EPSL

ELSEVIER Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (1996) 161-173

Mantle exhumation at passive margins

J.P. Brun a,*, M.O. Beslier b71
a Geosciences Rennes (CNRS UPR 4661). Campus de Beaulieu, F-35042 Rennes Cedex, France
h Laboratoire de Giodynamique Sous-Marine (CNRS-Universite’ Paris 6 URA 718, BP 48, F-06230 Villefranche-sur-mer, France

Received 15 October 1995; accepted 16 April 1996

Abstract

Laboratory models of lithosphere necking have been used to study the modes of passive margin formation and related
mantle exhumation at continent-ocean boundary. Four-layer models were constructed with sand and silicone putty, to
represent the brittle and ductile layers, respectively, of both crust and mantle. It is shown that necking of the whole
lithosphere model is nearly symmetrical (pure shear) but that asymmetrical structures (simple shear) develop internally, due
to heterogeneous boudinage and/or faulting of brittle layers. Relative movements between brittle layers is accommodated by
layer-parallel shear in the ductile layers defining a set of conjugate shear zones. With increasing stretching, lower crust and
mantle shear zones become juxtaposed as the lower ductile mantle layer rises up through the separation zone of boudins in
the brittle layer. The experimental results are used to propose a general model of passive margin formation leading to mantle
exhumation. They are also compared to the situation observed on the west Iberia margin. The exhumation of lithosphere
mantle is the result of a bulk pure shear at lithospheric scale. Shearing of exhumed mantle rocks does not correspond to
detachment faults cross-cutting the whole lithosphere at the onset of rifting but results from heterogeneous stretching and
boudinage of the high-strength sub-Moho mantle.

Keywords: lithosphere; passive margins; mantle; deformation

1. Introduction favour of such an interpretation [2]. Simple shear

During the last decade, the modes of lithosphere
extension leading to the formation of passive mar-
gins have been widely debated. Pure shear extension
[l] has often been advocated through the analysis
and modelling of subsidence histories. The symmetry
of crustal thinning at the scale of the entire rift zone
between Flemish Cap and Goban Spur in the North
Atlantic Ocean (Fig. la) is a potential argument in
’ Corresponding author. Fax: +33 99 28 60 94. E-mail: jean-
pierre.brnn@univ-tennesl.fr
’ Fax: + 33 93 76 37 66. E-mail: beslier@ccrv.obs-vlfr.fr
extension associated to lithosphere scale detachment
faults [3] has also been proposed to explain the
common asymmetry of fault patterns [4,5]. An addi-
tional argument is the occurrence of mantle rocks at
the continent-ocean boundary, as observed along the
west Galicia margin [61 (Fig. lb), where shear crite-
ria indicate a normal-sense ductile shear zone dip-
ping beneath the margin [7-91. The opposing inter-
pretations have been applied to Atlantic margins
(Fig. l), even in some cases to the same area (e.g.
the North Biscay margin which has been tentatively
explained by pure shear extension [lo] and by simple
shear extension [ 111).

0012-821X/96/$12.00 Copyright 8 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

PIf SOOl2-821X(96)00080-5
162 J.P. Brun, M.O. Beslier/Earth
In the present paper, we examine the progressive
deformation of a multi-layer brittle-ductile continen-
tal lithosphere through laboratory experiments [ 121.
It is first shown that internal asymmetrical structures
can develop in a model undergoing a bulk pure
shear. The models are then used to illustrate how the
lower lithosphere mantle is progressively exhumed.
A general model of passive margin formation is
proposed and applied, in particular, to the west Iberia
margin. The discussion focuses on the pure-shear
versus simple shear modes of extension, the relative
roles of decollement and detachment processes dur-
ing passive margin formation, and the localisation of
deformation in the lithosphere mantle.
-2
Peridotite
Fig. 1. Structure of passive margins of the North Atlantic. (a) Reconstruction of North Atlantic at 105 Ma (anomaly K) modified after [54];
COB = continent-ocean boundary at 118 Ma (anomaly MO). (b) Flemish Cap-Goban Spur section modified after 121. (c) Galicia margin
section modified after [9].
and Planetary Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173
2. Necking of a brittle-ductile lithosphere
2.1. Analogue modelling
It is now widely accepted that an extending conti-
nental lithosphere with a normal thickness of crust
(around 35 km) and a stable geotherm can be repre-
sented at strain rates of lo-l5 set-’ by four-layer
type strength profiles (e.g. [ 13-151) (Fig. 2a). Two
high-strength zones correspond to the middle crust
and the upper part of the lithosphere mantle. In the
laboratory, such a multi-layer is modelled using sand
to represent high strength, brittle layers, and silicone
putty to represent low strength, ductile layers (Fig.
 J.P. Brun. M.O. Beslrer/ Earth and Planetaryv Science Letters 142 (1996) 161-173 163

2b). The model, which floats above a low viscosity,
higher density glucose solution, representing the as-
thenosphere, is set up in a rectangular tank with one
mobile wall connected to two half side-walls that can
be displaced at a constant rate (Fig. 2~). Thicknesses,
viscosities, densities, and strain rates are appropri-
ately scaled to simulate an extending continental
lithosphere (for details on scaling principles see [15]).
Table 1 summarizes the experimental parameters.
A detailed description of experiments for various
strength profiles will be published elsewhere, along
with a comparison with analytical models. In the
following, two models are presented which are rele-
vant to mantle exhumation processes.
2.2. Experimental results
The experiment shown in Fig. 3a,b and Fig. 4a
was halted immediately prior to mantle exhumation,
since the layer Dm, representing the ductile litho-
spheric mantle, locally rose to the surface. Although
the internal structure is strongly asymmetric (Fig. 3a,
Fig. 4a), the external shape displays a nearly sym-
metrical necking of the whole model (Fig. 3b). It is
particularly interesting to note that neither thermal
exchange nor dynamic effects of the asthenosphere
(i.e. mantle plume) are involved here, since the rise
of the basal interface of Dm is passive and due
solely to isostasy. The brittle mantle layer, Bm,
which is the zone of highest strength in the model, is
boudinaged. Finite amplitude stretching of Bm is
localised between two of the boudins, allowing a
contact between the ductile mantle, Dm, and the
ductile crust, DC. In nature, this would correspond to
a newly formed Moho. Crustal layers Bc and DC
exhibit two different patterns of thinning along the
two limbs of the whole lithosphere neck. On the
right, the brittle crust, Bc, is affected by a series of
tilted blocks and the ductile crust, DC, is highly
attenuated. On the left, above the weakly separated
Bm boudins, Bc is affected by conjugate faults with-
out significant tilting, and DC is less attenuated than
on the right hand side.
Fig. 3c and Fig. 4b show a model similar to the
previous one, but which has been stretched to a
lesser extent. The structure is basically the same,
except that localisation of finite amplitude stretching
of Bm is on the left limb of the whole lithosphere
neck. The distortion of initially vertical markers in
layers DC and Dm (Fig. 3c and Fig. 4b) gives the
sense of shear. Those deformed markers have been
used to draw the contours of shear zones. Two
conjugate, normal sense, shear zones are revealed
which cross-cut each other in the widest zone of
boudins in the Bm (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 displays in three
steps the initiation and progressive evolution of con-

Table I
Experimental parameters for models shown in Fig. 3Fig. 4

Initial Initial layer thickness (cm) Physical properties of

silicone putties Deformation parametres
model crust mantle
v: mobile wall velocity (cm/h)
brittle I ductile // brittle/ductile D: density
dimensions d: extension duration (mn)
BC DC BM D$4 p: viscosity (Pa.s) at
(cm) e: extension length (cm)
lithosphere ambiant temperature

DC: D = 1.214
1:4/6 N 0.8 / - 1.5 p=2.1 104
BBl 50*23 Z7
2.0 DM: D = 1.305 e: 3.8 (7.6%)
4.3 p = 1.3 104

lz5 /I 0.8 12.0 DC: D = 1.1

BB9 35*20 p= 1.6 lo4 :iL
$7 DM: D= 1.305 e: 3.2 (9.14%)
4.5 p= 1.3 10 4
164 J.P. Brun. M.O. Beslier/Emth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173

jugate shear zones in the ductile lower crust and 2.3. Progressive deformation leading to mantle ex-
mantle. Note that the sense of shear indicated by the humation
tilted blocks in the upper brittle layer, Bc, is compat-
ible with the one observed in the ductile layer DC. From the above experiments, and considering
It is interesting to compare the pattern of conju- available data from passive margins of western Eu-
gate shear zones obtained in the experiments with rope (Fig. I), a simple model may be proposed to
the numerical models of Ch&y et al. [16]. In these explain passive margin formation leading to mantle
models (see their fig. 3b2), shearing is restricted to exhumation (Fig. 6).
the lower ductile crust and the middle part of the At initiation (Fig. 6a), the structures induced by
lithosphere mantle, with senses of shear top to the stretching can be roughly symmetric. The high-
rift centre in the lower crust, and top to the rift strength layers in the upper crust and the sub-Moho
borders in the mantle. The overall pattern is compa- mantle undergo faulting and/or boudinage. The rifts
rable to that obtained in experiment BB9 (Fig. 5). in the brittle upper crust are not necessarily localised

01-03 al -a3
0

1
L

3
7

5
deoth depth
(kh (cm)
105 6 r;
Nature a Model b

half lateral wall mobile wall

3

brittle (sand)-ductile (silicone) model gluckse solution

Fig. 2. Strength profiles in nature (a) and model (b), and experimental apparatus cc).
 J.P. Brun, M.O. Beslier/Earth and Planetary Science Letters I42 (19%) 161-173 165

above the boudins of the brittle upper mantle. As 6b-d). Relative displacements between the upper
stretching increases, breakup of the brittle upper crust and the lithosphere mantle are accommodated
mantle occurs, and strain softening in local zones by horizontal shear in the lower ductile crust, with a
leads to a necking of the whole lithosphere (Fig. reversal of shear sense on each side of the litho-

Fig. 3. Photographs of four-layer models. (a) Cross-section of model BBl; due to model cutting procedure, the geometry of the
‘lithosphere’-‘asthenosphere’ boundary has been disturbed. (b) Side view of model BBI at the end of the experiment. (c) Cross-section of
model BB9. See strength profile in Fig. 2.
166 J.P. Brun, M.O. Beslier/Earth and Planetary
sphere neck axis (LCSZ, on Fig. 6b,c). The lower
ductile crust is therefore a decollement zone between
the upper crust and the mantle. Localisation of
stretching in the upper part of the lithosphere mantle
produces asymmetry in the system, even if no previ-
ously inherited asymmetry was present. Experiments
show that localisation of stretching in the upper part
of the mantle can occur in various places (compare
Fig. 4a and b), but the effect is relatively unpre-
dictable and likely related to local, small initial
perturbations, which are later amplified by stretch-
ing. The separation of the upper part of the mantle
into two segments allows the ductile mantle to rise
up, producing conjugate shear zones along the transi-
tion between high and low strength zones in the
mantle (MSZ, Fig. 6b,c). Extreme crustal thinning in
the central part of the lithosphere neck results in
5cm
I I
5cm
Fig. 4. Line drawings of models BBl (a) and BB9 (b) for strong and moderate finite stretching, respectively.
DC = ductile crust (silicone); Bm = b&tie mantle (sand); Dm = ductile mantle (silicone).
Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173
mantle exhumation (Fig. 6d). Mantle rocks that ap-
pear at the extremity of the two passive margins are
those which have been sheared along mantle shear
zones. Note that, in the final configuration, the lower
crust shear zone is cross-cut by the mantle shear
zone, and that the pre-existing moho passes laterally
into a newly formed Moho, which juxtaposed the
ductile mantle and the lower ductile crust, or even
the upper brittle crust.
3. Application to the west Iberia margin
The west Iberia margin results from the diver-
gence between Iberia and North America plates (Fig.
1) during the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous.
From south to north, three domains are classically
a
b
Bc = brittle crust (sand);
 J.P. Brun, M.O. Beslier/ Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (I 9%) 161-l 73 167

identified: the Tagus Abyssal Plain, the Iberia
Abyssal Plain, and the Galicia margin. In Fig. 7, for
the present purpose, only the two northern domains
are represented. Continental break-up, which propa-
gated northward in the North Atlantic Ocean (e.g.
[17]), is dated at 125 Ma for the Iberia Abyssal Plain
[18,19] and at 114 Ma for the Galicia margin [20,21].
Both domains are characterised by the presence of
mantle rocks at the ocean-continent boundary
]6,9,221.
Several lines of evidence demonstrate the occur-
rence of flat-lying, normal-sense shear zones dipping
underneath both margin domains within the upper-
most mantle rocks. Peridotite and flazer gabbros,
obtained from drilling [9,22] and diving [23-2.51,
display various stages of ductile shearing, up to the
formation of ultramylonites. The petro-structural
analyses show that progressive shear occurred during
cooling from above 1000°C to 750°C [7,26,27]. Mi-
croscopic shear indicators, together with petrofabric

Fig. 5. Three-stage evolution of model BB9. Deformation of initially vertical passive markers in ductile layers (see Fig. 4b) has been used to
draw contours of shear zones.
168 J.P. Brun, M.O. Be&-r/Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173

Strength (01 - 03)

>
h

n _ ---

exhumed
mantle

Fig. 6. Progressive stretching of a four layer brittle-ductile continental lithosphere leading to mantle exhumation at the passive margin. See
text for explanation.
 J.P. Brun. M.O. Beslier/Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173 169

data, demonstrate a normal sense of shear [7,8]. [29], respectively. These arguments demonstrate that
“‘Ar/ 39Ar dating of a synkinematic diorite dyke in ductile, normal-sense shearing of mantle rocks and
peridotite from Galicia, and a synkinematic recrys- associated gabbros occurred during Lower Creta-
tallised flazer gabbro from the Iberia Abyssal Plain, ceous rifting.
give ages of 122 f 0.3 Ma [28] and 136.4 f 0.3 Ma Seismic lines on both margin domains illustrate

14” 13” 12” 11” 10” 9” 8”

43” 43”
a

42” 42”

J
:,
\
:
41” @
Iberia 89
dbyssal

13’ 12’ 11” 10 9” 8”

Site 637

She 900

Fig. 7. (a> Structural sketch of the northern half of the west Iberia margin (modified from [33D showing the peridotite ridge (grey line), the J
magnetic anomaly (dashed line), the main faults, the sampling sites (squares for submersible dives and dots for ODP drill holes), and
location of cross-sections b and c; bathymetry is from 1551.(b) Schematic interpretative cross-section of the Galicia margin. S = S seismic
reflector. (c) Schematic interpretative cross-section of the Iberia Abyssal Plain.
170 J. P. Bun, M.O. Beslier / Earth and Planetary
normal faulting and related block tilting toward the
continent, with a seaward decrease in block size
(Fig. 7b,c). The base of these blocks is defined near
the ocean-continent boundary by flat-lying seismic
reflectors [30-361. In Galicia, the so-called S reflec-
tor is apparently connected to the peridotite ridge,
suggesting that it represents the crust-mantle bound-
ary. Going landward, the reflector vanishes and re-
fraction data indicate that the crust-mantle boundary
is deeper than the base of the faulted blocks [37].
Therefore, the whole picture is one of a horizontal
stretching gradient: seaward wedging of the lower
crust leads to direct contact of the brittle upper crust
on the serpentinised mantle.
This deformation pattern introduces an apparent
kinematic incompatibility. The system of tilted blocks
in the upper crust indicates that the basal sense of
shear was top to the sea. In contrast, peridotites
immediately underlying these blocks are sheared top
to the continent. In fact, as demonstrated by the
experiments, this paradox results from the extreme
thinning of the lower crust in the breaking zone and
the boudinage of the upper part of the lithosphere
mantle, which brings into direct contact two initially
separate units in which the sense of shear was oppo-
site [ 12,341.
This comparison between the structure of the
Galicia margin and the process of progressive defor-
mation observed in experiments also indicates that
the tectonic contact between the upper crust and the
mantle does not result from a flat-lying detachment
fault cross-cutting the whole lithosphere, as sug-
gested by previous authors (e.g. [9]>.
4. Discussion and conclusions
4.1. Pure shear versus simple shear
In recent years, debate on the formation of pas-
sive margins and sedimentary basins has focused on
pure shear versus simple shear. Arguments in favour
of pure shear depend mostly on thermal history and
associated subsidence [l ,10,381, whereas those
favouring simple shear generally refer to the asym-
metry of structures [3,5,9,11]. The deformation of a
multi-layer brittle-ductile lithosphere gives rise to
complex strain patterns which are neither just pure
Science Letters 142 (19%) 161 -I 73
shear nor simple shear, but a variable combination of
the two. Our experiments show that lithospheric
necking on a wide scale broadly corresponds to pure
shear. However, in this essentially pure-shear envi-
ronment, shear components with opposite senses of
shear develop at rheological interfaces in both crust
and mantle (Fig. 6). This is confirmed independently
by numerical modelling [16,39]. Internal asymmetry
results from kinematic amplification of even small
heterogeneities during stretching. In particular, boud-
inage of the sub-Moho mantle evolves in a very
unstable and asymmetric manner during high ampli-
tude stretching, as exemplified by the two experi-
ments shown in Figs. 3-5. This compares fairly well
with recent numerical models of Covers and Wortel
[39], which analyse strain weakening in the mantle
during extension. Conjugate shear zones develop in
the sub-Moho mantle, giving birth to mantle boudins.
Finally, these authors conclude that, even if strain
localisation does occur in the sub-Moho mantle, it
does not result in lithosphere-scale simple shear ex-
tension. Moreover, asymmetric fabrics, inherited
from previous deformation events and amplified by
stretching, can also contribute to the final asymmetry
(e.g. [13]). Consequently, the asymmetry of exten-
sional structures, especially when considered only on
the scale of the crust (e.g. Galicia margin), does not
demonstrate that extension was asymmetric and that
simple shear occurred on a lithospheric scale.
It should be noted that: (1) boudinage of high-
strength layers in the mantle locally supports models
of heterogeneous stretching, as proposed by previous
authors [40,41]; and (2) the aspect ratio of the whole
rift zone on a crustal scale in model BBl is fairly
comparable to the Flemish Cap-Goban Spur conju-
gate margins (Fig. 8).
4.2. Other evidence of sub-Moho mantle deformation
Deep seismic imaging of certain other rifted do-
mains has provided evidence of localised strain in
the mantle. Normal-sense shear zones offsetting the
Moho are imaged in the two ECORS-DEKORP
lines cross-cutting the Rhine Graben [42]. Their dip
direction reverses in accordance with the change in
rift asymmetry in the upper crust, indicating that
these shear zones probably initiated during rifting.
Although BIRPS lines offshore from Great Britain
 J.P. Brun, M.O. Beslier/ Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142 (19%) 161-173 171

FLEMISH CAP GOBAN SPUR whereas a dtcollement runs parallel to a soft or

Fig. 8. Schematic geometry of bulk crustal thinning (a) in the
Goban Spur-Flemish Cap conjugate margins (modified after [2])
and (b) in experimental model BB 1. Syn-rift and post-rift sedi-
ments in both natural example and experimental model have been
ommitted. In the experimental model, the arching is due to the
fact that post-rift (thermal) subsidence cannot be taken into ac-
count in the experimental procedure. Note that aspect ratios of
crustal scale necks are fairly comparable.
and NSDP lines in the Viking Graben (see review in
[43]) have imaged similar features, these more proba-
bly correspond to inherited Caledonian thrusts later
reactivated in normal sense during rifting [44,45].
Field examples from the Alps [46] also provide
direct illustration of such mantle shear zones. Fi-
nally, the study of small-scale faulting in mantle
xenoliths [47] confirms that brittle deformation, per-
haps assisted by fluids, occurs in the mantle and
suggests that velocity contrasts between fractured
and unfractured peridotite might be sufficient to be
detected by seismic refraction or reflection tech-
niques.
4.3. De’collement versus detachment in mantle ex-
humation
In our general model (Fig. 6) and in the experi-
ments (Fig. 51, it is important to note that shear
zones at their initial stage correspond to dCcollement
zones. The lower crust plays the role of a dCcolle-
ment (decoupling) between the upper brittle crust
and the mantle. A late apparent detachment zone
forms only after strain localisation at finite amplitude
displacement in the sub-Moho mantle. As pointed
out by Ramsay and Huber ([48], p. 518), the terms
dCcollement and detachment are not synonymous. A
detachment cuts across lithological boundaries,
incompetent horizon.
On the west Iberia margin (Fig. 7b,c), the sense of
block tilting in the upper crust is controlled by the
sense of shearing in the lower crust, which early acts
as a dCcollement between the upper crust and the
sub-Moho mantle. A discussion of the lower crust
deformation resulting from such a d&collement is
given by Reston [49]. The strongly sheared peridotite
observed at the ocean-continent boundary does not
result from a detachment faulting but from a shear
zone that cuts across the Moho and connects the
lower crust to the ductile mantle. Subsequent ex-
treme thinning of the upper crust allows the arching
and exhumation of this shear zone, simulating a
detachment. Such a configuration (Fig. 6d) does not
result from detachment faulting on a lithosphere
scale, and therefore cannot be used to argue for a
simple shear process of lithosphere extension.
We are confident that our model not only applies
to Atlantic-type margins, but also to other examples,
such as the Tyrrhenian Sea [50] and the southwest
Australia margin [5 11. Moreover, fossil margins, such
as those observed in mountain belts (e.g., western
Alps: in Queyras, France [52]; at Davos, Switzerland
[53]; and in the Erro-Tobbio massif, Italy [46]),
could be explained in the same terms.
Acknowledgements
We thank Ph. Davy (Geosciences, Rennes) and G.
Boillot (GEMCO, Villefranche-sur-Mer) for numer-
ous helpful discussions during the work and J.J.
Kermarec for invaluable technical assistance in the
experimental tectonics laboratory. Thanks are also
due for help during manuscript preparation to Y.
Descatoire and T. Mauduit (figures), N. Amdt and
M. Carpenter (manuscript improvement), and two
anonymous referees for constructive criticisms. Con-
tribution No. 621 of the Groupe d’Etude de la Marge
Continentale et de 1’OcBan (GEMCO; URA 718
CNRS-Universiti Paris 6). [PTI
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