratio between output and input voltage for a
specific setup.
S e = 20 log 10 ( V out ⁄ V in ) [dB]
• Impedance [Zfc (Ω, ohm)] is the impedance measured at the center

frequency (resonant value). Impedance may be evaluated by the
KLM model.
• Cross-talk damping between elements [dB] is the value of the
signal between two elements, which may be adjacent, or spaced
apart. The acceptable value of cross-talk damping is about −30 dB
to 40 dB; cross-talk amplitude increases with refracted angle.
2.7 Probe Characterization

Probe characterization is a complex quality-assurance (QA) operation
for evaluating the actual probe features. The minimum features and
their practical tolerances are presented in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Practical tolerances on phased array probe features.
Feature Tolerance Remarks

Center ±10% Different methods of evaluation
frequency
Bandwidth ±20% Depends on setup.
Pulse duration ±20% Depends on setup.
Pulse length ±½λ Depends on setup.
Refracted angle ±2° May depend on refracted angle value.
Index point ±2 mm Migrates with refracted angle.
Focal depth ±30% Depends on measurement method.

Table 2-2 Practical tolerances on phased array probe features. (Cont.)
Feature Tolerance Remarks

Impedance ±30 Ω Depends on setup.
Element ±2 dB Edge elements may have larger value.
sensitivity
Cross-talk <−40 dB Depends on element position and
damping ±10 dB refracted angle.
amplitude
2.8 Recommended Blocks for Probe

Characterization
The proper choice of characterization block(s) may be a difficult task
due to the fact that the phased array technology uses a large number
of angles and different focal depths. In many cases, the same
inspection sequence uses multiple channels with shear and
longitudinal waves.
You have to be prepared to use a large number of blocks for specific

feature evaluation.
General features of a characterization block are listed below:
• Same or similar structure (for velocity and attenuation) as the

inspected component
• Same or similar surface preparation (roughness, painting, curved
OD, curved ID, cladding) as the component
• Easy to be identified
• Large enough not to have interference from block edges or adjacent
reflectors
• Designed for at least two or three features
• Not too heavy (less than 22 kg or 50 pounds)
• Documented with drawing and, namely, with actual QA
documents
The main types of blocks and their use for phased array probe
characterization are presented below (some examples are presented in
Figure 2-35 to Figure 2-37).
a) Semi-cylinder single thickness blocks. They are used for index

point, angle, beam squint angle, center frequency, and
bandwidth measurement. The blocks increase in radius by a
factor 1.4. It is recommended to start with R10 and finish with
R200.
b) Rectangular prisms with side-drilled holes. They are used for
index point, angle, SNR, DAC (distance-amplitude correction)
curves, focus depth, depth of field, beam width (divergence) on

active axis direction. Side-drilled holes must have a diameter
less than 3 mm (generally 1.5–2 mm) and they are either stacked
or even distributed along the block length and depth.
c) Rectangular prisms with special side-drilled holes. They are
used for axial and lateral resolution, beam divergence
evaluation in both planes (horizontal and vertical), angular
resolution for the same depth or same index, near-surface and
far-surface resolution, and SNR. The side-drilled holes may be
concentric, of different diameters and lengths, vertically
oriented, spherical-bottomed and angled, of same diameter but
different spacing.
d) Steel blocks with inclined faces or quarter cylinder with
round notch. They are used for beam divergence and near-field
evaluation. Limited to specific angles.
e) Semi-cylinders with double radii (thickness). They are used,
among other things, for time-base calibration. Recommended to
be manufactured in a ratio 2:1 (ex.: R50/R25; R100/R50) for an
easy calibration in both shear and/or longitudinal waves (see
Figure 2-34).
f) Step-blocks with EDM notches and flat-bottom holes. They
are used for beam divergence in horizontal plane (beam length),
sizing capability, SNR, DAC, time-base calibration in depth,
checking vertical linearity (see Figure 2-35).
g) Special block (rectangular prism with a quadrant). The block
may be used for index point, beam width, near-surface and far-
surface resolution, lateral and axial resolution (see Figure 2-36).
Figure 2-34 Example of reference block used for probe characterization: double
semi-cylinder. The block may be used for time-base linearity, index point, and beam
directivity (Hydrophone/EMAT).

Figure 2-35 Example of reference block used for probe characterization: step-block
with EDM notches and vertical flat-bottom holes. The block may be used for DAC,
SNR, sizing capability, beam length measurement (horizontal plane), and time-base
calibration in depth.
Figure 2-36 Example of reference block used for probe characterization: prism with
quadrant. The block may be used for beam angle, index point, beam length, near-
surface and far-surface resolution, and axial and lateral resolution.
2.9 R/D Tech Phased Array Probes

R/D Tech designed, manufactured, characterized, and commissioned
a large variety of probes (type, shape, size, frequency, number of
elements, pre-focusing in Fermat surface, or prototypes) [see Figure

2-37 as an example].
Figure 2-37 Different types of phased array probes provided by R/D Tech.
On January 2004, R/D Tech started to develop and standardize probes

and wedges to be used with OmniScan.
The phased array probes are coming with OmniScan connector (see
Figure 2-38).
Figure 2-38 OmniScan connector for standardized probes.
The 1-D plan linear array probes are manufactured in multiple

options: soft-face mounted on the wedge, with an encapsulated
wedge, direct-contact hard-face, immersion, and water-wedge (see
Figure 2-41 and Figure 2-42). Their frequency is 2.25 MHz, 5 MHz, or
10 MHz. The number of elements is 16, 32, or 64.
The R/D Tech phased array probe numbering system is presented in

Figure 2-39.

Ordering Information
Numbering System Used to Order Phased-Array Probes
Frequency
2L16-45SW1-2.5-OM Connector type
Array type Cable length
Number of elements Casing type
Probe type
Wave type
Refracted angle in steel
Glossary Used to Order Phased-Array Probes

Frequency Refracted angle in steel Casing type
2 = 2.25 MHz (used only with integrated wedge probes) Casing type in the same probe family
5 = 5 MHz 45 = 45º Cable length
7.5 = 7.5 MHz Wave type 2.5 = 2.5 m
10 = 10 MHz S = shear wave Connector type
Array type L = longitudinal wave OM = OmniScan® connector
L = linear (used only with integrated wedge probes) HY = Hypertronics™ connector
Number of elements Probe type
16 = 16 elements A = angle beam with external wedge
32 = 32 elements W = angle beam with integrated wedge
64 = 64 elements C = contact
128 = 128 elements I = immersion
Figure 2-39 Example of phased array probe numbering system and its explanations.
R/D Tech wedges have a different numbering system (see Figure

2-40).
Numbering System Used to Order Wedges
Wedge type
SA1-N45S Wave type
Probe mounting Refracted angle in steel
Glossary Used to Order Wedges
Wedge type Refracted angle in steel
SA1 = wedge for angle beam probe type A1 0 = 0º
SA2 = wedge for angle beam probe type A2 45 = 45º
SI1 = wedge for angle beam probe type I1 60 = 60º
Probe mounting Wave type
N = normal (parallel) S = shear wave
L = lateral (perpendicular) L = longitudinal wave
Numbering System Used to Order Water Boxes
Water box type

WBI3-25-E Encoder
Water column height
Glossary Used to Order Water Boxes
Water box type Water column height Encoder
WBI1 = water box for immersion 10 = 10 mm E = with encoder
transducer type I1 25 = 25 mm NE = without encoder
WBI2 = water box for immersion 40 = 40 mm
transducer type I2
WBI3 = water box for immersion
transducer type I3
Figure 2-40 Example of wedge numbering system and its explanations.
The 1-D plan linear array probes are manufactured in multiple

options: soft-face mounted on the wedge, with an encapsulated
wedge, direct-contact hard-face, immersion, and water-wedge (see
Figure 2-41 and Figure 2-42).

Figure 2-41 R/D Tech 1-D plan linear probes and type of wedges used for shear- and
longitudinal-wave angle beam inspection.
a b
Figure 2-42 Different R/D Tech 1-D linear-array probes: (a) encapsulated wedge
angle beam; (b) hard-face direct contact longitudinal waves; (c) immersion
(longitudinal waves) and wedge (angle beam); (d) water wedge probe with encoder.
Details about each type of probe and wedge dimensions are presented

in R/D Tech Ultrasound Phased Array Transducer Catalog 2004-2005 8
available from R/D Tech’s Web site.
The catalog also includes advantages and typical applications for each
type of probe. Detailed wedge design options are also presented.
2.10 Recommended Features for Probe

Checking
This section lists the recommended features for probe checking
before, during, and after the inspection (courtesy of Imasonic-France
and OPG-Canada9).
Before and during the inspection, the following minimum features

must be checked:
Before and during the inspection

9 Probe integrity—active elements [linear scan]
9 SNR [ dB ] on SDH / FBH / EDM notch
9 Index [ mm ] on SDH / EDM notch
9 Angle [ ° ] on SDH / EDM notch
9 Calibration [3–5 times / shift, as procedure requires]
After the inspection, the following minimum features must be

checked:
After the inspection

9 Hypertronics® pins, connector, cable
9 Face wearing, contact surface, wedge integrity
9 Dead elements—if any
9 SNR [ dB ]
9 Angle [ ° ]
9 Index [ mm ]
9 Center frequency [ MHz ]—optional
9 Bandwidth [ % ], pulse duration [ µs ]—optional

After the inspection (Cont.)
9 Detection / sizing capability
9 Defect location, SNR tip, DAC
9 Sensitivity variation within the batch family
9 Cable / wiring twisting

3. Focal Laws—General Examples
The following chapter provides general examples of focal laws.
3.1 Generalities
Focal laws represent a group of A-scans generated by the calculator
with the following constituents:
• Scan type
• Probe features
• Specimen characteristics
• Wedge elements
The group of A-scans is applied to the ultrasonic hardware (pulsers,
receivers, DDF board, delays, and summation boards) to generate a
specific phased array beam deflection (scan) pattern.
The focal law components of the OmniScan® software are divided

between Probe/Part and PGM Probe menus (see Figure 3-1).
Probe/Part PGM Probe

Group Group
Select Probe Enable
Define Probe Configu- Scan Type
Select
Select Wedge ration Connection P
Define Wedge Connection R
Probe Detection
Scan Offset Elements Qty
Index Offset First Element
Skew Last Element
Position Aperture
Element Step
Wave Type
Sound Velocity
R/D Tech Focal Laws—General Examples 45

FFT Min Angle
Save Max Angle
Charac- Gain Angle Step
Beam
terize Gate Star Min Depth
Procedure Max Depth
Block Name Depth Step
Geometry Auto Program
Thickness Load Law File
Parts Diameter Laws Save Law File
Material
Overlay
Figure 3-1 OmniScan Probe/Part and PGM Probe menus, which contain the focal
law features.
TomoView™ software incorporates the focal law calculator option

( ) as part of the ultrasound setup. The focal law calculator
generic features are presented in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 Example of TomoView focal law calculator.
Both pieces of software are capable of loading .law files generated by

PASS (Phased Array Simulation Software) and/or R/D Tech advanced
phased array calculator.

Note:
1. The loading feature in the focal law calculator allows you to

recall a previous .cal file built with TomoView or advanced
calculator.
2. Files created with advanced calculator can be loaded under the
option Read a sector from a file of the Phased Array Wizard.
3. The .cal file saves and loads the input parameters (not the
delay values on elements).
4. The .law file saves and loads the input/output parameters,
including some hardware feature.
5. The .pac file saves and loads the DDF input/output
parameters; recommended to be used only when DDF option
is chosen.
3.2 Beam Deflection (Scan) Patterns

Beam deflection and scanning patterns are presented in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1 Beam deflection options for OmniScan and TomoView focal law
calculators.
Beam deflection OmniScan* TomoView*

Sectorial Azimuthal Azimuthal
Lateral Lateral
Linear Yes Yes
Depth Yes Yes
Static** No Yes
DDF No Yes
Linear circular No Yes
* Other options supported by imported files, such as .law and
.pac files.
** A static focal law is used to generate, with a phased array
probe, an ultrasound beam similar to the one obtained by a
conventional probe. The refracted angle, the focusing depth,
and the primary aperture cannot be modified; they are fixed. A
single focal law is generated.
Figure 3-3, Figure 3-4a, and Figure 3-4b represent the OmniScan
capabilities for beam deflection and beam or probe skew angle, and
offset versus the scan axis.

Sectorial Depth - angle Depth - 0˚
Linear - angle Linear - 0˚
Figure 3-3 OmniScan programmed focal law calculator capabilities: sectorial

(azimuthal or lateral) [top left]; depth at an angle (top middle) and at normal incidence
(top right); linear at an angle (bottom left) and at normal incidence (bottom right).
0˚ Beam
direction
90˚
270˚
180˚
Figure 3-4a Example of beam direction conventions for OmniScan.

offset X offset X
offset Y
1
offset Y
1
Orientation = Y+ Orientation = Y+
offset X offset X
offset Y
1
offset Y
Orientation = Y– Orientation = X–
Figure 3-4b Example of wedge offset conventions for OmniScan: lateral (left) and
azimuthal (right) scans.
Skew angle possibilities for TomoView focal law calculator are

presented in Figure 3-5.
Scan axis
180˚
Index axis
0˚
90˚ 270˚
Figure 3-5 Example of skew angle definition in TomoView. The skew angle is the
angle between the probe beam axis projection (red arrow) and the scan axis (blue
arrow).

IMPORTANT
The phased array probe may be rotated on the wedge. The total
skew angle is a summation between the wedge skew angle and the
beam skew angle versus scan axis direction (see Figure 3-6).
Scan axis
Index axis
Total skew
10
angle = 120˚
Beam Probe
skew = 30˚ skew = 90˚
Figure 3-6 Example of total skew angle as a combination between the probe (wedge)
and beam skew angles.
The beam offset possibilities versus the scan and index axes for
TomoView focal law are presented in Figure 3-7 to Figure 3-10.
Scan axis
+X
Index axis
+Y
Skew = 0˚ Index point
Figure 3-7 TomoView scan- and index-axis offset for skew angle of 0°. Both values
are positive.

Scan axis
Index axis
–X
Skew = 90˚
+Y
Index point
Figure 3-8 TomoView scan- and index-axis offset for skew angle of 90°. Scan offset
value is negative and index offset value is positive.
Scan axis
Index axis
–Y
–X
Index point Skew = 180˚
Figure 3-9 TomoView scan- and index-axis offset for skew angle of 180°. Both
values are negative.

Scan axis
Index axis
Index point
–Y
Skew = 270˚
+X
Figure 3-10 TomoView scan- and index-axis offset for skew angle of 270°. Scan
offset value is positive; index offset value is negative.
3.3 Examples of Focal Laws and Beam

Deflections
This section presents examples of focal laws and beam deflections.
3.3.1 Linear Scan

Inspection problem
1. Aluminum plate weld of 10 mm thickness
2. Immersion
3. Detect linear defects at the inner surface
4. Inspection range for the weld and heat-affected zone (4 mm width
on each weld side)
5. Scanning speed: 200 mm/s (8 in./s)
Solution (see Figure 3-11 and Figure 3-12)

1. Use 10 MHz linear array probe of 64 elements, pitch 0.31 mm with
water-wedge.
2. Use linear scan to generate shear waves at 45°.
3. Choose focal depth of 8 mm.
4. Use Snell’s law to find out the angle in water (19.8°, see chapter 6).
5. Use improved resolution option.

6. Group 16 elements (5 mm active aperture), starting with element 1
and ending at element 49 (first element from the last group of
16 elements).
7. Perform one line scanning (see chapter 4).
The TomoView focal law calculator for this application is presented in

Figure 3-11. The active aperture and the beam deflection is shown in
Figure 3-12.
64
1
water
5
10 A1
10
Figure 3-11 Example of linear scan with a 64-element probe.
Figure 3-12 Focal law calculator in TomoView for example presented in Figure 3-11.

Skip zone
Figure 3-13 Sectorial scan with 51 A-scans and the overlay for weld inspection. Blue
line indicates the weld defects detected by skip.
IMPORTANT
1. Improved resolution is valid only for pulser resolution = 1.
Lateral resolution is half of the element width.
2. Crack sizing using linear scan must be performed with
improved resolution (see Figure 3-14 for comparison).

40 A-scans
Improved
20 A-scans
10 A-scans
Figure 3-14 Dependence of crack detection and sizing on linear scan resolution:
(a) resolution = 1 element; (b) resolution = 2 elements; (c) resolution = 4 elements.
Linear array probe of 64 elements, 10 MHz, pitch = 0.31 mm; active aperture of
24 elements.

Tip:
• Use linear scan for corrosion monitoring of large area

components.
• Use linear scan for checking the integrity of the elements (see
chapter 5).
3.3.2 Depth Scan

Inspection problem (see Figure 3-15)
1. A 20% Cr-Mo-V-W alloy steel forging is susceptible of hydrogen
cracking.
2. The cracks are located in a zone from 20 mm to 40 mm in depth.
3. The cracks have an orientation of 20°. They are less than 5 mm in
length.
Solution (see Figure 3-15 and Figure 3-16)

1. Use linear array probe of high-frequency (>6 MHz) in longitudinal
waves, direct contact.
2. Create a depth focusing law for the given inspection range and best
detection angle.
20
40
Figure 3-15 Example of depth scan at fixed angle for crack detection.

Figure 3-16 TomoView focal law calculator for depth scan from 20 mm to 40 mm in
steps of 5 mm, at 20° refracted angle longitudinal waves. The probe has 16 elements
and is in direct contact with forging. Couplant is glycerin.
Tip: Detection of small cracks with linear scan setup could

be improved by adding two or three groups of focal laws at
different angles (in this case: 0°, −20°).
3.3.3 Azimuthal Scan

Inspection problem (see Figure 3-17)
1. A crack in the counter-bore area was detected in a steel component
of 60-mm thickness by a conventional monocrystal probe. Height
evaluation based on beam divergence drop was obstructed by
external wall.
2. Required accuracy in sizing: ±1 mm.

Figure 3-17 Example of azimuthal scan for crack detection and sizing located away
from the weld. The 1-D plan linear array is static and beam is deflected from 35° to
75° (see Figure 3-18) for detailed focal law calculator.
Solution
1. Use azimuthal scan with probe on the wedge.
2. The 1-D plan linear array probe is a 5-MHz probe with 32 elements
of 1 mm pitch. The probe is fixed on a Rexolite® wedge of 36° (55°
in steel). The height of the first element is:
H 1 = 4 mm
3. Sweep range is between 35° to 75°.

4. Angular resolution is determined by height accuracy (see Figure
3-18).
5. TomoView™ focal law calculator for this example is presented in
Figure 3-19.
∆β- in radian
∆z = (UT half path ∆β) / cosβ
UT half path
∆β β
∆z
Figure 3-18 Determination of angular resolution for specific crack height error
(minimum defect to be detected). For this example, angular resolution ∆β must be
0.25°.

Figure 3-19 Example of azimuthal scan with a 1-D plan linear array fixed on a
Rexolite® wedge.
Tip: Use wedges with symmetrical angle versus the sweep

range. Minimizing the steering angle versus the wedge “natural”
angle will reduce the decreasing of focal depth and eliminate the
grating lobes.
IMPORTANT
1. The equivalent UT half path for focal depth is always smaller
than the near-field value.
2. Focal depth decreases with cos2(∆β)sweep (see Figure 3-20).

1
0.9
Focus depth decreasing factor
0.8
0.7
+∆β βwedge
0.6
–∆β
0.5
0 10 20 30 40
Sweep angle variation (degrees)
Figure 3-20 Dependence of focal depth on sweep range angle. In this example, a
sweep angle variation of 30° will reduce the focal depth by 25%.
An example of angular resolution influence on crack detection and

sizing is presented in Figure 3-21.
a b
61 A-scans 31 A-scans
d c
15 A-scans 6 A-scans
Figure 3-21 Example of azimuthal scan for detection and sizing of a fatigue crack
with different angular resolutions: (a) 0.5°; (b) 1°; (c) 2°; and (d) 5°.

3.3.4 Focal Laws for OmniScan—Examples
OmniScan® phased array calculator is located under PGM Probe
module. This module is active only after you have defined the probe
and the wedge, or if you use R/D Tech® probes you have to pick up
the wedge and the probe from R/D Tech default database.
3.3.4.1 Focal Law Calculator for R/D Tech Probes and

Wedges (Azimuthal Scan)
Inspection problem
Detect and size cracks in heat-affected zone with height greater than
1 mm in a butt-weld of 25 mm (see Figure 3-22).
25 mm
Figure 3-22 Example of crack detection in heat-affected zone in a 25-mm butt-weld.
Solution (see Figure 3-23)

1. Use OmniScan with R/D Tech 5L16-A1 probe and the SA 1-N45S
wedge.
2. Create sectorial scan focal laws with sweep range from 30°–70°,
resolution of 0.2°, focusing at depth of 25 mm.
The probe and wedge characteristics are presented below:
• Wedge SA 1-N45S: Rexolite® (2,330 m/s; 31°, H1 = 7.25 mm; X+)

• Probe 5L16-A1: 5 MHz; 16 elements; pitch = 0.6 mm, soft face

Figure 3-23 Detection and sizing of a crack in 25-mm weld with a 5-MHz R/D Tech
probe of 16 elements. The probe was used in combination with R/D Tech wedge of
45° SW, model SA 1-N45S.
3.3.4.2 Focal Law Calculator for Other 1-D Plan Linear

Array Probes
Example of crack detection by L-wave azimuthal scan.
• Test piece: stainless steel forging of 12.7 mm with a crack of 5.5 mm

height
• Probe: 10 MHz, 16 elements, pitch 0.31 mm, direct contact
• Couplant: glycerin
• Azimuthal scan from −10° to 40° in steps of 0.5°
• Manual scanning over the crack location
Focal law calculator—steps

1. Probe/Part menu:
a) Define and save the wedge (custom, contact, immersion, no
wedge).
b) Define and save the new probe (contact, angle beam, custom,
immersion).
2. PGM Probe menu:
a) Configuration > Scan Type > Sectorial (azimuthal)
b) Aperture:
Element Qty = 16
First Element = 1
Wave Type = User
Sound Velocity = 5,750 m/s

c) Beam:
Min Angle = −10°
Max Angle = 40°
Angle Step = 0.5°
Depth Step = 12.7 mm
d) The results of S-scans corresponding to three probe positions are
presented in Figure 3-24.
-5˚
+15˚
+30.5˚
Figure 3-24 Example of crack detection and sizing in a stainless steel forging of
12.7 mm with a custom 1-D plan linear array probe and OmniScan PA flaw detector.

4. Scanning Patterns, Views, and
Layouts
This chapter presents the most common used scanning patterns,

views, and layouts.
4.1 Scanning Patterns

A reliable defect detection and sizing is based on scan patterns with
specific functional combinations between the scanner movement and
the phased array beam direction (orientation).
The inspection may be performed as:
a) Automated: the probe carrier is moved by a motor-controlled

drive unit; acquisition is based on encoder position.
b) Semiautomated: the probe carrier is moved by hand, but the
movement is encoded; data is acquired based on encoder
resolution.
c) Manual (or time-base internal clock): the phased array probe is
moved by hand, and data is saved based on acquisition time (in
seconds).
Acquisition may be triggered by encoder position, by internal clock,
or by an external signal.
R/D Tech® systems can provide the following inspection types:
1. Tomoscan III, Tomoscan FOCUS™: automated, semiautomated,

manual
2. OmniScan PA: semiautomated, manual
3. QuickScan™ PA, PipeWIZARD®: automated (semiautomated for
calibration and mechanical setting)
The scanning patterns available in TomoView™ inspection sequence

are summarized in Table 4-1.
R/D Tech Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts 65

Table 4-1 Scanning patterns available in TomoView inspection sequence.
Scanning Number Remarks

pattern of axes
Bidirectional 2 Acquisition is performed in both
scanning directions (see Figure
4-1a).
Unidirectional 2 Acquisition is performed only in
one scanning direction; scanner is
moved back and forth on each
scanning length (see Figure 4-1b).
Linear 1 All data is recorded in a single axial
pass (see Figure 4-2).
Skewed 2 Similar with bidirectional, but axes
(angular) are skewed versus mechanical axes
(see Figure 4-3).
Helicoidal 1 (See Figure 4-4.)
Spiral 1 (See Figure 4-5.)
Custom 1–6 Customized for multiaxis or
component profile.
Free running Probe is not moving; default
sequence.
4.1.1 Bidirectional Scan

In a bidirectional scan, the data acquisition is carried out in both
forward and backward directions along the scan axis (see Figure 4-1a).
4.1.2 Unidirectional Scan

In a unidirectional scan, the data acquisition is carried out in only one
direction along the scan axis (see Figure 4-1b). The scanner is then
stepped for another pass.

SCAN AXIS SCAN AXIS
PROBE PROBE
INDEX AXIS
INDEX AXIS
BIDIRECTIONAL SCANNING UNIDIRECTIONAL SCANNING
MOVEMENT WITH ACQUISITION

MOVEMENT WITHOUT ACQUISITION
Figure 4-1 Bidirectional (a) and unidirectional (b) raster scanning. Red line
represents the acquisition path.
4.1.3 Linear Scan

A linear scan is a one-axis scanning sequence, which uses only one
position encoder (either scan or index) to determine the position of the
acquisition.
The linear scan is unidimensional and proceeds along a linear path.

The only settings that must be provided are the speed, the limits along
the scan axis, and the spacing between acquisitions (encoder
resolution).
IMPORTANT
Linear scans are frequently used for such applications as weld
inspections and corrosion mapping. Linear scans with electronic
scanning are typically an order of magnitude faster than
equivalent conventional ultrasound raster scans.

Tip: Linear scans are very useful for probe characterization
over the reference block with side-drilled holes (see Figure 4-2).
Probe Scan axis
Figure 4-2 Linear scan pattern for probe characterization.
4.1.4 Skewed Scan

This section presents the skewed scan for TomoView™ 2.2 (courtesy
of Ontario Power Generation, Canada).
The skewed scan (also called angular scan under the TomoView
software) is a form of the normal bidirectional scan sequence. This
sequence allows the scan and index probe path to be skewed by a
software-selectable angle generated by small increments (closer to
encoder resolution) on scan and index axis. This angle is different
from the mechanical axes. The detail of Figure 4-3 shows the actual
probe movement with average line trajectory to approximate this
angled scan path.
This sequence is useful when the scanner axes and the inspected part
cannot be placed in the best scan path relative to each other, and/or
the defect location and orientation requires a specific scan pattern
(line) for optimum detection and sizing. Selecting a specific scan path
angle that best suits the inspected part or defect orientation can thus
eliminate expensive scanner modifications, drastically reducing the
file size and speeding up the defect analysis time.

Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation Inc., Canada
Figure 4-3 Example of skewed (angular) bidirectional scanning. Left: probe scanning
pattern versus the mechanical axes on a complex part; right: probe trajectory (red
line) is skewed versus mechanical rectangular axes for an optimum angle to detect
cracks in stress area.
Tip:
1. Use skewed scan to inspect complex geometry components

with defect orientation at an angle versus orthogonal axis.
2. The skewed scan allows you to adopt the linear array probe to
a particular specimen geometry.
3. File size is reduced by a factor of 2–3.
4. Defect amplitude increases by 6–8 dB.
5. You may increase the scanning speed by a factor of 2–4.
4.1.5 Helicoidal Scan

The Helicoidal sequence is used to inspect cylindrical surfaces. The
scanner performs a helicoidal movement around the cylinder.
Two independent encoders control the sequence. The scan-axis

encoder controls the continuous rotation around the cylinder, while
the index-axis encoder controls the continuous movement along the
length of the cylinder. A synchronization signal can be used to reset
the scan-axis encoder to position zero at every rotation around the
cylinder.

The combinations of these two movements will create a helicoidal
scan pattern (see Figure 4-4).
Index axis
Scan axis
Figure 4-4 Helicoidal surface scan on cylindrical parts. Red line is the acquisition
path.
4.1.6 Spiral Scan

The spiral sequence is designed to inspect circular surfaces such as
disc surfaces. The inspection mechanism performs a spiral movement
on the circular surface (see Figure 4-5). Two independent encoders
control the sequence.
The scan-axis encoder controls the theta (θ) angle in the continuous
rotation around the surface center; while the index-axis encoder
controls the rho (ρ) position in the continuous movement along the
radius. A signal can be used to reset the scan-axis encoder to position
zero at every rotation.
Probe Scan axis
Index
ρ axis
Figure 4-5 Spiral surface scan pattern. Red line is the acquisition path.

Tip: Use helicoidal scan for immersion inspection of discs
and flanges set on rotary table.
4.1.7 Other Scanning Patterns

The part, the probe movement, and the beam direction may generate
scanning patterns for any of the following combinations (see Table
4-2).
Table 4-2 Inspection sequence dependence on part, scanner, and beam.
Part Scanner Beam Sequence

Fixed Fixed Linear Linear scan
(translation)
Fixed Index axis Linear (rotation) Helicoidal
Translation Fixed Linear (rotation) Helicoidal
Fixed Scan axis Linear (90° skew) Unidimensional
4.1.8 Free Running Sequence

Free running is a default value of inspection sequence. The data
acquisition is performed at the acquisition rate of the digitizer.
IMPORTANT
The probe is not moving. Only one set of A-scans is recorded
when the acquisition is stopped. The sequence contains no
parameter option.
CAUTION
Do not use the “free running” sequence to acquire time-based
data. See section 4.1.9 for details.

4.1.9 Scanning Based on Time (Internal Clock)
Acquisition made on internal clock is called time-base setup. The
encoder is set on internal clock and the sequence control “start,”
“stop,” and “resolution” are internal clock counts.
IMPORTANT
1. TomoView default for time-base acquisition is set at
200 counts, with a resolution of 1 A-scan/count. This assures an
acquisition time of about one minute. You may change the
number of counts (file size). Keep in mind that the ultrasound
data will be acquired in the last time interval.
2. OmniScan default scan parameters are set for time-base
acquisition of about 20 seconds.
Example of time-base acquisition is presented in Figure 4-6.
Tip:
a) Use a metallic or plastic ruler edge to acquire data in

straight line (equal ultrasound path); readings on the ruler
will give you the defect location and length.
b) Lift the probe for one second and re-scan along the same
trajectory. You may also move the probe over the location
with maximum response. This will give you a better sizing
capability.
c) Select the best A-scan in VC S-scan (volume-corrected
sectorial scan) for detection and use the Dynamic Side
B-scan view to monitor the quality of your scan.
d) Repeat the scan (overwrite the ultrasound data), until you
get qualitative data, and then save the file.

Figure 4-6 Example of time-base acquisition for detection and sizing of a 5-mm
crack.
4.2 Basic Views

The five basic views are: A-scan, B-scan, C-scan, D-scan, and S-scan
(see Table 4-3).
Table 4-3 The five basic data views in phased array ultrasound inspection.
View Axis content Figure

A-scan Amplitude vs Ultrasound 4-7, 4-8
B-scan Ultrasound vs Scan (side view) 4-9, 4-10
C-scan Scan vs Index (top view) 4-11, 4-12
D-scan Ultrasound vs Index (front view) 4-13, 4-14
Ultrasound vs Probe (projected distance, 4-15, 4-16

S-scan
depth, and refracted angles)
4.2.1 Rectified A-Scan

Rectified A-scan is a 2-D view with ultrasound path on horizontal axis
and amplitude of the rectified signal on vertical axis. The ultrasound
path is measured in millimeters (or inches) or time of fight
(microseconds [µs] = 10−6 s = 1/MHz). Amplitude is measured in
% Full Screen Height (% FSH) between 0% and 100% (see Figure 4-7).

Ultrasound path may be represented in half path, full path, time, or
true depth (for a known refracted angle).
Figure 4-7 Example of rectified A-scan view for time base calibration 0–100 mm in
steel for L-waves probes of creeping waves. Note the L- and S-waves signals at
25 mm / 46 mm for R25 (top) and respectively at 50 mm / 92 mm for R50 (bottom).
4.2.2 Unrectified A-Scan

Unrectified A-scan (RF) is a 2-D view of ultrasound data display with
ultrasound path on horizontal axis and amplitude of the unrectified
signal (or radiofrequency—RF) on vertical axis. The ultrasound path
is measured in millimeters or inches. Amplitude is measured in % Full
Screen Height (% FSH) between −100% and 100% (see Figure 4-8).
Ultrasound path may be represented in half path, full path, or depth
(for a known refracted angle).

Figure 4-8 Unrectified A-scan view with the RF signal in gate A. The maximum
amplitude is −87.5% FSH; signal peak is located at 57.22 mm.
4.2.3 B-Scan
B-scan view is a 2-D view of ultrasound data display with scanning
length as one axis and ultrasound path as the other axis. The position of
the displayed data is related to the encoder positions at the moment of
the acquisition. If the ultrasound path is chosen in depth and the
refracted angle is included, the B-scan corresponds to a side view or a
cross section of the part over the scanning line (see Figure 4-9).
Figure 4-9 Example of B-scan (side view) ultrasound data display.
4.2.4 C-Scan
C-scan view is a 2-D view of ultrasound data display with scanning
length as one axis and index length on the other axis. The position of the

displayed data is related to the encoder positions during acquisition.
Only the maximum amplitude for each point (pixel) is projected on
the scan-index plan. The C-scan is called top view (see Figure 4-10).
Figure 4-10 Example of a C-scan view (top view). Ultrasound data is plotted in 2-D
weld overlay. Defect location and its length and height are evaluated by reference and
measurement cursors on both axes.
4.2.5 D-Scan
D-scan view is a 2-D view of ultrasound data display with ultrasound
path on one axis and index length on the other axis. If the ultrasound
path is corrected for angle and the units are in true depth, the D-scan
represents the end view of the inspected part (see Figure 4-11).
Figure 4-11 B-scan (side view) of ultrasound data display from a crack.
An overview of B-, C-, and D-scan views is presented in Figure 4-12.

Top (C) view
Scan axis
Ultrasound
Ultrasound
xis
xa
de
In
End (D) view

Ultrasound
Side (B) view
Figure 4-12 Example of data views for a weld inspection with a side lack-of-fusion
defect.
4.2.6 S-Scan
S-scan view is a 2-D view of ultrasound data that links the phased
array probe features (ultrasound path, refracted angle, index,
projected distance to the reflector) with inspected part depth. One of
the axis is projected distance (generally the index for probe skew of 90°),
the other is the ultrasound path (generally the depth). The total number
of A-scans generated by focal laws are represented in an angular
sector with start angle, finish angle, and angular resolution. The 2-D
view represents the sweep range—a circle sector (see Figure 4-13).
If the ultrasound path units are in half path, the S-scan is uncorrected.
The horizontal axis represents the UT path (generally half-path). The
vertical axis represents the refracted angle (the number of A-scans
generated by a focal law) [see Figure 4-14 and Figure 4-15].

Index (scan)
Depth (mm)
Sweep angle (º)
Figure 4-13 Volume-corrected S-scan view of ultrasound data display from side-
drilled holes. The ultrasound path is corrected for the angle and represents the depth.
Index (scan) Ultrasound path

Ultrasound path (mm)
Refracted angles
Refracted angles
a b
Volume-corrected S-scan S-scan
Figure 4-14 Example of TomoView ultrasound data display for crack height
evaluation: (a) volume-corrected S-scan; (b) uncorrected S-scan.

Angle (º)
Depth (mm)
UT half path (mm) Index (mm)
Figure 4-15 Example of OmniScan uncorrected S-scan view of a crack (left) and
volume-corrected S-scan (right).
Tip: The color palette may be used for a quick defect

detection and sizing. TomoView offers multiple color possibilities,
such as rainbow, gray, balanced, and reverse colors.
Figure 4-16 represents the detection of five SDHs in IOW block and
their display in VC S-scan under different color palettes.
a b
c d
Figure 4-16 Example of TomoView color palette VC S-scan display view of five SDHs
from IOW block: (a) rainbow; (b) reverse balanced; (c) RF; (d) reverse RF.

4.3 Other Useful Views
This section presents useful views not covered in the basic views.
4.3.1 Strip Views (Position)

The Scrolling Strip View (Position) is a real-time scrolling or
dynamic linked view. The position of a signal crossing the gate
threshold is represented by a colored stripe. The color and the length
of the stripe are indicative of the signal within the associated gate (see
Figure 4-17).
Figure 4-17 Example of Scrolling Strip View (Position) display.
The Linked Dynamic Strip View (Position) for an encoded line

scanning is presented in Figure 4-18.
Figure 4-18 Example of Dynamic Strip View (Position) display.

4.3.2 Strip Views (Amplitude)
The Scrolling Strip View (Amplitude) is a scrolling/dynamic-linked
data view. The amplitude of a signal crossing the gate threshold is
represented by a colored stripe. Horizontal axis is the amplitude of
peaks in the gate and the vertical axis is the acquisition time (see
Figure 4-19).
Figure 4-19 Example of a Scrolling Strip View (Amplitude) display.
If the acquisition of the ultrasound data is encoded, the Linked

Dynamic Strip View (Amplitude) has a different presentation, as per
Figure 4-20.
The horizontal axis is the scan or index, and the vertical axis is the
peak amplitude crossing the gate threshold.
Figure 4-20 Example of Dynamic Strip View (Amplitude) display.

IMPORTANT
Only the peak amplitude or time of flight is acquired in strip view.
C-scan data must be collected within a predefined gate.
The strip views may also be displayed in analysis mode.
4.3.3 TOFD View

TOFD view is a data view that displays the RF A-scan and the D-scan
or B-scan in gray color palette (see Figure 4-21). The TOF-depth
relationship is nonlinear and requires a special calibration. More
details regarding the TOFD method may be found in section 6.8.
Figure 4-21 OmniScan TOFD view with: (a) lateral waves; (b) defect upper tip;
(c) defect lower tip with phase reversal; (d) back-wall reflection.
4.3.4 Polar View

Polar view is a two-dimensional view, useful for plotting data from
boresonic inspections or inspections of cylindrical parts. Used in
conjunction with the specimen 2-D layout, it gives the defect location
in polar coordinates (ID/OD depth and angle) [see Figure 4-22].

Angle (º) Depth
Figure 4-22 Example of a polar view.
4.4 Special Views

This section presents views that are intended for special usages:
• FFT View
• Calibration Views
• Beam Simulation View
4.4.1 FFT View

FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) view is a view with frequency domain
on horizontal axis and relative amplitude on vertical axis. Frequency
is measured in megahertz (1 MHz = one million of cycles per second);
amplitude is measured in % FSH or in mV (see Figure 4-23 and Figure
4-24).

Figure 4-23 Example of frequency response evaluation using FFT-RF views of
OmniScan. Center frequency is 4.3 MHz, and relative bandwidth is 82%.
Figure 4-24 Example of TomoView data views display for: (a) RF; (b) VC S-scan;
and (c) FFT.
4.4.2 Calibration Views

Calibration views are special 2-D views used for calibration of time
base, wedge delay, and sensitivity. They are used in setup mode,
before acquisition is starting. Examples of these views are presented
in Figure 4-25.

Figure 4-25 Example of TomoView sensitivity calibration check (left) and OmniScan
wedge delay calibration (right).
4.4.3 Beam Simulation View

Beam simulation view is a ray tracing of all A-scans from a single
emitting point in the specimen 2-D layout (see Figure 4-26).
Depth (mm)
Scan (mm)
Figure 4-26 Example of D-scan ray tracing view in TomoView for inspecting a weld
with a counter-bore.
4.5 Layouts
The layouts are a group of views needed for a proper setup,
acquisition, and/or analysis. The number of UT data windows must be
minimized, so you can visualize the ultrasound beam scanning
pattern and maximize the most important window for detection and
sizing.
Some examples and tips are presented in the following subsections.
4.5.1 One-Line Scanning

In one-line scanning, the acquisition is based either on encoder or
internal clock (counts/s). Useful layout in acquisition mode consists of
the following windows: VC S-scan, A-scan, and B-scan (see Figure
4-27). Analysis layout may contain different views (VC S-scan, top
C-scan, side B-scan, and D-scan), including the specimen layout for

defect location and characterization (see Figure 4-28).
Upper stream Down stream
VC S-scan A-scan
B-scan
Figure 4-27 Example of an acquisition layout with six windows for two phased array
probes inspecting down stream and up stream a V-weld in a pipe of 12 inches.
a b
C-scan B-scan
D-scan VC S-scan
c d
Figure 4-28 Example of analysis layout: (a) C-scan; (b) B-scan; (c) D-scan; and
(d) VC S-scan.
IMPORTANT
Depending on the type of application, the layout may be
customized to meet the code requirements.

An example of customized layout is presented in Figure 4-29. A
combination of strip charts, TOFD, and pulse-echo B-scan allows you
to analyze data for defect discrimination in specific zones (R/D Tech
and PipeWIZARD systems).
Figure 4-29 Customized layout for TOFD and phased arrays: pulse-echo inspection
of pipeline and pressure vessel welds. Data is plotted on a specific weld profile.
4.5.2 Raster Scans

When the phased array probe is moving on both scan and index axes,
the ultrasound data is acquired in bidirectional or unidirectional
scanning pattern. This scan is called raster scan. It is mandatory to
control the acquisition on each axis, so the C-scan view (top) must be in
acquisition and analysis layouts. Other useful layouts can contain the
following views: VC S-scan, A-scan, C-scan, and B-scan (see Figure
4-30). Once you have selected from the VC S-scan the best A-scan for
detection, you may build a layout with A-, B-, C-, and D-scan views,
or a combination of five views.
Tip:
1. You can customize in TomoView up to eight layouts for an

efficient data analysis.
2. You can name and save the layouts either under acquisition
setup file (.acq) or under display setup file (.rst), when working
only in analysis mode (no hardware).

a b
VC S-Scan A-Scan
c d
C-Scan D-Scan
Figure 4-30 Example of analysis layout for crack sizing with L-waves: (a) VC S-scan;
(b) A-scan; (c) C-scan; (d) B-scan.

5. Ultrasound Settings, Calibration,
and Periodic Checking
A field inspection setup must contain the following main groups of

data related to:
• Ultrasound settings
• Focal laws
• Phased array probe
• Gates, DAC, DDF, I/O interfaces
• Inspection sequence
• Calibration (time-of-flight, sensitivity, motors, and encoders)
• Definition of acquisition and analysis layouts and views
Other operations, such as optimizing the parameters, customizing the

defect table, importing focal laws, exporting A-scan and C-scan data,
importing Microsoft® Excel data, merging files, and customizing the
report, may be added while building the setup file, during the
acquisition and/or data analysis and reporting.
Field inspection activities must also include pre-requisites such as:

checking the system overall features for repeatability or equipment
substitution, checking the probe integrity, checking the pulser-receiver
for malfunction, checking periodically the encoder calibration,
checking the emergency stop features for motor controller drive unit,
which commands the probe manipulator.
The inspection setup is saved under the .acq file name extension for
TomoView™ (Tomoscan FOCUS™ or Tomoscan III™ PA) or under
the .ops file name extension for OmniScan® PA.
R/D Tech Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic Checking 89

IMPORTANT
1. The technical problems presented in this chapter may be
performed by you only if you have access to the hardware and
software features.
2. For OmniScan: once a setup is locked, you can have access only
to the “User” features.
Ultrasound settings defined by TomoView and OmniScan software

are different and must be treated as separate entities.
5.1 Ultrasound Settings—TomoView

Ultrasound features for TomoView may be found under the UT
settings ( ) option, either on the Component or TomoView
Manager toolbars. The UT Settings dialog box contains three major
tabs: General, Digitizer, and Pulser/Receiver (see Figure 5-2). You
should start with Pulser/Receiver tab and define the inspection
configuration first. The ultrasound setting module includes also the
focal law calculator ( ) option (see chapter 2 for more
details).
Once you have selected the configuration, the other parameters must
be optimized according to probe-specific features and inspection
scope.
• Pulser pulse width must be adjusted to probe center frequency,

according to the following formula (see also Figure 5-1):
500
PW pulser [ns] = --------- [MHz]
fc
PWpulser [ns] × f c [MHz] = 500

500
450
400
PW pulser [ns] × f c [MHz] = 500

350
Pulser pulse width (ns)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Probe Center Frequency (MHz)
Figure 5-1 Pulser pulse width adjustment as function of probe center frequency. The
pulse width (negative square shape) must be set at 100 ns for a 5-MHz probe.
IMPORTANT
Start with the Pulser/Receiver tab. The phased-array
configuration must be chosen before adjusting the ultrasound
parameters (see Figure 5-2).

92
a
Chapter 5
b
Figure 5-2 Ultrasound setting tabs for TomoView and the recommended priorities: (a) Pulser/Receiver tab; (b) General tab; (c) Digitizer tab.
R/D Tech
Note: The compression parameter found in the Digitizer
tab applies only to the MultiScan MS5800™, TomoScan FOCUS
LT, and Tomoscan III units. There is no compression with the
Tomoscan FOCUS and µTomoscan units.
• Assuming that your configuration is phased array pulse echo, the

pulser voltage can be adjusted according to the recommended
values (see Table 5-1).
Table 5-1 Recommended pulser voltage value as function of probe pitch.
Probe pitch size (mm) Recommended voltage (V)

>1 140–180
0.5–1.0 90–130
<0.5 60–80
CAUTION
A voltage of 180–200 V on a small element of 0.3 mm / 10 MHz
probe will increase the amplitude by only 6–10 dB. The probe life
expectancy will decrease by a factor of 2.
• Use bipolar rectified signal option and the band-pass filters

according to probe frequencies:
– 2–10 MHz for f c ≤ 6 MHz
– 5–15 MHz for f c > 6 MHz

Tip:
1. Use FFT feature to find out the actual center frequency of the
probe on specimen; use this value for pulser pulse width value
and band-pass filter selection.
2. You may use 5–15 MHz filter window for lower frequency
probes. You will lose 14–20 dB in sensitivity, but the sizing
capability will be increased.
• Smoothing function is very important for image quality and crack

sizing. TomoView, in combination with Tomoscan FOCUS, has a
large variety of options. Pick up the option which may suit your
analysis purpose. An example of smoothing effect on crack sizing
and image quality is presented in Figure 5-3.
No smoothing 2 MHz smoothing
4 MHz smoothing 7.5 MHz smoothing
Figure 5-3 Influence of smoothing function on image quality for crack sizing and
detection of small inclusions; linear array probe of 7.6 MHz / pitch = 0.8 mm,
longitudinal waves.
The General tab is very important for the following reasons:
• Adjusting the proper ultrasound inspection window (start, range,

and mode)
• Adjusting the gain for each A-scan
• Performing the calibration

Tip:
1. Clear the All law check box and adjust the ultrasonic range for
each A-scan, according to your inspection critical window; this
action will decrease the file size and increase the acquisition
rate.
2. You may alter the hardware individual gain according to the
selected law.
The Digitizer tab allows the adjustment for digitizing frequency,

recurrence (PRF), number of averages, and acquisition rate (number
of A-scans acquired in one second).
• Digitizing frequency (MHz) is the reciprocal of time interval

required to sample an RF A-scan (see Figure 5-4). Digitizing
frequency determines the number of samples for a specific
inspection time-of-flight range.
TOF [µs] 1/digitizing frequency
Figure 5-4 Example of digitizing frequency of a RF-signal. Left: 16 samples; right:

8 samples for the same RF signal.
IMPORTANT
• Digitizing frequency must be 4–10 times higher than probe
center frequency.
• Set digitizing frequency at 10 × f c , when applying TOFD.
• A lower digitizing frequency will reduce the file size, but
you may have amplitude errors and limited sizing
capability of crack tips.

• Acquisition rate (Hz) represents the number of complete
acquisition sequences that the inspection system can perform in
one second.
Maximum acquisition rate depends on many features: acquisition
time of flight, averaging, digitizing frequency, recurrence, number
of A-scans, transfer rate, and compression values.
Acquisition rate determines the maximum scanning speed without
missing ultrasound data (see Figure 5-5).
IMPORTANT
Scanning speed
1. Acquisition rate > ------------------------------------------------
Scan axis resolution
2. If the same PRF is set for all A-scans, then:

Recurrence
Acquisition rate < ----------------------------------------------------
Number of focal laws
Acquisition rate > scanning speed

encoder resolutions
20 mm/s 10 mm/s
Figure 5-5 Example of the scanning speed influence on acquisition rate.
Acquisition rate is depending upon:
• UT parameters (delay, acquisition window)

• Number of “final” samples
• Number of averaging
• Practical “acoustic” recurrence
• Processing time (samples × 20 ns) for f dig < 50 MHz
• Context update time (8 µs)
• Number of channels

Acquisition rate depends on transfer rate and number of samples,
according to formula (5.1) [see Figure 5-6].
Transfer rate
Acquisition rate < ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (5.1)
n ( sample + 3 (C1) + 3 (C2) + 3 (peak A) m )
where:
Transfer rate = bytes/s

n = number of focal laws (A-scans)
3(C1) = valid only if C-scan data in gate 1 is saved
3(C2) = valid only if C-scan data in gate 2 is saved
3(peak A) = valid only if A-scan peak is saved
m = number of points
Figure 5-6 Dependence of acquisition rate on transfer rate, number of samples, and
saving mode.
• Averaging represents the number of A-scans recorded per

acquisition step. Only one A-scan (average) will be displayed for
all A-scans acquired.
Tip: Use averaging when inspecting materials with coarse

grain structure (copper, casting, titanium, stainless steel welds).
The noise value decreases with square root of average number.
For example: for averaging = 16, noise amplitude is decreasing
four times (−12 dB).
An example of acquisition rate dependence on ultrasound path,

digitizing frequency, averaging and angular resolution (number of
A-scans) is presented in Figure 5-8a.
• Recurrence (pulse repetition rate, PRF) [Hz] is the firing frequency
of ultrasound beam.
Recurrence depends on ultrasound path and averaging, according
to the following formula:
1
Recurrence < ----------------------------------------------------------------
( start + range ) × averaging
where start and range are time-of-flight values (in seconds) of

ultrasound inspection window input on the General tab.

Recurrence influences also the maximum acquisition rate. See an
example in Figure 5-8b.
Setting the correct PRF is very important to avoid the ghost echoes.
Ghost echoes are interference echoes due to a mismatching
between the recurrence (PRF) and acquisition window. A higher
PRF value will lead to a firing sequence too short. A firing sequence
consists of the following time of flight intervals (see Figure 5-7a):
– Delay (electronic + wedge/interface + test piece)
– Acquisition (useful range)
– Processing
– Update
The length of firing sequence is reciprocal of PRF/channel.
1/recurrence (µs)
Excitation pulse
Start Range
Wedge delay
Main acquisition gate
Ultrasound signal
Process ing
Update
Entrance in Signal
material vizualized
in A-scan
Time of flight (µs)
Figure 5-7a Firing sequence components for digitizing frequency <50 MHz
(TomoView).
An OmniScan example of ghost echoes due to a higher PRF is

presented in Figure 5-7b.
Setup:
– Linear array probe 16 elements: f = 6 MHz, pitch p = 0.6 mm
– Forging steel thickness of 120 mm with SDH of 2 mm diameter
at z = 90 mm
– Focal laws: 161 (from –40° to +40°; angular resolution 0.5°)
L-waves

Figure 5-7b Example of PRF influence on ghost echoes for OmniScan. Left:
PRF/channel = 50 Hz with ghost echoes at 105 mm and 80 mm; right: PRF/channel =
10 Hz — no ghost echo.
Tip: Ghost echoes may be avoided if you:
• Keep the minimum number of focal laws (A-scans).

• Optimize the PRF.
• Reduce the angular resolution.
• Optimize the number of averaging.
• Optimize the scanning range.
• Use 12-bit software palette (Tomoscan III PA) to limit the
number of channels for additional high-dynamic scanning.
• Set maximum PRF for ultrasonic context length and pre-check
the acquisition on semi-cylinder blocks for ghost echoes.
It is recommended to select the acquisition rate as large as possible,

when averaging number is larger than 4.

30 100
90
25
80
Acquisition rate
20 70
Acquisition rate
60
15
50
40
10
30
5
20
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
UT half path (mm) 10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Digitizing frequency [ MHz ]
120 30
100 25
80 20
Acquisition rate
Acquisition rate
60
15
40
10
20
5
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 0
0 4 8 12 16
Angular resolution (number A-scans)
Averaging
Figure 5-8a Example of acquisition rate dependence on ultrasound path length,

digitizing frequency, resolution of the sweep range, and averaging.
15
10
Acquisition rate
0
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Recurrence (PRF) [ Hz ]
Figure 5-8b Example of acquisition rate dependence on recurrence for the detection
of a fatigue crack with longitudinal waves.
Tip: Set the PRF as high as possible; use compression

and peak amplitude features to reduce the number of samples,
without losing the detection capability. The acquisition rate
and data transfer rate will increase (see Figure 5-9).

4:1 256 data points
9 data points
Figure 5-9 Example of compression at 4:1 ratio (left) and peak saving at 10%
threshold of A-scan (right).
Compression by n
The Tomoscan III PA offers a real-time data compression scheme that
can provide a reduction of file sizes and an increase of performance
without loosing relevant signal information for a variety of
applications. In TomoView 2.2, this data reduction factor is user-
selectable and can be as high as 64:1.
In Figure 5-9, the data compression is set to 4. Every 4 samples of the

initial waveform are replaced by one sample with the maximum
amplitude found in the four samples. The resulting sample interval is
thus 4 times longer than the initial sample interval, but the maximum
amplitude is preserved.
The advantage of this technique is the reduction of the number of data

points and thus the reduction of the number of data that has to be
transferred to the PC system through the Ethernet™ link. Secondly it
reduces the size of the acquisition file. This allows for the inspection of
larger areas and improves the file handling time for analysis.
Although the time resolution increases, the peak amplitude
information is preserved.
This method can be applied to a rectified signal (unsigned) or to a

non-rectified signal (signed). For a rectified signal, the technique
consists in keeping a sample on n (the sample kept is the one with the
maximum amplitude). For a non-rectified signal, two samples are
kept on n. The samples kept are the one with the maximum positive
amplitude and the one with maximum negative amplitude. If on
n samples, no negative samples are found, then simply keep two
times the maximum positive sample. If on n samples, no positive
samples are found, then simply keep two times the maximum
negative sample. Keeping two samples on n on the non-rectified
signal allows the user to keep the phase information on very
compressed signal.

5.2 Ultrasound Settings—OmniScan
The main OmniScan® ultrasound setting features are found under the
UT menu key (see Table 5-2). The configuration setup may be found
under PGM Probe > Configuration > Scan Type. Data display in
time, half path, or true depth may be found under Display > Rulers.
Table 5-2 OmniScan ultrasound settings.
UT
General Pulser Receiver Beam Advanced
Gain PPulser Receiver Gain Offset Set 80%
Start Tx/Rx Mode Filter Scan Offset Set Ref
Range Frequency Rectifier Index Offset dB Ref
Probe delay Voltage Video Filter Angle Points Qty
Wave Type PW Averaging Skew SumGain
Sound Velocity PRF Reject Beam Delay
IMPORTANT
1. PW (pulse width), PRF, and Points Qty are kept at “optimum”
for a higher acquisition rate to avoid the screen from freezing.
2. Set the Video Filter on On to improve the image quality. Video
filter has similar function as smoothing in TomoView (see
Figure 5-10).
3. OmniScan filters are fine-tuned for probe center frequency (see
Table 5-3).
Tip: Use high-resolution band-pass filters for sizing

defects in the first 10 mm ultrasound path.

Figure 5-10 Example of image quality improvement for OmniScan, in crack
detection. Left: video off and 5 MHz band-pass filter; right: video on and high-
resolution band-pass for fc > 4.5 MHz. The crack was undersized by 2 mm in the first
case.
Table 5-3 OmniScan band-pass filters for different probe center frequencies.
Probe center frequency Receiver band-pass filter

(MHz) frequency range (MHz)
General None (0.54–22)
1 0.4–1.7
1.5–2.25 1.1–3.4
4–5 3.1–7.5
7.5 4.2–11
10–12 5.5–15
15 6–21
20 10–22
>4.5 High-resolution (HR)
f > 4.5 MHz
>10 HR f > 10 MHz
Applied voltage is important for signal-to-noise ratio. An example of

crack display detected with 40 V and 80 V is presented in Figure 5-11.

a b
Figure 5-11 Crack detection and display with: (a) 40 V and (b) 80 V options.
5.3 Calibration Operations—Generic

Defect detection, sizing, and plotting are based on a proper calibration
of time-of-flight range and amplitude gain linearity for each
ultrasonic phased array equipment. The calibration may be performed
in three stages:
1. Phased array machine—by R/D Tech during the annual or

semiannual calibration and/or certification.
2. Phased array probe—using probe characterization module—by
your lab; checking interval and which specific features must be
certified depending on inspection problem.
3. System calibration; overall checking of minimum features for
repeatability and equipment substitution.
Probe features and probe characterization were presented in
chapter 2. Phased array ultrasonic instrument must be calibrated by
R/D Tech. The minimum features of the system (probe and
instrument) which must be certified a priori the field inspection to
commence are listed in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4 Recommended minimum features for combined equipment

characterization.
Feature Checking Tolerances

interval
Linearity of equipment Weekly* See Table 5-5.
gain
Linearity of time base Weekly* ±2% of UT path range
Probe index Daily** ±1 mm (CEN); ±2 mm
Beam angle Daily** ±2° versus programmed

Table 5-4 Recommended minimum features for combined equipment
characterization. (Cont.)
Feature Checking Tolerances

interval
Sensitivity and signal-to- Daily** ±6 dB within family or
noise ratio from previous
measurement
Pulse duration Daily** ±50% CEN; ±0.5λ ASME
*Or each time the equipment is used, whichever is greater.
**Or before inspection starts.
5.3.1 Vertical Linearity

The method and acceptance limits for vertical linearity may differ from
standard to standard (see an example in Figure 5-12 and Figure 5-13).
The acceptance tolerances on specific range are also different (see
Table 5-5).
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Amplitude 1st hole [HA-% FSH]
65
60
55
50
45
26 dB SDHA
40
35
30
25
20
SDHB
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Amplitude 2nd hole [HB-% FSH ]
Figure 5-12 Vertical linearity checking on two side-drilled holes and acceptance limits
according to ASTM E 317-01 (USA).

110
100
90
80
Amplitude measured [ % FSH ]
70
60
26 dB
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Amplitude ideal [ % FSH ]
Figure 5-13 Vertical linearity acceptance limits according to EN 12668-3:2000

(European Community).
Table 5-5 Acceptance values for gain linearity according to different standards.
Standard or code Full screen height range Tolerances

ASME V, article V 20%–100% [20 dB range] ±5%
ASTM E 317 5%–100% [26 dB range] ±6%
CEN 5%–100% [26 dB range] ±2%
DIN 10%–90% [19 dB range] ±2%
It is recommended to use reference blocks with known reflectors (FBH

or SDH) located at specific depth (see Figure 5-14). These reflectors
will produce signals with amplitude in a 2:1 ratio (6 dB). You have to
adjust the gain according to standard or procedure. Read the height of
these echoes and apply the tolerances for acceptance. Example of
vertical linearity for OmniScan is presented in Figure 5-14.

Tip:
1. Use the OmniScan configuration in UT mode (.opu).
2. Calibrate 0–100 mm LW in steel (5950 m/s-IIW).

3. Use the zoom scrolling bar for a better display and reading of
the signals from FBHA and FBHB.
Figure 5-14 Linearity acrylic block with flat-bottom holes (FBH) used for vertical
linearity checking with an attached monocrystal probe; example of OmniScan results
within ±0.3 dB over a dynamic range of 26 dB (from 5% FSH to 100% FSH).
IMPORTANT
In order to get a reliable vertical linearity measurement, the
adjustable instrument gain must be within ±0.6 dB accuracy over
the full dynamic range (see Figure 5-15). This feature is measured
in electronic lab, during annual calibration and/or certification of
phased array ultrasonic instrument.

Gain setting (dB)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
0.8
0.6
Deviation (dB)
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 5-15 Example of instrument gain checking over the range 0 dB–70 dB.
5.3.2 Horizontal Linearity

Horizontal linearity of the instrument must be performed over a
specific range (for example, 250 mm in steel, longitudinal waves, on
IIW block). The multiple echoes must be located within tolerances
(generally 2% of the ultrasound range).
Figure 5-16 represents two examples of time base linearity checking

for 0–100 mm and 0–250 mm in steel on IIW (International Institute of
Welding) block for longitudinal waves.
Figure 5-16 Checking the time base linearity for OmniScan on IIW block—
thickness = 25 mm. Left: 0–100 mm; right: 0–250 mm.

Tip:
1. Use the zoom bar to get an accurate reading for time base and
amplitude.
2. Use the appropriate band-pass filters and smoothing to

optimize the rectified A-scan.
3. Use the time-of-flight / half path equivalent factor (see Table
5-6) to get a correct calibration.
Table 5-6 Equivalent time-of-flight delay [µs] / half path [mm] for different materials.
Water: 1:0.75 Plexiglas®: 1:1.37 Steel SW: 1: 1.6 Zircaloy™ SW: 1:1.18
Rexolite®: 1:1.17 Steel LW: 1:3.0 Glycerine: 1:0.92 Copper LW: 1:2.3
Solved problem. The time base calibration for steel LW is offset to the
right by 1.5 mm. Which delay must be added for a correct calibration?
Answer. The equivalent delay in microseconds is:
1
1.5 mm × --- = 0.5 µs
3
Index point, refracted angle, SNR, and pulse duration measurement

were discussed in chapter 2. Some hints are given in section 5.6 and in
chapter 6.
During the inspection you may experience adversative conditions,

such as component surface conditions (roughness, painting, coated,
curved, clad), accessibility for optimum detection and sizing, limited
probe movement, or case size.
You have to make sure that the following minimum conditions are
met:
• Location of indication must be within ±5 mm errors (practically

achievable) for 99.5% of your events.
• Sensitivity must be the same (within ±2 dB) regardless of the
ultrasound path and the refracted angle of the sectorial scan.
The next two sections detail specific calibration requirements and
steps for TomoView™ and OmniScan to meet the above mentioned
conditions.

5.4 Calibration Operations—Specific to
TomoView
This section presents calibration operations that are specific to
TomoView (see more details in selected reference 2, chapter 17, and
reference 3, chapters 17 and 19).
The calibration in phased array mode is performed for the following

features:
• Focal law delay (time of flight)

• Sensitivity (reference % FSH)
• DAC
• Position-reading encoders
When you activate the button on the Main toolbar, the Phased
Array Calibration dialog box appears (see Figure 5-17).
Figure 5-17 The Phased Array Calibration dialog box in TomoView. Example of
focal law delay calibration for a reflector located at 10-mm depth.
The Focal Law Delay tab provides a calibration window for delays.
Vertical axis represents the UT range (mm, µs) between reference and
measurement cursors. Horizontal axis represents the number of
A-scans (focal laws).
The Sensitivity and DAC tabs contain display boxes with signal
amplitude (% FSH) on vertical axis and number of focal laws on
horizontal axis (see Figure 5-18).

Figure 5-18 The Sensitivity (top) and DAC construction (bottom) tabs for amplitude
calibration (gain compensation) in TomoView.
IMPORTANT
1. The DAC function must be enabled from the UT Settings
dialog box.
2. Calibration must be performed for each channel built for

specific inspection setup.
3. Follow the step-by-step procedure for each feature described

in TomoView 2 Reference Manual, at sections 17.3.1–17.3.4.
The Calibration Check tab (see Figure 5-19) is used to build reflector
parameters and to check the calibration results.
Figure 5-19 The TomoView Calibration Check tab.
An example of calibration for LW sectorial scan from −35° to 35° on

side-drilled holes is presented in Figure 5-20 to Figure 5-22.

reference cursor
measurement cursor
–35˚ Step = 2˚ +35˚ –35˚ +35˚
Figure 5-20 Reflector selection between reference and measurement cursors. Probe
must be moved, so all laws can detect the side-drilled hole.
Clear the previous trace and scan the reflector. The depth-law display
is presented in Figure 5-21. Click Calibrate.
Repeat operations with Sensitivity and DAC tab following the

TomoView procedure. Set the reference amplitude at 80% FSH. An
example of sensitivity results is presented in Figure 5-22.
Figure 5-21 TomoView display of position laws for 36 A-scans.
Figure 5-22 TomoView display of amplitude laws for 36 A-scans (see example in
Figure 5-21).
Phased array TOFD calibration dialog box (Figure 5-23) must be used
when the configuration for phased array probes is pitch-and-catch
and the units are chosen in TOFD option. More details about TOFD
method are found in chapter 6 and in reference 3, chapter 19. Follow
the step-by-step procedure on how to build the multichannel setup
and how to perform nonlinear calibration. For an accurate calibration,
you must place the reference and measurement cursors on lateral

waves and back-wall RF signals, which are phase-reversed (see Figure
5-24).
Figure 5-23 The TOFD calibration dialog boxes in TomoView.
Lateral wave Back wall L-LW Back wall L-SW
Figure 5-24 Calibration of TOFD time base using lateral waves and back-wall RF
signals.

Encoder calibration is an important operation for automatic and
semiautomatic data acquisition. The encoder calibration is found
under the Encoders tab of the Inspection Sequences and Mechanical
Settings dialog box (see Figure 5-25). Set a known distance (100 mm /
4 in.) and use the prompts from the Calibration tab (see Figure 5-26).
Figure 5-25 TomoView Encoder tab and Calibration of Encoder dialog box.
100 mm
100
Axis orientation
Distance [mm (inch)] = encoder steps x encoder resolution [steps / mm (inch)]
Figure 5-26 Principle of encoder calibration. Repeat the operation to match the
actual distance till your error is acceptable (for example, 0.5 mm / 100 mm distance).

Tip:
1. Set the encoder resolution (sampling sequence) > encoder

error.
2. Use hysteresis correction for motion backlash (see Figure 5-27).
Figure 5-27 Example of hysteresis correction of C-scan data. Left: raw data missing
points due to backlash; right: using hysteresis correction.
MCDU-02™ (Motor Control Drive Unit) settings may be found under

the MCDU Control tab of the Inspection Sequences and Mechanical
Settings dialog box (see Figure 5-28).
Figure 5-28 TomoView MCDU Control tab and Advanced Settings option.
WARNING
1. Before proceeding to Advanced Settings, contact our specialist
in MCDU-02 and motor controller.
2. The short procedure for fine-tuning the KP, KD, and KI
advanced parameters is a general one; it is not a specific
procedure for your equipment.
3. Make sure the emergency stop button is activated through
three-way mode (software, MCDU-02, and scanner).

Advanced settings of MCDU are carried out through the options of
the Advanced MCDU Control dialog box (see Figure 5-29).
Figure 5-29 The TomoView Advanced MCDU Control dialog box and its options.
KP (proportional gain) controls the gain of the loop system. KI (integral gain) improves
the system accuracy. KD (derivative gain) reduces the delay associated with motor
response.
Fine tuning of KP, KI, and KD parameters depends on your inspection

sequence and speed tuning. Consult our specialist and send us your
.acq and .scn files (MCDU-02 scanning file). The following procedure
is just a recommendation for manually fine-tuning the parameters:
1. Set KI = 1, KP = 1, and KD = 100.

2. Increase KD until the motor stops vibrating.
3. Set KD to half of the value determined in step 2.
4. Increase KP until the motor stops vibrating.*
5. Increase KI until the accuracy is improved.
KD
*Typically KP value should not be greater than -------- .
4
5.5 Calibration Operations—Specific to

OmniScan
This section presents calibration operations that are specific to
OmniScan (see more details in selected reference 6, chapters 9 and 10).
Calibration of main parameters (time base, sensitivity, time-corrected

gain, encoders) can be found under the Calibration menu (see Figure
5-30).
Calibration menu
Apply
Action
Phased Property 1
Array Property 2
Property 3
Property 4
Apply
Action
Property 1
Axis
Property 2
Encoder 1 Pos
Encoder 2 Pos
Apply
Action
Property 1
TCG
Property 2
Property 3
Apply
Action
Property 1
Code
Property 2
Property 3
Figure 5-30 OmniScan Calibration menu.
The main features you should calibrate are listed below:
• Angle beam or Zero degree time base

• Angle beam or Zero degree sensitivity
• Sound velocity
• Wedge delay
• TCG (time-corrected gain)
• DAC curve and gain setting
• Encoder calibration (semiautomatic scan)
The step-by-step procedures are detailed in reference 6, chapters 9
and 10.
This method is similar to the one used with TomoView, but it is

simplified and closer to conventional ultrasonic methods.

An example of sensitivity calibration is presented in Figure 5-31.
Figure 5-31 Example of sensitivity calibration of phased array laws on IIW block.
IMPORTANT
1. You have to use the gate over the reflector chosen as reference
target.
2. You have to use two ultrasound paths (semicylindrical
reference blocks) to measure the velocity. You must set gate B
over the second reflector.
An example of DAC and TCG verification using the A-scan envelope

is presented in Figure 5-32.

Figure 5-32 Example of DAC and TCG checking using A-scan envelope.
5.6 Periodic On-Site Equipment Checking

Phased array pulser-receiver boards can be checked by using an
arrow point generator with a Hypertronics® BQUS002 connector for
Tomoscan FOCUS™ and Tomoscan III™ PA in pulse-echo mode, or
BQUS009 connector (see Figure 5-33) for pitch-and-catch
configuration. A specific double-arrow pattern will be displayed
when R/D Tech setup file is loaded (see Figure 5-34).
Figure 5-33 Black box Hypertronics® BQUS009A connector for pitch-and-catch

pulser-receiver checking (Tomoscan FOCUS), and BQUS002A for pitch-and-catch
checking (Tomoscan FOCUS and Tomoscan III).
Figure 5-34 Example of pulser-receiver integrity checking for Tomoscan FOCUS and
Tomoscan III using TomoView and BQSU002A electronic checking box for pulse-echo
configuration. Left: double-arrow good display; right: double-arrow display for specific
pulsers and receivers with malfunctions (white strips).

OmniScan checking of 16 pulsers and 128 receivers is made with
R/D Tech BQUS012A adapter (see Figure 5-35).
Figure 5-35 BQUS012A adapter used for OmniScan checking of pulser-receivers in

conjunction with Selftest 8PR.ops setup.
A pulser-receiver self-check for OmniScan is presented in Figure 5-36.
Figure 5-36 Example of pulser-receiver integrity check for OmniScan 16 pulsers and
128 receivers using BQUS012A electronic checking box. Left: double-arrow good
display; right: double-arrow display for specific pulsers and receivers with malfunction
(white strips).
IMPORTANT
If you have a custom-built phased array instrument
(configuration), please contact R/D Tech specialists for black-box
electronic setup, and checking and display setup file.
5.6.1 Integrity of Probe Elements Checking

Build a linear scanning configuration for longitudinal waves at 0° (see
Figure 5-37 for TomoView™ and Figure 5-38 for OmniScan®).

Figure 5-37 Linear scanning for element and/or electrical connection integrity:
(a) principle; (b) focal laws for a 32-element probe; (c) S-scan display of a linear
phased array probe with 10 “dead” elements; (d) S-scan.
OPS setup for probe checking:

• configuration: linear
• angle = 0°
• velocity: LW
• element quantity: 1
• first element = 1
• last element = 32
• element step = 1
Figure 5-38 Example of OmniScan linear setup for checking the integrity of 32-
element linear array probe. In this example, the screwdriver is on element 27 (red
strip).
5.6.2 DDF Board Functionality Checking

Dynamic depth focusing (DDF) is a programmable, real-time array
response on reception by modifying the delay line, the gain, and the
excitation of each element as a function of time. DDF replaces multiple
focal laws for the same focal range by the convolution of the emitted
beam with separate “focused beams” at the receiving stage. DDF
dynamically changes the depth of field, signal-to-noise ratio, and
near-surface (see Figure 5-39).

Emission Reception Pulse-echo
t0
t1
t2
t3
=
tn
Acquisition time
Figure 5-39 Principle of dynamic depth focusing (DDF) (top), and comparison
between standard focusing and DDF for longitudinal waves with a range of 10–
100 mm (bottom).
The proper functionality of DDF board in advanced mode is

performed by R/D Tech as part of annual calibration operations.
However, in the field, the checking of DDF feature (the board) can be
performed quickly and reliably on stacked side-drilled holes using
longitudinal waves and/or shear waves and azimuthal S-scan. The
checking procedure is detailed below:
1. Use 1-D planar linear array probe of 32 elements, pitch of 1 mm,

frequency of 5 MHz, BW of 80% in LW mode.
2. Drill stacked holes of 1.5 mm, spaced apart 10–15 mm over a range
of 10–70 mm in a representative block; the length of these SDH
should be greater than 40 mm.
3. Use the focal law calculator to create a DDF setup for depth range
of 10–70 mm and sweep range of 10°–60° by steps of 0.5° with a
focal depth of 40 mm.
4. Run a line scan of 20 mm maximum over the reflectors and save the
data.
5. Clear the DDF check box and replace the DDF setup with standard
focus at F = 40 mm.
6. Repeat the scanning pattern and save the data.
7. Compare the files in S-scan and VC B-scan for the upper part of the
range (10–40 mm).
DDF display must show narrower beam spread over the SDH,
within 1–3 mm versus the focal depth spot. Standard focus
displays a very wide near-surface beam envelope (see Figure 5-40).

Figure 5-40 Checking the proper functionality of DDF board (left) by comparison with
standard focusing (right). Beam width in the range of 10–30 mm should be narrower
by a factor 2:1.
5.6.3 Refracted Angle and Index Point Checking

Refracted angle and index point may be checked in the field by a quick-
and-reliable method by using a block with side-drilled holes of known
depths, and with an engraved angle and index location (see Figure
5-41).
Tip:
1. Use a certified block, such as IIW-type 2, IOW, or AWS, made

from a representative material (same velocity ±30 m/s) as the
component to be inspected.
2. Use VC S-scan angle, and the four cursors (index, depth,
measurement, and reference) to have a repeatable evaluation.

Figure 5-41 Checking the refracted angle and the index point on reference blocks
with engraved angle values. Top: L-waves on IIW-no. 2 for TomoView on (Rompas B1
metric); bottom: S-waves on IOW block.

6. Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas
This chapter presents useful tables, charts, and formulas.
6.1 Constants and Useful Formula Tables
Table 6-1 Main ultrasonic features and their definition or relationship.
Feature Definition / formula / units / remarks
E(1 – µ) 0.5
v L = ------------------------------------------ [m/s; mm/s; in./s]
ρ ( 1 + µ ) ( 1 – 2µ )
where:
Longitudinal E = modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)
(compression)
[N/m2]
velocity (Table
6-2) ρ = mass density [kg/m3]
( E – 2G )
µ = Poisson’s ratio; µ = ----------------------
2G
G = shear modulus [N/m2]
Transverse E 0.5
(shear) velocity v T = ------------------------ [m/s; mm/s; in./s]
2ρ ( 1 + µ )
(Table 6-2)
Rayleigh ( 0.87 + 1.12µ )

v R = ------------------------------------ v T [m/s; mm/s; in./s]
velocity (1 + µ)
n
f = --- ; number of oscillations in a specific time
t
10 6
Frequency interval; MHz = 10 6 Hz = -------- ;
s
c
also: f = ---
λ
R/D Tech Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas 125

Table 6-1 Main ultrasonic features and their definition or relationship. (Cont.)

v PL
λ = -- ; also: λ = -------- [mm/in.]
f CN
Wavelength
(Table 6-3) PL = pulse length ( v • ∆τ –20 dB ) [mm/in.]
CN = cycle number
( D2 – λ2 ) D2 f
Near-field N 0 = ------------------------ ; N 0 = --------- [mm/in.] for
4λ 4v
length
(circular) [see D
---- > 10
Table 6-4] λ
D = active crystal diameter [mm/in.]
Near-field k L2 f
length N rectangular = ---------------- [mm/in.]
(rectangular) 4v
[see Table 6-5]
D2 f cos β 2
N eff = ⎛ ---------⎞ • ⎛ ------------⎞ [mm/in.]
⎝ 4v ⎠ ⎝ cos α⎠
for disc-shaped crystal;
L cos β 2
k ⎛ ----------------⎞ f l
⎝ cos α ⎠ wedge v test piece
N eff = ----------------------------------- – -------------------------------------
-
4v test piece v wedge
for rectangular probe on wedge;
Near-field D = active crystal diameter [mm/in.]
length α = incident (wedge) angle [°]
(effective)
β = refracted angle in test piece [°]
L = crystal length [mm/in.]
lwedge = UT path in wedge [mm/in.]
vwedge = velocity in the wedge [m/s; mm/µs;
in./µs]
vtestpiece = velocity in the test piece [m/s;
mm/µs; in./µs]
k = near-field correction factor (Figure 6-1)
2k free-field λz
Φ – ∆dB = -------------------------------
- [1] [mm/in.] (see Figure
D
Beam diameter 6-2)
(circular) z = UT path [mm/in.];
λz-
Φ (–6 dB) PE = -----
D

Table 6-1 Main ultrasonic features and their definition or relationship. (Cont.)

2k free-field λz
Φ ( – ∆dB )W = -------------------------------
- [mm/in.] (see
Beam width W
(rectangular) Figure 6-3)
W = crystal width [mm/in.]
2k free-field λz
Beam length Φ ( – ∆dB )L = -------------------------------
- [mm/in.] (see Figure
(rectangular) L
6-3)
k – ∆ dB λ
γ – ∆dB = asin ⎛ -------------------⎞ [rad/°];
⎝ D ⎠
Half-angle
0.5λ
beam γ (–3 dB) free field = γ (–6 dB) pulse-echo ≈ -----------
divergence D
(circular) [rad / °] (see Figure 6-2)
k−∆dB = half-angle beam divergence
constant[1]
Half-angle γ (–6 dB)L = asin ( 0.44λ ⁄ L ) [rad/°]

beam
divergence γ (–6 dB)W = asin ( 0.44λ ⁄ W ) [rad/°] (see Figure
(rectangular) 6-3)
Z = v • ρ [kg/m2 s = Rayl]
Acoustic
impedance (generally 106 [MRayl])
[Table 6-2]
Reflection ( Z2 – Z1 )
R = -----------------------
-
coefficient ( Z1 + Z2 )
Transmission 2Z2
T = -----------------------
-
coefficient ( Z1 + Z2 )
Transmission 4Z 1 Z 2
∆G transmission = – 10 log 10 --------------------------- [dB]
loss ( Z1 + Z2 )2
sin α = v----1-
-----------
Snell’s law (see Figure 6-4 to Figure 6-8)
sin β v2

Table 6-2 Mass density, velocity, and acoustic impedance for the most commonly
used and tested materials.
Mass Velocity Velocity Acoustic

Material density [LW] [SW] impedance
kg/m3 m/s m/s 106 kg/m2s
Liquid couplant / wedge material
Water 1,000 1,480 - 1.48
Heavy water 1,104 1,400 - 1.55
Glycerin 1,260 1,920 - 2.42
[Hamikleer®]
Motor oil 870 1,740 - 1.51
Acrylic resin 1,180 2,730 1,430 3.22
Lucite® 1,180 2,680 1,260 3.16
Plexiglas® 1,270 2,730 - 3.51
Polystyrene 1,056 2,340 - 2.47
[Rexolite®]
Test piece
Aluminum 2,700 6,320 3,130 2,905
Brass 8,560 4,280 2,030 36.64
Copper 8,930 4,660 2,260 41.61
Gold 19,320 3,240 1,200 62.60
Inconel® 8,500 5,820 3,020 49.47
Iron cast-slow 6,950 3,500 2,200 25
Iron cast-fast 7,350 5,600 3,200 40
Monel® 8,830 5,350 2,720 47.24
Steel 1020 7,710 5,890 3,240 45.41
Steel, austenitic 7,910 5,740 3,090 45.40
Titanium 4,500 6,070 3,110 2,790
Tungsten 19,250 5,180 2,870 99.72
Zircaloy® 6,500 4,686 2,360 30.46
Source: ASNT Nondestructive Testing Handbook, volume 7 “Ultrasonic

Testing,” 2nd edition, 1991, p. 836–839.

Table 6-3 Wavelength for the most commonly used and tested materials in industrial
UT inspection.
Wavelength
Frequency
L-waves S-waves
[MHz]
[mm] [in.] [mm] [in.]
Water [couplant]
1 1.5 0.059 - -
2 0.75 0.030 - -
4 0.4 0.016 - -
5 0.3 0.012 - -
10 0.15 0.006 - -
Glycerin (Hamikleer®) [couplant]
1 1.9 0.075 - -
2 0.95 0.037 - -
4 0.48 0.019 - -
5 0.38 0.015 - -
10 0.19 0.008 - -
Plexiglas® [wedge]
1 2.7 0.106 - -
2 1.35 0.053 - -
4 0.75 0.030 - -
5 0.54 0.021 - -
10 0.27 0.011 - -
Rexolite® [wedge]
1 2.3 0.091 - -
2 1.15 0.045 - -
4 0.58 0.023 - -
5 0.46 0.018 - -
10 0.23 0.009 - -
Steel [test piece]
1 5.9 0.232 3.2 0.126
2 3 0.118 1.6 0.063
4 1.5 0.059 0.8 0.032
5 1.2 0.047 0.6 0.024
10 0.6 0.024 0.3 0.012
Aluminum [test piece]
1 6.1 0.240 3 0.118
2 3 0.118 1.5 0.059
4 1.5 0.059 0.8 0.032
5 1.2 0.047 0.6 0.024
10 0.6 0.024 0.3 0.012

Table 6-4 Near-field length for circular crystal [in millimeters].
Frequency
Crystal diameter [mm]
[MHz]
5 6 10 12 20 24
Water; LW; v = 1.5 mm/s
1 4.2 6 17 24 68 96
2 8.4 12 34 48 136 192
4 17 24 68 96 272 384
5 21 30 85 120 340 480
10 42 60 170 240 680 920
Steel; LW; v = 5.9 mm/s
1 1 1.5 4 6 16 24
2 2 3 8 12 32 48
4 4 6 16 24 64 96
5 5 7. 20 30 80 120
10 10 15 40 60 160 240
Steel; SW; v = 3.2 mm/ s
1 2 3 8 12 32 48
2 4 6 16 24 64 96
4 8 12 32 48 128 192
5 10 15 40 60 160 240
10 20 30 80 120 320 480
Copper; LW; v = 4.7 mm/s
1 1.3 2 5 8 20 32
2 2.6 4 10 16 40 64
4 5 8 20 32 80 128
5 6.5 10 26 40 104 160
10 13 20 52 80 208 320
Aluminum; LW; v = 6.3 mm/s
1 1 1.4 4 6 16 24
2 2 3 8 12 32 48
4 4 6 16 24 64 96
5 5 7 20 30 80 120
10 10 14 40 60 160 240

Table 6-5 Near-field length [mm × mm] and half-angle divergence beam at −6 dB [°]
of rectangular crystals — shear waves in steel (v = 3,250 m/s).
Frequency 6×6 8×9 16 × 16 20 × 22

[MHz] N0 γ N0 γ N0 γ N0 γ
1 N/A N/A 8 10 32 5 45 4
2 9 6 15 5 64 2.5 90 2
4 N/A N/A 30 2.5 128 1.2 180 1
5 20 2.5 40 2 160 1 225 0.8
6.2 Ultrasonic Field Graphs

This section presents ultrasonic field graphs.
1.5
1.45
W
1.4
Near-field correction factor k
1.35
L
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Width / Length ratio
Figure 6-1 Near-field correction factor dependence on W/L ratio. The red arrows for
k evaluation to be used for example from page 132.

X = πD γ / λ
–20 dB
–6 dB
z
D
Φ–20 dB
γ–6 dB
Φ–6 dB
γ–20 dB
x
Φ−∆dB = 2kfree-fieldλz/D
Figure 6-2 Half-angle beam divergence and beam diameter definition for circular
crystal.
y
x
Φ∆dB (width)
γ width
Φ−∆dB (length)
z
γ length
W
L
Figure 6-3 Half-angle beam divergence and beam diameter definition for rectangular
crystal.
Example
Probe characteristics:
• Frequency = 5 MHz
• Length = 25 mm
• Width = 20 mm
Given Wedge characteristics:
• Material = Rexolite® (v = 2,330 m/s)

• Angle = 30°
• UT beam in the wedge = 10 mm
Specimen: carbon steel, shear wave (vT = 3,250 m/s)

a) Find the effective near-field length.
Asked b) Half-angle beam divergence at −6 dB (pulse-echo)
c) Beam dimensions (at −6 dB drop PE) at z = 200 mm
Solution
a) Snell’s law gives an angle of 45° in steel (see Figure 6-6).
L cos β 2
k ⎛ ----------------⎞ f l
⎝ cos α ⎠ wedge v test piece
N eff = ----------------------------------- – -------------------------------------
-
4v test piece v wedge
For W/L = 20 mm / 25 mm = 0.8 Æ k = 1.15 (see Figure 6-1)

Neff =170 mm
b) γ (–6 dB)L = asin ( 0.44λ ⁄ W ) [rad/°]
λ5 MHz/TW/steel = 0.6 mm
γ (–6 dB)L = asin [ 0.44 ( 0.6 mm ⁄ 25 mm ) ] = 0.6°
γ (–6 dB)W = asin [ 0.44 ( 0.6 mm ⁄ 20 mm ) ] = 0.7°
c) Φ ( – ∆dB )w = 2k free-field λz ⁄ W
= 2 • 0.44 • 0.6 mm • 200 mm ⁄ 20 mm
Φ ( – ∆dB )L = 2k free-field λz ⁄ L
= 2 • 0.44 • 0.6 mm • 200 mm ⁄ 25 mm
Φ ( – ∆dB )w = 5.3 mm
Φ ( – ∆dB )L = 4.2 mm

6.3 Snell’s Law
This section describes the Snell’s law.
α
a b
α
v1/v2 = sinα / sin β

v 1 < v2 v1 < v2
β β
First critical angle Second critical angle > First critical angle
90° LW 90° SW
l l
Figure 6-4 Snell’s law principle for: (a) v1 < v2 and (b) v1 > v2 (top); 1st and 2nd
critical angle definition (bottom).
Snell’s law for Plexiglas®-steel

80
70
60
50
Angle in steel [ degrees ]
40
30
20
S-waves
10
L-waves
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Angle in Plexiglas® [ degrees ]
Figure 6-5 Snell’s law for Rexolite-mild carbon steel.

Snell’s law for Rexolite and steel
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
L-waves
10 S-waves
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Angle in Rexolite [ degrees ]
Figure 6-6 Snell’s law for Plexiglas-mild carbon steel.
Snell’s law for water-steel

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
L-waves
10
S-waves
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Angle in water [ degrees ]
Figure 6-7 Snell’s law for water-mild carbon steel.

Snell’s law water-aluminum
90
80
Angle in aluminum [ degrees ]
70
60
50
40
30
20
L-waves
10 S -waves
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Angle in water [ degrees ]
Figure 6-8 Snell’s law for water-aluminum.
6.4 Detectability Curves

Defect detection is possible only within the detectability region
boundaries. Detectability region is defined by the following curves (see
Figure 6-9):
1. Near-surface resolution (dead zone): NSR

2. Attenuation curve: ATTN
3. Overall noise curve: NOISE
4. Back-wall divergence curve: BW

Detectability region
Defect size (mm)

3
2
1
ATTN
Gain (dB)
Guseful
Greserve
NSR NOISE
Ultrasound half path (mm)
Figure 6-9 Definition of detectability region.
IMPORTANT
Outside the detectability region, a discontinuity is not detected.
6.5 Reflectors and Reflectivity Laws

Reflectivity laws express the amplitude dependence on reflector size,
location (UT path), and wavelength.
Table 6-6 lists the acoustic pressure dependence for the most
commonly used reflectors. Amplitude dependence on size and
distance ratio for mainly used reflectors is presented in Figure 6-10
and Figure 6-11. Flat-bottom hole is the most sensitive reflector when
UT path and/or reflector size is changing. For example, if we double
the distance and decrease the reflector size by a factor of 2, the
amplitude is changed:
• −24 dB for FBH [DGS (AVG)—distance gain size]

• −12 dB for SDH [DAC (ASME)—distance-amplitude correction
curve]
• −18 dB for notch [distance-size (length × height)—correction curve]

Table 6-6 Reflectivity pattern for small reference reflectors.
Reflector type Reflectivity law [far-field] dependence

FBW (counter-bore)
λ -1 UT path
-1
SDH (lack of penetration)

0.5 λ -1 UT -1.5
½D SDH path
FBH normal (smooth crack) 2
D FBH λ -2 UT path
-2
Edge from misoriented crack 0.5a 0.5

K ( ε ) λ -1 UT path
-1 ------------------------------------------
-
( a – UT path cos β )
Elliptical EDM notch—normal
H notch λ -1.5 UT path
-1.5
Small sphere (porosity)

Φ sphere λ -1 UT path
-2
where:
UTpath = half-path
λ = wavelength
DSDH / FBH / sphere= diameter of [SDH, FBH, sphere]
Hnotch = notch height
a =radius of curvature of crack edge
K(ε) = diffraction coefficient
ε = angle between incident ray and crack surface

25
FBH
20
Notch
Amplitude [dB]
15
10
SDH
5
0
1 2 3 4
Size ratio
Figure 6-10 Amplitude dependence on reflector distance ratio for flat-bottom hole
(FBH), side-drilled hole (SDH), and notch.
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

0
-5
Flat BW
Amplitude [dB]
-10
-15
SDH/Notch
-20
FBH
-25
UT path ratio
Figure 6-11 Amplitude dependence on UT path ratio for flat-bottom hole (FBH), side-
drilled hole (SDH) or notch, and flat back wall (BW).

6.6 Axial and Lateral Resolutions
Axial resolution is the minimum distance along the acoustic axis—for
the same angle—for which two adjacent defects located at different
depths are clearly displayed by amplitude decay of more than 6 dB
from peak-to-valley (see Figure 6-12). The axial resolution formula is
given by:
∆z = v test piece [mm/µs] • ∆τ –20 dB [µs] ⁄ 2 , or PL ⁄ 2 [mm]
A shorter pulse duration (high-damped probe) will produce a better

axial resolution. Axial resolution is evaluated for a static probe
position.
Axial resolution
∆z = vtest piece • ∆τ –20 dB / 2
∆z
–6 dB
z [ UT half path ]
Figure 6-12 Axial resolution definition.
Lateral resolution is the minimum distance between two adjacent

defects located at the same depths, which produce amplitudes clearly
separated by, at least, 6 dB from peak to valley (see Figure 6-13). The
probe is moving. Lateral resolution depends on beam width, or beam
diameter, evaluated by an echo-dynamic method:
Φ -6 dB
∆d = ---------------
- [mm]
4

Lateral resolution
∆d = Φ–6 dB / 4
> 6 dB
poor good
Figure 6-13 Lateral resolution dependence on beam diameter (width).
Example
Find the axial and lateral resolution, for a UT path of 100 mm for two
circular probes (LW in steel) with the following characteristics:
Probe no. 1: fc = 5 MHz; BWrel = 50%; −20 dB = 0.8 s; D = 12.7 mm
Probe no. 2: fc = 10 MHz; BWrel = 90%; −20 dB = 0.2 s; D = 25.4 mm
Solution
a) vL = 5,920 m/s; vL = 5.92 mm/µs
b) λ1 = 1.18 mm; No1 = D2 f / 4vL = 34 mm
λ2 = 1.18 mm; No2 = 136 mm
c) PL1 = 5.92 mm/µs × 0.8 µs = 4.7 mm;
Φ(−6 dB) 1 = λ1z / D1 = 9.3 mm
d) PL2 = 5.92 mm/µs × 0.2 µs = 1.18 mm; Φ(−6 dB) 2 = 4.7 mm
Answer
Axial resolution:
∆z5 MHz = PL1 / 2 = 4.7 mm / 2 = 2.4 mm

∆z10 MHz = 1.18 mm / 2 = 0.6 mm
Lateral resolution:
∆d5 MHz = 9.3 mm / 4 = 2.3 mm

∆d10 MHz = 4.7 mm / 4 = 1.2 mm

Tip: In conclusion, a probe with a higher frequency, a
higher BW (shorter pulse duration), and a larger diameter will
provide a better axial and lateral resolution.
6.7 Defect Height Measurement

Minimum defect height—inner surface-breaking—detected by
ultrasound waves depends on three major factors:
• SNR > 10 dB (3:1)

• h min > λ ⁄ 4
• h min > 3R t (inner surface roughness) (see Figure 6-14)
hmin > 3 Rt SNR > 10 dB (3:1)

hmin > λ / 4
hmin
Figure 6-14 Minimum conditions for inner surface-breaking crack detection by

ultrasound waves.
Crack height measurement by time-of-flight-diffraction techniques is

based on the following major techniques:
1. Back scattering (relative arrival time technique—RATT—and

absolute arrival time technique—AATT)
2. Vertical scattering (delta technique—dual crystal probe or two
probes)
3. Forward scattering (TOFD LW or pitch-and-catch TW/LW)
6.7.1 Relative Arrival Time Technique (RATT)

The relative arrival time technique (RATT), also called satellite pulse
observation time technique (SPOT),10 has the following features (see
Figure 6-15):
• Crack height < beam spread (divergence).

• Evaluation is relative to corner trap TOF signal.

• Crack corner trap and crack tip are detected by the same angle.
• Crack last-significant tip signal is optimized and the probe is static.
• Relative UT path between crack corner trap and crack tip signals is
measured: ∆UT.
• Crack height is determined by:
∆UT RATT
h crack = -------------------------
cos β
Crack “leg”
Crack tip
UT1 β
UT2
∆UT
hcrack = (UT2 – UT1) / cosβ
Figure 6-15 Crack height evaluation based on relative measurement of UT path

between crack tip and crack corner trap signals.
Tip: Useful hints on how to use RATT:
• Set the noise level (grass) at 5–10% FSH.

• Move forward the probe and combine translation and orbital
movements, without missing the corner trap signal of the
crack.
• Optimize the amplitude from the last significant peak.
• Measure the refracted angle and the exit point (wedge index)
as accurately as possible.
• Use high-damped probes (BWrel > 85%) and higher frequency
(fc > 5 MHz) for a better sizing.
6.7.2 Absolute Arrival Time Technique (AATT)

The absolute arrival time technique (AATT)), also called pulse arrival time
technique (PATT),10 has the following features (see Figure 6-16):
• Crack height could be greater than beam width (diameter).

• Probe movement is required.
• UT path reading is based on amplitude height optimization from
both crack leg and crack tip.

• Optimization of the reading may require different angles.
• Crack height is given by: h crack = UT 2 • cos β 2 – UT 1 • cos β 1
• For monocrystal probe: h crack = ∆UT • cos β
β1 β2
UT1
hcrack = UT2 • cosβ2 – UT1 • cosβ1

UT2
Figure 6-16 Crack height evaluation principle based on AATT.
Tip:
• OmniScan uncorrected S-scan provides you with both readings

for crack tip (angle/UT half path) and crack corner trap signals
(see Figure 6-17). Use color palette and set the lower threshold
at 10% FSH. Crack tips will be much easier to be identified.
• Use a higher frequency (f > 7 MHz) PA probe and focus the
beam on crack tip depth. You will get a much better sizing.
Figure 6-17 Crack height evaluation with AATT and OmniScan uncorrected S-scan.
Crack height: hcrack = (66.16 mm × cos 50.5° − 61.6 mm × cos 57.5°) = 8.5 mm.
6.7.3 Delta Technique

Delta technique consists of a combination of 60° TW and 0° LW. The
height measurement is given by the formula:

( t – h crack )
TOF ∆60 = --------------------------------------------------------------
v T [ ( 1 ⁄ cos β ) + ( v T ⁄ v L ) ]
Due to the beam spread, the 60°T probe detects the crack tip by direct
hit and by reflection on the back wall (see Figure 6-18). For steel, crack
evaluation formula is given by:
h ∆60T = t – 0.8 UT path (crack tip) TW (UT path calibration in SW)
0˚ LW 60˚ SW
1
2
t
3
hcrack
Crack tip Crack leg tip
1 Crack tip (skip)

2 3
Figure 6-18 Principle of delta 60°T technique and an example of ID connected crack
sizing with OmniScan. Note the crack tip detection by skip.
6.8 Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique—

TOFD LW
The time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD) method is based on
the following principles:1,7
• Transmitter-receiver setup in LW configuration (see Figure 6-19)

• The probes are high-damped (1.5λ, or white-black-white, with
BWrel > 90%) and high-frequencied (> 6 MHz).
• The beam divergence is large enough to produce lateral waves and
back-wall reflection, so the whole thickness is displayed between
lateral waves and back-wall (skip) signals.
• Symmetrical probe center separation (PCS) versus weld center line
• Wedge delay, velocity in the test piece, lateral wave TOF, back-wall
TOF value, thickness, PCS must be known (not all).

• Upper tip and lower tip echoes have phase reversal.
• Additional defect pattern recognition is performed with mode-
converted (LT, TL) signals.
• A preamplifier is required to display the digital signals from defect
edges, which are −20 dB to −30 dB lower than specular signals.
• Maximum amplitude of diffracted signals are obtained at about
60°.
• L-waves are preferred to T-waves for their “first-hit” velocity to the
defect edges; they are also less attenuated by test piece structure.
• Scan is performed in one line, parallel with the weld CL, and a
single D-scan image is obtained for each encoder position; this will
lead to length evaluation.
Assuming that the defect is symmetrically placed between probes, the

following formulas are used to measure the defect height h (2a) and
the upper ligament (d):
Lateral wave
Tip diffraction
Back-wall reflection
+ +
_
_
Lateral Upper Lower Back wall

wave tip tip

PCS
Dwedge S S
d
h t
PCS 2S
t lat. wave = ---------- + 2D wedge = ------ + 2D wedge
vL vL
2 ( S 2 + d 2 ) 0.5
t upper tip = --------------------------------- + 2D wedge
vL
t lower tip = 2 [ S 2 + ( d + h ) 2 ] 0.5

----------------------------------------------- + 2D wedge
vL
2 ( S 2 + t 2 ) 0.5
t back wall = ------------------------------- + 2D wedge
vL
Figure 6-19 Principle of TOFD and the phase sign of four major signals. Defect
height (h) and upper ligament (d) formula related to time-of-flight measurements,
probe center separation (PCS), and longitudinal velocity in the part. Assumption:
defect is symmetrically placed between the probes.
TOFD pattern recognition weld defects are presented in Figure 6-20

and Figure 6-21.

Toe crack
Incomplete root penetration
2
3
Lack of root penetration
2
3
Side wall lack of fusion
1
2
Porosity
Figure 6-20 TOFD pattern recognition of weld defects—part 1.

Transverse crack — upper surface
Concave root
2
3
Lack of fusion — interpass
1
2
Figure 6-21 TOFD pattern recognition of weld defects—part 2.

6.9 Mode-Converted Techniques
The creeping-wave technique is the most widely used mode-
converted (MC) application for detection and confirmation of ID
surface-breaking defects. The technique may be used to detect and
size linear defects from OD to ID range. This capability is based on the
characteristics of the “creeping-wave” probe, which generates the
following types of waves (see Figure 6-22):
• Direct creeping waves (OD surface)

• Direct SW of 34°
• Direct LW of 70°
• Indirect MC SW of 31°
• Indirect MC creeping waves (ID surface)
Creeping LW - OD
70˚ LW
Indirect 31˚ SW
Direct 34˚ SW
Creeping LW - ID
Figure 6-22 Type of waves generated by a “creeping-wave” probe.
Note: The creeping waves have the following

characteristics:
• Short surface propagation (2–12 mm).

• Propagation made within 2-3 wavelength thickness.
• Dependent on plate/pipe parallelism (±5°).
The shear waves of 31°–34° may convert in longitudinal waves at 70°,

and be reflected by vertical defect as 70° longitudinal waves. This MC
detection is called collateral echo no. 1 (CE 1). Creeping wave echo is
called collateral echo no. 2 (CE 2). Their UT path in LW calibration
depends on thickness (see Figure 6-23).
CE-1 amplitude is linear with crack height (for vertical-oriented

cracks). The distance between CE 1 and CE 2 is linear with the crack
height. This distance (CE 2 − CE 1) depends on specimen thickness.

LW 25 mm
R25 SW 46 mm
LW 50 mm
SW 92 mm
R50
0 100
130
120
110
CE 2
100 Creeping waves
90
UT half path [ mm ]
80
70
60
50
40
30 CE1
30-70-70
20
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Thickness [ mm Fe ]
Figure 6-23 Distance calibration in LW UT half path (top) and UT path dependence
on thickness for CE 1 (30-70-70) and for CE 2 (creeping waves).
CAUTION
1. 70-degree longitudinal probe (the creeper) must be handled
very carefully. The probe produces a variety of signals.
2. The nature, location, and amplitude of the signals depend on
crack location, orientation, and size, as well as on the probe
movement (see Figure 6-24).

CE1 CE2 MC
70L
34T
Figure 6-24 OmniScan screen display of a crack detection by 70-degree longitudinal

wave probe. More than nine signals are displayed. CE 1 and CE 2 have the largest
amplitudes.
6.10 Defect Location and Plotting on Flat

Surfaces
Defect coordinates for plate weld are expressed by the following
formula (see Figure 6-25):
Isurface
d = UTpath cosβ
d β Isurface = UTpath sinβ
th Isurface = d tanβ
pa
UT d = flaw depth
Isurface = surface distance
β = refracted angle
Figure 6-25 The defect coordinates based on UT path and refracted angle.
Another useful distance calibration is in depth based on inner and/or

outer surface notches, up to 2.5 t—or full skip (see Figure 6-26).

cap root cap
1/2 skip full skip
t 2t 2.5t
Figure 6-26 Depth calibration using ID and OD notches.
Useful charts for defect plotting at 35°, 45°, and 60° are presented in
Figure 6-27, Figure 6-28, and Figure 6-29.
Tip:
1. Use the chart from Figure 6-29 for TOFD setup of 60°
longitudinal waves. Extrapolate for larger thickness value.
2. Make transparencies 1:1 and use them for a quick ultrasound
plotting and range setting.
Projected distance (PCS) [mm]

7 (5) 14 (10) 21 (15) 28 (20) 35 (25) 42 (30) 49 (35) 56 (40)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Thickness [mm]
10
15
20
35º
25
30
35
40
Figure 6-27 Ultrasound chart for 35° refracted angle and thickness up to 40 mm
(scale 1:1).

154
10 (5) 20 (10) 30 (15) 40 (20) 50 (25) 60 (30) 70 (35) 80 (40)
Chapter 6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
10
15
Thickness [mm]
20
45º
25
30
35
40
Figure 6-28 Ultrasound chart for 45° refracted angle and thickness up to 40 mm (scale 1:1).
R/D Tech
R/D Tech
17.3 (5) 34.6 (10) 52 (15) 69 (20) 86.6 (25) 103.9 (30)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
10
15
Thickness [mm]
60º
20
25
30
Figure 6-29 Ultrasound chart for 60° refracted angle and thickness up to 30 mm (scale 1:1).
Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas 155

Figure 6-30 represents the relationship between ultrasound path,
depth, and projected distance for an R60 quadrant.
Tip:
Use the constant UT path graph for an easy plotting and sweep
range evaluation.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Depth [mm]
5 85˚
10 80˚
15
75˚
20
70˚
25
65˚
30
60˚
35 55˚
40 50˚
45˚
45
40˚
50 35˚
30˚
55
25˚
20˚
60 15˚
5˚ 10˚
Figure 6-30 Correlation between depth, projected distance, and ultrasound path for a
R60 quadrant (scale 1:1).
Figure 6-31 represents the relationship between ultrasound path,

depth, and projected distance for square with a side of 60 mm.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Depth [mm]
5 85˚
10
80˚
15
75˚
20
70˚
25
65˚
30
35 60˚
40
55˚
45
50
50˚
55
60
5˚ 10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚ 30˚ 35˚ 40˚ 45˚
Figure 6-31 Correlation between depth, projected distance, and refracted angle for a
square with side of 60 mm (scale 1:1).
Tip: Use this graph as a transparency to set the sweep

range of constant depth.
6.11 Defect Location and Plotting on Curved

Surfaces
A comparison between defect location and angle evaluation is
presented in Figure 6-32 and Figure 6-33.
In general, the UT path is increased by a factor k, when inspection is

performed on convex surfaces (curved wedge on pipes for
longitudinal defect detection).

x p
β UT half path
d
tanβ = (x + p) / d
ΦSDH
cosβ = d / (UT half path + ΦSDH/2)
βi
t
Dout
d
ΦSDH
cos β = [Φ2SDH / 4 + UT2half path – d2 + 2(UThalf path ΦSDH/2 + tDout/2)] / [t (UThalf path+ΦSDH/2)]
Figure 6-32 Refracted angle evaluation on straight plate (top) and on pipe (bottom).

D A
β t
C
ε
B
E
k = AB/AC Dout
AB = t k cosβ
Figure 6-33 Defect location for inner and outer surface on the pipe. Remark the UT
path length increase (A-B-E) on pipe versus straight plate (A-C-D).
Full skip
Plate: Pipe:
2t - UT 2kt-
UTfull skip = AC + CD = ----------- full skip = AB + BE = -----------
cos β cos β
(for k, see Figure 6-34)

Inner-surface reflected angle
Pipe: ε
Plate: β (for ε, see nomogram from Figure
6-35)

2.1
2.0
K
80° 70° 60° 45°35°

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4
t/D out
Figure 6-34 Correction factor k of ultrasound path for pipe inspection with different
refracted angles.
In example from Figure 6-35: a pipe with t ⁄ D out = 0.13 is inspected

with a refracted angle of 35°. What is the reflected angle on the inner
surface of the pipe?
Solution
• Find the 0.13 value on the red scale.
• Find the 35° angle on the blue scale.
• Draw a line through these two points and intersect it with the black
scale.
• Answer: ε = 52°.

0.00 90º
80º
70º
60º 70º
Refracted angle β
0.05
50º
Reflected angle on pipe inner surface ε

60º
Pipe thickness / Outside diameter
0.10 40º
[t/Dout] 50º
30º
0.15
40º
0.20
Figure 6-35 Nomogram for reflection angle ε on pipe inner surface.
6.12 Curvature Effect on Probe/Wedge Size

and Gain Setting
A flat probe (either straight beam LW or with a SW wedge) may be
affected by part curvature. The main combinations between probe
contact surface and the reflected inner surface of the part are
presented in Figure 6-36:
• Probe on flat surface Æ reflection on concave surface (calibration

blocks)
• Probe on convex surface Æ reflection on concave surface (bars)
• Probe on convex surface Æ reflection on convex surface (pipes)
• Probe on concave surface Æ reflection on concave surface
(pipes/tubes)

a b LW
SW/LW
LW SW/LW
c d
LW SW/LW
SW/LW
LW
Figure 6-36 Example of possible combinations between probe contact surface and
inner reflection surface of the part: (a) flat-convex; (b) convex-concave; (c) concave-
concave; (d) convex-convex.
IMPORTANT
• You may use a flat probe on curved surfaces only if the
maximum gap between couplant and probe edge or center is
less than 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) [see Figure 6-37].
• The maximum probe length is determined by the relationship:
0.5
L < 0.5D part
0.5 mm
Figure 6-37 A flat probe on a convex or concave surface may be used only if the
maximum gap between the probe edge or center and the part is less than 0.5 mm.

Tip:
1. Place the probe on a wedge and round the wedge on convex or

concave test piece surface using sand paper.
2. Pre-focus the passive aperture of PA probe to reduce the beam

length due to divergence on convex surface.
Tip: Use grease, viscose mineral oil, or Hamikleer® 712-2

HV1 /HV2 /HV3 when you apply direct-contact probes with a flat
surface or flat wedges on curved parts.
The critical radius is defined as the minimum value for each

calibration due to part curvature that is less than 2.5 dB. Its formula is
defined by:
0.45fD probe 2 Z probe

R c ≈ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[ v couplant Z couplant ( 1 + Z probe ⁄ Z part ) ]
where:
Rc = critical radius [mm]

f = probe frequency [MHz]
Dprobe = probe diameter [mm]
Zprobe = probe acoustic impedance [106 Rayl]
vcouplant = ultrasound velocity in couplant [mm/s]
Zcouplant = couplant acoustic impedance [106 Rayl]
Zpart = part acoustic impedance [106 Rayl]
Example of gain correction for inspection of austenitic forging bars—

direct contact—is presented in Figure 6-38.

50 100 150 200 250
0
-2
-4
Amplitude variation (dB)
-6
-8
-10
10 mm - 4 MHz
-12 24 mm - 1 MHz
24 mm - 2 MHz
-14
-16
Forging diameter (mm)
Figure 6-38 Amplitude dependence on forging diameter probe size and frequency.
6.13 Immersion Techniques

A probe in immersion may be unfocused, line-focused, or point-
focused (see Figure 6-39). The line-focused probes are the most widely
used for inspection of square and round bars from outside. The probe
fixture is fixed and the part is moving (rotating). The point-focused
probes are mostly used for internal inspection of thin tubes with a
very small focus spot (see Figure 6-40). The inspection is helicoidal,
the probe is pushed and rotated. The movement has a pitch of 0.2–
0.8 mm. Advantages to use the focused beams in immersions are
listed below:
• High damping factor

• Higher frequency
• Easy to adopt the focus distance and the angle
• No wearing
• Better detection of small defects
• Easy-to-build online systems

Figure 6-39 Type of beams in immersion: (a) unfocused; (b) line-focused; (c) spot-
focused.
Figure 6-40 Spot-focused immersion inspection of thin tubes using an internal mirror.
Pipe in immersion—Solved problem (Figure 6-41)

An aluminum pipe with thickness of 10 mm and Dout of 150 mm must
be inspected with shear waves. Find the probe offset for a reflection
angle ε of 45° on inner surface.

doffset
αwater
B
χ
ε
Figure 6-41 Pipe inspection in immersion with shear waves.
Solution
1. Find β from nomogram of Figure 6-35, page 161.
2. βaluminum = 37°
3. Find refracted angle in water by using Snell’s law or Figure 6-8
graph, page 136, for shear waves: αwater = 17°.
4. Find the water offset: doffset = 75 mm × sin17° = 21.5 mm.

Tip: Generic formulas are given below:
sin β v pipe
1. Snell’s law: ----------------------- = -------------
-
sin α water v water
2. Probe offset: d offset = R pipe sin α water
R sin β
3. Find χ from relationship: χ = sin -1 ----------------
(R – t)
4. Find: ϕ = π – ( β + χ )
( R – t ) sin ϕ
5. Find UTpath from the relationship: UT path = ----------------------------
sin β pipe
Equivalent near-field in water:
N steel/aluminum v steel aluminum

N 0 water = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
-
v water
For longitudinal waves:
N 0 water ≈ 4N 0 steel/aluminum
6.14 Focused Probes in Immersion for Bar

Inspection
The focused probes (spot or line shape) may have the focal depth
located at the bar outer surface (just focused in water), before the bar
center, after the bar center (see Figure 6-42).
The water path length depends on probe diameter, bar radius, and the
velocity ratio (see Figure 6-43).
WP ≈ F D – 0.5z bar D bar v bar ⁄ v water [ z bar ( v bar ⁄ v water – 1 ) + D bar ⁄ 2 ]

Figure 6-42 Type of focus beams and focus depth used for bar inspection in
immersion.
Dprobe
WP
Zbar
F
Dbar
Figure 6-43 Example of cylindrical focusing before bar center in immersion for bar
inspection.

Appendix A: Unit Conversion
This appendix provides the metric-English conversions for units used

in this booklet.
Table A-1 Conversion from metric to English units.
Measure Metric unit English unit
= 39.37 mils
1 mm
= 0.03937 in.
Length 1 cm = 0.3937 in.
= 39.37 in.
1m
= 3.28 ft
1 cm2 = 0.155 in.2

Area
1 m2 = 10.7639 ft2
1 mm/µs = 0.03937 in./µs

Velocity = 3.28 ft/s
1 m/s
= 196.85 ft/min
1g = 0.03527 oz
Mass = 35.2739 oz
1 kg
= 2.20462 lbs
Mass density 1 kg/m3 = 0.062428 lb/ft3
Acoustic = 0.001423 lb/in.2s

impedance 1 kg/m2s
= 0.204816 lb/ft2s
°C = (5/9) × (°F − 32)

Temperature
(°C × 1.8) + 32 = °F
R/D Tech Unit Conversion 169

Appendix B: Support and Training
Support
R/D Tech is offering you the opportunity to participate in a Web-
hosted discussion forum. The experts that contributed to Phased Array
Technical Guidelines: Useful Formulas, Graphs, and Examples booklet are
online to answer your questions and post added information on the
phased array technology and practical applications.
Feel free to browse this vast source of information, post your own
questions, and contribute to this collective project.
You will find the Web site forum link at the following address:
www.rd-tech.com
Training
The R/D Tech Web site also contains information on advanced NDT
training given by R/D Tech’s certified training partners under the
“Training” link. This section lists training schedules and course
descriptions for different levels and applications.
Our training centers offer hands-on training and specific problem-

solving cases. Bring your inspection problem to us, and we will
answer or advise you in real time for the best field reliable option.
Find all the details on the Web site.
You can get more information on training activities, our publications,

new equipment, or special applications by filling the Information
Request form on the Web site, in the Customer Support section.
R/D Tech Support and Training 171

Selected References
1. R/D Tech. Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology

Applications: R/D Tech Guideline. Québec, Canada: R/D Tech, 2004.
2. R/D Tech. TomoView 2: Reference Manual. Vol. 1, General Features —
Setup and Data Acquisition. R/D Tech document number
DUML039A. Québec, Canada: R/D Tech, July 2003.
3. R/D Tech. TechDocE TomoView 2.2R9 Guidelines, rev. A. Québec,
Canada: R/D Tech, July 2003 (PDF file).
4. R/D Tech. TomoView 2: Reference Manual. Vol. 2, Analysis and
Reporting. R/D Tech document number DUML040A. Québec,
Canada: R/D Tech, July 2003.
5. R/D Tech. OmniScan MX: User’s Manual. R/D Tech document
number DUMG060B. Québec, Canada: R/D Tech, December 2003.
6. R/D Tech. OmniScan Phased Array Software: User’s Manual. R/D Tech
document number DUML030B. Québec, Canada: R/D Tech,
January 2004.
7. R/D Tech. “TOFD Course.” Slide presentation, rev. 7. Québec,
Canada: R/D Tech, May 2000.
8. R/D Tech. Ultrasound Phased Array Transducer Catalog 2004-2005.
Québec, Canada: R/D Tech, January 2004.
9. Poguet, J., G. Fleury, and P. Ciorau. “A Practical Proposal for
Designing, Testing and Certification Phased Array Probes Used in
Nuclear Applications.” Proceedings, 4th International Conference
on NDE in Relation to Structural Integrity for Nuclear and
Pressurised Components, 6–8 December 2004.
10.J. M. Davis. Advanced Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Handbook. USA: The Art
Room Corporation, 1998.
R/D Tech Selected References 173

Index
Symbols active 18
∆X–6 dB, formula 30 passive 18
∆Y–6 dB, formula 30 virtual probe ~ 3
appendixes
Numerics support and training 171
1-D annual array 11 unit conversion 169
1-D plan circular probe 17 A-scan
1-D plan linear array 13 rectified 73
properties 17 unrectified 74
1.5-D plan matrix probe 16 attenuation curve (ATTN) 136
2-D plan segmented annular ATTN (attenuation curve) 136
array 15 automated inspection 65
2-D planar matrix probe 14 averaging 97
70° longitudinal probe, caution Averaging function 31
151 AWS block 123
axial and lateral resolutions 140
A axial resolution 32
AATT (absolute arrival time formula 140
technique) 143 axis
absolute arrival time technique active 21
(AATT) 143 passive 21
absolute bandwidth 34 azimuthal scan (focal laws) 57
acceptance values for gain lin- B
earity 106
acoustic impedance 127, 128 back scattering 142
.acq file 87, 89, 116 back wall (BW)
acquisition rate 96 divergence curve 136
formula 97 echo amplitude 32
active aperture 18 band-pass filters, OmniScan 103
active axis 21 bandwidth (BW) 34
Advanced MCDU Control dia- absolute 34
log box 116 relative 34
angle, skew 49 bang, main 32
beam 50 bar inspection 167
probe 50 basic views See views: basic
total 50 beam
wedge 50 deflection
angular scan 68 examples 52
annual array, 1-D 11 patterns 47
aperture diameter 126
R/D Tech Index 175

divergence, half-angle beam calibration 89
127 Calibration Check tab 111
length 127 Calibration menu, OmniScan
offset 50 117
simulation view 85 Calibration of Encoder dialog
skew angle 50 box 114
width 29, 127 calibration operations
beam direction conventions 48 generic 104
bidirectional scan 66 horizontal linearity 108
block, AWS 123 vertical linearity 105
block, IIW 108, 123 OmniScan 116
sensitivity calibration 118 TomoView 110
block, IOW 79, 123 calibration views 84
blocks for probe characteriza- calibration, encoder 114
tion 36 calibration, sensitivity
quarter cylinder with round IIW block 118
notch 37 cautions
rectangular prism with a 70°-longitudinal probe 151
quadrant 37 compression function 35
rectangular prism with side- creeping waves 150
drilled holes 36 free running sequence 71
rectangular prism with spe- maximum height of the
cial side-drilled holes wedge 26
37 near-field length 28
semi-cylinder single thick- pulser voltage 93
ness blocks 36 CE (collateral echo)
semi-cylinders with double no. 1 150
radii 37 no. 2 150
steel blocks with inclined center frequency 33
faces 37 centers, training 171
step-blocks with EDM characterization, probe 35
notches and flat-bot- recommended blocks 36
tom holes 37 charts 125
boresonic inspections 82 checking, periodic 89, 119
BQS002 connector 119 DDF board functionality 121
BQS009 connector 119 integrity of probe elements
BQS012A connector 120 120
B-scan view 75 refracted angle and index
BW (back wall) point 123
divergence curve 136 checking, probe 42
echo amplitude 32 circular crystal, near-field
BW (bandwidth) 34 length for 130
absolute 34 circular surfaces 70
relative 34 clock, internal 65
coefficient, diffraction 138
C
collateral echo
.cal file 47 no. 1 150
calculator for 1-D plan linear no. 2 150
array probes 62 compression by n 101
calculator for R/D Tech probes compression function, caution
and wedges 61 35
calculator, focal law 47
176 Index R/D Tech

connectors delta technique 144
BQS002 119 density, mass (ρ) 125, 128
BQS009 119 dependence, inspection
BQS012A 120 sequence 71
constants 125 depth of field 28
conventions depth scan (focal laws) 56
beam direction 48 depth, focal 28
wedge offset 49 derivative gain (KD) 116
conversion, unit 169 detectability curves 136
coordinates, defect 152 detectability region 136
crack evaluation (delta tech- dialog boxes
nique) 145 See also tabs
crack height measurement 142 Advanced MCDU 116
creeping waves, caution 150 Calibration of Encoder 114
creeping-wave probe 150 Phased Array Calibration
creeping-wave technique 150 110
critical radius 163 TOFD 113
cross-talk damping between diameter, beam 126
elements 35 diffraction coefficient 138
crystal, near-field length for cir- Digitizer tab 92
cular 130 digitizing frequency 95
crystals, rectangular direction conventions, beam 48
divergence beam 131 disc inspection 71
near-field length 131 divergence beam, rectangular
C-scan view 75 crystal 131
curvature effect on divergence curve, back-wall 136
probe/wedge size and divergence, half-angle beam 127
gain setting 161 D-scan view 76
curved parts, probe and wedge dual crystal probe 142
on 21 duration, pulse 33
curves, detectability 136 ∆X–6 dB, formula 30
cylindrical surfaces 69 ∆Y–6 dB, formula 30
D Dynamic Strip View (Ampli-
DAC (distance-amplitude cor- tude) 81
rection) 36 Dynamic Strip View (Position)
DAC tab 111 80
daisy probe 17 E
damping between elements, E (modulus of elasticity) 125
cross-talk 35 echo amplitude, back-wall 32
data compression by n 101 echoes, ghost 98
DDF (dynamic depth focusing) elasticity, modulus of (E) 125
functionality checking 121 electrical features (phased array
defect coordinates, formula 152 probes) 35
defect height measurement 142 electromagnetic array trans-
defect height, formula 146 ducer 30
defect location elements
on curved surfaces 157 active aperture 18
on flat surfaces 152 gap 18
deflection, beam number of ~ 18
examples 52 passive aperture 18
patterns 47
R/D Tech Index 177

pitch 17 calculator for 1-D linear
width 17 array probes 62
elevation 18 calculator for R/D Tech
EMAT (electromagnetic array probes and wedges
transducer) 30 61
emergency stop button general examples 45
(MCDU-02), warning 115 generalities 45
encoder calibration 114 linear scan 52
Encoder tab 114 focused probes in immersion
end view 76 167
equations See formulas formulas 125
equipment characterization, See also specific formula entries
minimum features for 104 acquisition rate 97
evaluation, crack (delta tech- axial resolution 140
nique) 145 crack evaluation (delta tech-
examples nique) 145
beam deflection 52 critical radius 163
focal laws 45, 52 defect coordinates 152
defect height 146
F
∆X–6 dB 30
far-surface resolution 31 ∆Y–6 dB 30
FBH (flat-bottom hole) 31
features for equipment charac- height measurement (delta
terization, minimum 104 technique) 144
features for probe checking, rec- near-field length 27
ommended 42 pulser pulse width 90
features, ultrasonic 125 recurrence 97
Fermat principle 4 Snell’s law 167
FFT (fast Fourier transform) 33 SNR (signal-to-noise ratio)
view 83 30
field properties of phased array ultrasonic features 125
probe 27 upper ligament 146
field, depth of 28 forum, Web site 171
files forward scattering 142
.acq 87, 89, 116 free running sequence 71
.cal 47 caution 71
.law 46, 47 frequency 125
.ops 89 center 33
.opu 107 digitizing 95
.pac 47 peak 33
.rst 87 function, Averaging 31
.scn 116 function, smoothing 94
filters, OmniScan band-pass 103 G
flange inspection 71 G (shear modulus) 125
focal depth 28 gain
focal laws derivative (KD) 116
azimuthal scan 57 integral (KI) 116
beam deflection patterns 47 proportional (KP) 116
calculator 47 gain linearity, acceptance values
depth scan 56 for 106
examples 52 gain setting, curvature effect on
for OmniScan 61
178 Index R/D Tech

161 K
gap, element 18 KD (derivative gain) 116
general features, phased array kerf (element gap) 18
probes 11 KI (integral gain) 116
types 11 KLM model 35
general features, phased array KP (proportional gain) 116
ultrasound technology 3
General tab 92 L
ghost echoes 98 lateral resolution 32, 140
graphs, ultrasonic field 131 lateral resolutions, axial and 140
.law files 46, 47
H
law, Snell’s 127, 134, 167
half-angle beam divergence 127 Plexiglas-mild carbon steel
height measurement (delta 135
technique) 144 principle 134
height measurement, defect 142 Rexolite-mild carbon steel
height of the wedge, caution 26 134
height, defect 146 water-aluminum 136
helicoidal scan 69 water-mild carbon steel 135
horizontal linearity 108 laws, focal
I azimuthal scan 57
beam deflection patterns 47
IIW block 108, 123
calculator 47
sensitivity calibration 118
depth scan 56
immersion inspection 71
examples 52
immersion techniques 164
for OmniScan 61
immersion, focused probes in
calculator for 1-D plan
167
linear array probes
immersion, pipe in 165
62
impedance 35
calculator for R/D Tech
impedance, acoustic 127, 128
probes and wedges
index point checking 123
61
initial pulse 32
general examples 45
inspection
generalities 45
automated 65
linear scan 52
manual 65
laws, reflectivity 137
semiautomated 65
layouts 85
inspection sequence depen-
one-line scanning 85
dence 71
raster scans 87
inspections
length, beam 127
boresonic 82
length, near-field 27, 126
disc 71
circular crystal 130
flange 71
rectangular crystal 131
immersion 71
length, pulse 33
integral gain (KI) 116
ligament, upper 146
integrity of probe elements
linear scan 67
checking 120
linear scan (focal laws) 52
internal clock 65, 72
linearity
introduction 1
horizontal 108
IOW block 79, 123
vertical 105
IP (initial pulse) 32
location, defect
R/D Tech Index 179

on curved surfaces 157 cautions
on flat surfaces 152 70°-longitudinal probe
longitudinal velocity 125 151
compression function 35
M
creeping waves 150
µ (Poisson’s ratio) 125 free running sequence 71
main bang 32 maximum height of the
manual inspection 65 wedge 26
mass density (ρ) 125, 128 near-field length 28
maximum height of the wedge, pulser voltage 93
caution 26 warnings
MC (mode-converted) applica- MCDU-02 advanced set-
tion 150 tings 115
MCDU Control tab 115 MCDU-02 emergency
MCDU-02 stop button 115
advanced settings, warning MCDU-02 fine tuning 115
115 NSR (near-surface resolution)
emergency stop button, 136
warning 115 number of elements 18
fine tuning, warning 115 numbering system
settings 115 phased array probes 40
measurement, crack height 142 wedges 40
measurement, defect height 142
measurement, height (delta O
technique) 144 offset conventions, wedge 49
menus, OmniScan offset, beam 50
Calibration 117 OmniScan
PGM Probe 45 calculator 61, 62
Probe/Part 45 calibration operations 116
minimum defect height 142 focal laws 61
minimum features for equip- menus
ment characterization 104 Calibration 117
mirror, rotating 12 PGM Probe 45
mode-converted techniques 150 Probe/Part 45, 117
model, KLM 35 ultrasound settings 102
modulus of elasticity (E) 125 one-line scanning 85
modulus, shear (G) 125 .ops file 89
modulus, Young’s (E) 125 options, beam deflection 47
Motor Control Drive Unit .opu file 107
(MCDU-02) 115 other scanning patterns 71
overall noise curve (NOISE) 136
N
near-field length 27 P
caution 28 PA See entries under phased
circular 126 array…
circular crystal 130 .pac file 47
effective 126 PASS (Phased Array Simulation
rectangular 126 Software) 46
rectangular crystal 131 passive aperture 18
near-surface resolution 31, 136 passive axis 21
NOISE (overall noise curve) 136 PATT (pulse arrival time tech-
notes, safety nique) 143
180 Index R/D Tech

pattern, reflectivity 138 pitch-and-catch technique 142
patterns, scanning 65 plan circular probe, 1-D 17
angular scan 68 plan linear array, 1-D 13
bidirectional scan 66 plan matrix probe, 1.5-D 16
free running sequence 71 plan segmented annular array,
helicoidal scan 69 2-D 15
internal clock 72 planar matrix probe, 2-D 14
linear scan 67 plotting
other ~ 71 on curved surfaces 157
skewed scan 68 on flat surfaces 152
spiral scan 70 Poisson’s ratio (µ) 125
table of ~ available in Tomo- polar view 82
View 66 PRF (pulse repetition rate) 97
unidirectional scan 66 principle, Fermat 4
PCS (probe center separation) probe and wedge on curved
145, 147 parts 21
peak frequency 33 probe center separation 145, 147
periodic checking 119 probe characterization 35
DDF board functionality 121 recommended blocks 36
integrity of probe elements probe checking, recommended
120 features for 42
refracted angle and index probe numbering system 40
point 123 Probe/Part menu, OmniScan 45,
PGM Probe menu, OmniScan 117
45 probe/wedge size, curvature
Phased Array Calibration dia- effect on 161
log box 110 probes
phased array probe on the aperture 3
wedge 18 creeping-wave 150
phased array probes R/D Tech ~ 38
general features 11 rho-theta 16
electrical features 35 skew angle 50
field properties 27 processing, real-time
phased array probe on the compression by n 101
wedge 18 properties
probe characterization 35 1-D plan linear array probe
properties of 1-D plan lin- 17
ear array 17 field ~ of phased array probe
R/D Tech probes 38 27
recommended blocks 36 proportional gain (KP) 116
time-frequency response pulse
33 duration 33
tolerances 35 echo 93
types 11 initial ~ 32
numbering system 40 length 33
Phased Array Simulation Soft- width 102
ware (PASS) 46 pulse arrival time technique
phased array ultrasound tech- (PATT) 143
nology, general features 3 pulser pulse width, formula 90
pipe in immersion 165 pulser voltage
pitch, element 17 caution 93
R/D Tech Index 181

table of recommended ~ 93 151
Pulser/Receiver tab 92 compression function 35
PW (pulse width) 102 creeping waves 150
free running sequence 71
R
maximum height of the
ρ (mass density) 125, 128 wedge 26
R/D Tech probes 38 near-field length 28
radius, critical 163 pulser voltage 93
range, sweep 3 warnings
raster scans 87 MCDU-02 advanced set-
rate, acquisition 96 tings 115
ratio, Poisson’s (µ) 125 MCDU-02 emergency
ratio, signal-to-noise See signal- stop button 115
to-noise ratio MCDU-02 fine tuning 115
RATT (relative arrival time satellite pulse observation time
technique) 142 technique (SPOT) 142
Rayleigh velocity 125 scanning patterns 65
real-time processing angular scan 68
compression by n 101 bidirectional scan 66
recommended features for free running sequence 71
probe checking 42 helicoidal scan 69
rectangular crystals internal clock 72
divergence beam 131 linear scan 67
near-field length 131 other ~ 71
rectified A-scan 73 skewed scan 68
recurrence 97 spiral scan 70
formula 97 table of ~ available in Tomo-
reflection coefficient 127 View 66
reflectivity laws 137 unidirectional scan 66
reflectivity pattern 138 scanning patterns, views, and
reflectors 137 layouts 65
refracted angle checking 123 scans, raster 87
region, detectability 136 scattering
relative arrival time technique back 142
(RATT) 142 forward 142
relative bandwidth 34 vertical 142
resolution .scn file 116
axial 32 Scrolling Strip View (Ampli-
axial and lateral 140 tude) 81
far-surface 31 Scrolling Strip View (Position)
lateral 32, 140 80
near-surface 31 SDH (side-drilled hole) 31
response, time-frequency 33 semiautomated inspection 65
rho (ρ) position 70 sensitivity 35
rho-theta probe 16 sensitivity calibration, IIW
rotating mirror 12 block 118
.rst file 87 Sensitivity tab 111
S sequences, inspection
See also scanning patterns
safety notes
helicoidal 69
cautions
spiral 70
70° longitudinal probe
182 Index R/D Tech

settings, MCDU-02 115 minimum features for equip-
settings, ultrasound 89 ment characterization
calibration operations 104
generic 104 near-field length
TomoView 110 circular crystal 130
OmniScan 102 rectangular crystal 131
TomoView 90 OmniScan band-pass filters
setup, time-base 72 103
shear modulus (G) 125 OmniScan ultrasound set-
side view 75 tings 102
signal-to-noise ratio 5, 30 recommended pulser volt-
site, Web 171 age 93
skew angle 49 reflectivity pattern 138
beam 50 scanning patterns available
probe 50 in TomoView 66
total 50 time-of-flight delay / half
wedge 50 path for different
skewed scan 68 materials 109
smoothing function 94 tolerances on phased array
Snell’s law 127, 134, 167 probe features 35
Plexiglas-mild carbon steel types of phased array probes
135 11
principle 134 unit conversion 169
Rexolite-mild carbon steel wavelength 129
134 tabs
water-aluminum 136 See also dialog boxes 92
water-mild carbon steel 135 Calibration Check 111
SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) 5, 30 DAC 111
special views 83 Digitizer 92
spiral scan 70 Encoder 114
SPOT (satellite pulse observa- General 92
tion time technique) 142 MCDU Control 115
S-scan view 77 Pulser/Receiver 92
support and training 171 Sensitivity 111
surfaces techniques
circular 70 AATT (absolute arrival time
cylindrical 69 technique) 143
sweep range 3 creeping wave 150
delta 144
T
immersion 164
tables 125 mode-converted 150
acceptance values for gain PATT (pulse arrival time
linearity 106 technique) 143
basic data views 73 pitch-and-catch 142
beam deflection options for RATT (relative arrival time
focal law calculators 47 technique) 142
inspection sequence depen- SPOT (satellite pulse obser-
dence 71 vation time technique)
main ultrasonic features 125 142
mass density, velocity, and TOFD 145
acoustic impedance theta (θ) angle 70
128
R/D Tech Index 183

through-transmission 30 views
time-base setup 72 basic 73
time-frequency response fea- A-scan, rectified 73
tures 33 A-scan, unrectified 74
time-of-flight delay / half path B-scan 75
for different materials 109 C-scan 75
time-of-flight diffraction See D-scan 76
entries under TOFD S-scan 77
TOFD (time-of-flight diffrac- table of basic data views
tion) 145 73
TOFD dialog box 113 layouts 85
TOFD view 82 other useful ~ 80
tolerances on phased array Dynamic Strip View
probe features 35 (Amplitude) 81
TomoView Dynamic Strip View
calibration operations 110 (Position) 80
ultrasound settings 90 polar view 82
top view 76 Scrolling Strip View
total skew angle 50 (Amplitude) 81
training centers 171 Scrolling Strip View (Posi-
transmission coefficient 127 tion) 80
transmission loss 127 TOFD view 82
transverse velocity 125 special ~ 83
types of phased array probes 11 beam simulation 85
1-D annual array 11 calibration 84
1-D plan circular 17 FFT 83
1-D plan linear array 13 virtual probe aperture (VPA) 3
1.5-D plan matrix 16 VPA (virtual probe aperture) 3
2-D plan segmented annular
W
array 15
2-D planar matrix 14 warnings
daisy 17 MCDU-02 advanced set-
tings 115
U MCDU-02 emergency stop
ultrasonic features 125 button 115
ultrasonic field graphs 131 MCDU-02 fine tuning 115
ultrasound settings See set- wavelength 126, 129
tings, ultrasound Web site forum 171
unidirectional scan 66 wedge
unit conversion 169 numbering system 40
unrectified A-scan 74 offset conventions 49
upper ligament, formula 146 on curved parts 21
useful views, other 80 phased array probe on the ~
18
V
skew angle 50
velocity 128 width, beam 29, 127
longitudinal 125 width, element 17
Rayleigh 125
transverse 125 Y
vertical linearity 105 Young’s modulus (E) 125
vertical scattering 142
184 Index R/D Tech

Phased Array Technical Guidelines: Useful Formulas, Graphs, and Examples
First edition printed and bound by Transcontinental Québec, Canada, May 2005
Printed on HOP‐SYN paper from Hop Industries Corporation and bound in
Wire‐O®. HOP‐SYN is made from polypropylene and clay (calcium carbonate).
These are nontoxic materials that contain no chlorine or other halogens.
HOP‐SYN recycles as a plastic, does not drip when burned, emits no toxic fumes,
and leaves a clean ash when incinerated.
Produced and distributed by R/D Tech Corp.

Phased Array Technical Guidelines

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Phased Array Technical Guidelines

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Phased Array Technical Guidelines

Useful Formulas, Graphs,

R/D Tech Corp.

This booklet belongs to:

(To avoid smudging, use a permanent marker.)

R/D Tech iii

1. Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General

2. Phased Array Probes—General Features ................... 11

3. Focal Laws—General Examples ................................... 45

4. Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts ..................... 65

R/D Tech Table of Contents v

5. Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic

6. Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas ........................ 125

vi Table of Contents R/D Tech

Appendix A: Unit Conversion ............................................ 169

Appendix B: Support and Training .................................... 171

Selected References ............................................................... 173

Index ......................................................................................... 175

R/D Tech Table of Contents vii

R/D Tech, as a world leader in ultrasonic and eddy current

This new Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet is a hands-on

The booklet includes an appendix on support and training. Please feel

R/D Tech is committed to an intensive training program on the

R/D Tech Preface ix

Training will be provided in R/D Tech Training Centers and/or in

• Lavender International NDT Consulting Services Ltd

Finally, R/D Tech management and marketing department wish to

Thanks to the reviewers and advisers for their effort to provide

Special thanks to Ontario Power Generation and namely to Petru

x Preface R/D Tech

One of the major contributors to the reliability of any nondestructive

The customer-oriented philosophy of R/D Tech resulted in the

The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet contains the following:

• Chapter 1, “Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General

R/D Tech Introduction 1

2 Introduction R/D Tech

The phased array ultrasonic technology is based on the following

a) Multiplexing of a large number of identical crystals as a single

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 3

a) Probe design is based on modeling.

4 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

Reflected wave front

Acquisition Phased array

The main advantages of phased array technology can be summarized

1. Faster. Phased array inspections with linear scanning are typically

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 5

A/D Averaging Compression

6 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 7

• For a reliable detection and sizing of inner-surface breaking

8 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

Data analysis and defect characteristics (height, orientation, location)

Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation Inc., Canada

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 9

2.1 Types of Phased Array Probes

Type Deflection Beam shape

2.1.1 1-D Annual Array

R/D Tech Phased Array Probes—General Features 11

Tip: You may generate spherical shear waves at fixed

12 Chapter 2 R/D Tech

2.1.2 1-D Plan Linear Array

R/D Tech Phased Array Probes—General Features 13

F1, Φ1, β1, x1, y1

F1, Φ1, β1, x1, y1