Original article

Journal of Reinforced Plastics

and Composites

Elastic anisotropy of kenaf fibre and 0(0) 1–10

! The Author(s) 2016
Reprints and permissions:
micromechanical modeling of nonwoven sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0731684416652740
kenaf fibre/epoxy composites jrp.sagepub.com

NG Andre1, Dody Ariawan1,2 and ZA Mohd Ishak1,3

Abstract
In this work, nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy composites were produced by using resin transfer moulding. The effect of
kenaf fibre volume fraction on the composites’ tensile properties and Poisson’s ratio was investigated. Experimental
results show that highest tensile properties and Poisson’s ratio were attained at volume fraction ¼ 0.42. A simple method
has been developed to predict the fibre transverse modulus and has allowed the characterisation of kenaf fibre’s elastic
anisotropy. The performance of the Tsai–Pagano model in predicting the composites’ tensile modulus and Poisson’s ratio
was compared with the Manera and Cox-Krenchel model. Results showed that the consideration of fibre’s elastic
anisotropy in the Tsai–Pagano model yielded a good prediction of both composites’ modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Meanwhile, the Bowyer–Bader model produced a better tensile strength prediction owing to the inclusion of fibre
length and orientation factors in the model.

Keywords
Polymer composites, micromechanical modeling, elastic anisotropy, Kenaf, natural fibre

fibre/epoxy composites. It is important to note that

Introduction
The current upsurge in the use of natural fibres in
various applications has led to the utilisation of green
nonwovens for interior automotive components.1 This
is because it is lightweight and strong with sound effi-
ciency, flexibility, and versatility, as well as having an
attractive cost to performance ratio.2 Nonwovens also
provide excellent z-directional properties that reduce
delamination issues.1,2 Resin transfer moulding
(RTM) is a suitable processing method used to produce
nonwoven composites as this method retains the shapes
and dimensions of the nonwoven mat. Furthermore,
the laminates produced by RTM have superior mech-
anical properties compared to those produced via com-
pression moulding, due to hollow cylinders of needle
path that ease the penetration of matrix into the non-
woven which consequently led to lower void content.3,4
To avoid costly and time-consuming experiments,
prediction of mechanical properties such as tensile
properties can be made through established mathemat-
ical models. So far, there has been limited work on the
prediction of tensile properties of nonwoven natural
the intrinsic properties of fibres are key factors in pro-
ducing an accurate prediction of the composites’ tensile
properties.
Owing to the complex structure of most natural
fibres, elastic anisotropy should be expected in which
the fibres’ longitudinal properties are greater than their
transverse properties.5,6 Unfortunately, many studies
fail to predict the stiffness of randomly oriented natural
fibre composites accurately due to the assumption that
the fibres were isotropic.7–9 Therefore, to produce an
accurate model, the anisotropy of fibre properties
1
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia
3
Cluster for Polymer Composites, Science and Engineering Research
Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Malaysia
Corresponding author:
ZA Mohd Ishak, Cluster for Polymer Composites, Science and
Engineering Research Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering
Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
Email: zarifin@usm.my

Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016

2 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)
should be taken into consideration. The Tsai–Pagano
model takes into account the anisotropy of fibres in
which both fibre’s longitudinal modulus (Ef1) and
transverse modulus (Ef2) are required in order to pre-
dict the composites’ tensile modulus.10 The model
basically treats a randomly oriented fibre composite
as a quasi-isotropic laminate.
While it is easy to measure the Ef1 directly, charac-
terizing the Ef2 has proven to be challenging. Mounting
and testing fibres in any direction other than the longi-
tudinal is difficult. Nevertheless, Cichocki Jr. and
Thomason11 reported that it is possible to predict the
Ef2 of jute with the help of a number of micromecha-
nical models. However, the scope of the aforemen-
tioned study was limited to the thermoelastic
anisotropy of the fibre. As such, the obtained modulus
was not incorporated in any models to predict the
mechanical behaviour of composites.
Tensile strength is an essential element that defines
the mechanical properties of materials. It is important
to note that reinforcing the fibre and its geometric non-
homogeneity will have a greater impact on its strength
than on the composites’ stiffness. Furthermore, mater-
ial failure usually starts at the stress and strain concen-
tration points, amplifying this effect on the fibre’s
strength.12
In addition to tensile strength and modulus,
Poisson’s ratio is another important element that has
been overlooked in many studies on the mechanical
behaviour of composites. Predictions of strength and
Poisson’s ratio are equally important, but there have
been few micromechanical studies directed towards
nonwoven natural fibre composites. Hence, there is a
need to find a good micromechanical model to repre-
sent both the tensile properties and Poisson’s ratio of
nonwoven composites.
The objective of this research is to evaluate the
performance and applicability of several models in pre-
dicting the elastic constants (tensile modulus and
Poisson’s ratio) and tensile strength of nonwoven
KF/epoxy (NKFE) composites over a range of fibre
volume fraction (Vf). In order to yield better elastic
constant predictions, KF elastic anisotropy was taken
into account in the Tsai–Pagano model. The Tsai–
Hahn model13 was used to predict the fibre transverse
modulus, Ef2 and that was, in turn, used in the calcu-
lation of composites’ tensile modulus and Poisson’s
ratio. The estimation of elastic constants by the Tsai–
Pagano model was then compared with experimental
results and prediction by the Manera14 and Cox-
Krenchel15,16 models. Lastly, predictions of tensile
strength were made using models by Hirsch17 and
Bowyer–Bader,18 and the estimates produced by each
model were compared to experimental results and
discussed.
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
Experimental
Materials
Needle-punched nonwoven kenaf fibres (KF) with a
stitching density of 50 cm2 and area density of
1100 g/m2 were supplied by Kenaf Natural Fibre
Industries. The average density of a single KF extracted
from the nonwoven mat is 1.4 g/cm3. Bisphenol A
epoxy resin CP 210DF part A was used with an
amine hardener CP 210DF part B supplied by Camel
Polymer Sdn. Bhd. The mixing ratio of the epoxy-hard-
ener was 2:1, respectively. The epoxy resin system has a
blend viscosity and density of 1.61 Pa.s and 1.13 g/cm3,
respectively.
Determination of fibre length and diameter
The fibre’s length distribution was characterised
according to ISO 6989 Method A. The characterisation
used 500 individual fibres extracted from the nonwoven
mat for length distribution measurement. The fibre’s
diameter distribution was measured under an
Olympus BX61 optical microscope. The diameters of
200 individual fibres were recorded.
Fibre tensile properties
The tensile strength,  f, and the longitudinal tensile
modulus, Ef1, of single KF were evaluated directly fol-
lowing the ASTM C 1557 standard by using the mini-
ature tensile tester model Lex810 Dia-stron (UK)
equipped with a load cell of 19.6 N. The displacement
speed of the upper clamp was set to 3 mm/min. The  f
and Ef1 of 20 single KF extracted from the nonwoven
mat was measured. Prior to the test, the fibres were
dried in a circulating oven at 60 C for 4 h.
Since the Ef2 is difficult to measure, a simplified
method based on the method presented by Cichocki
and Thomason11 was used in which composites consist-
ing of unidirectional KF in an epoxy matrix (UKFE
composites) were produced as shown in Figure 1. Single
KF from the nonwoven mat were first wrapped around
a thin metal bar with width and length of 25 and
50 mm, respectively. They were then secured into
place with a cellophane tape. Furthermore, they were
carefully and uniformly wrapped to a thickness of
approximately 2 mm to prevent variations in fibre con-
centration and orientation.
The fibre-metal bar assemblage was then submerged
into a 400-ml beaker filled with freshly mixed epoxy
and hardener. The beaker containing the epoxy-hard-
ener mixture and fibre-metal bar assemblage was
quickly placed in a vacuum chamber calibrated to
0.1 atm. The vacuum was then released to assist in the
infiltration of the KF and removal of air bubbles from
Andre et al. 3

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the UKFE composite fabrication used to determine the Ef2 of KF.

the epoxy-hardener mixture. It was repeated until no

more air bubbles could be observed in the epoxy
mixture.
After approximately 15 min, the assemblage was
removed from the beaker. Another metal bar was
clamped and compressed against the assemblage and
it was allowed to cure for 2 h at 80 C. The cured
UKFE composite was then separated from the metal
bar and cut, perpendicular to the fibre direction, into
rectangular shapes, measuring approximately
20  4  1 mm3. Post-curing was carried out after
machining for another 4 h at 60 C to remove excess
moisture and allow for the epoxy to fully cure. A
Densitometry Model Precisa XT 220 A was used to
determine the densities of the UKFE composite sam-
ples. These data were then used to estimate the volume
fraction of the fibres in the composites.
A Mettler Toledo DMA 861 dynamic mechanical
analyser was utilised to measure the elastic constants
of samples mounted with a gauge length of 15 mm
over a range of temperatures. Dynamic tensile dis-
placement was superimposed sinusoidally with a dis-
placement amplitude of 3 mm at a frequency of 10 Hz
under tensile mode. After reaching 50 C, the tem-
perature was raised to 100 C at 2 C/min intervals.
The Tsai–Hahn model14 was then applied to calculate
Ef2 of the KF.
Composite preparation
The NKFE composites were produced using a Hypaject
. The UCAM-550 A series Fast Data
MKV-type resin transfer moulding machine with two
reciprocating pumps. The mixing ratio of epoxy to
hardener was 2 to 1. The mixtures were shot into a
mould containing 0.15, 0.31, and 0.42 Vf of nonwoven
Figure 2. Strain gage placement on the tensile test specimen.
KF mat. The composites then underwent post-curing at
60 C for 24 h. They were finally cut into tensile and
flexural test samples by using a bandsaw.
Tensile properties of epoxy and NKFE composites
The tensile strength and modulus of the epoxy and
NKFE composites were evaluated according to the
ASTM D 3039 standard by using the INSTRON
5969 universal testing machine equipped with an
extensometer. The test machine was also equipped
with a 50 kN load cell and operated at a crosshead
speed of 2 mm/min. Each of the specimens was also
attached with a triaxial strain gage supplied by Showa
Measuring Instruments Co. Ltd. The strain gage was
carefully attached in the middle of the cleaned surface
of the specimen by using a cyanoacrylate-type adhesive
(see Figure 2). The gage length was 5 mm with a resist-
ance of 120
Logger by Kyowa Electronic Instruments was used to
measure the x, y, and z-axis strain during the tensile
test. The values were, in turn, used to calculate the
Poisson’s ratio of epoxy and its composites.

Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016

4 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)
Void content
The void content, VV, was calculated from the equation
below:
theoretical  experimental
VV ¼
theoretical
where
theoretical ¼ Vf f þ Vm m
The symbol theoretical and experimental represent the
theoretical and experimental density of the NKFE com-
posites while f and m denote the density of fibre and
matrix. Vf and Vm represent the volume fraction of fibre
and matrix, respectively.
Surface morphology
The surface morphology of the NKFE composites was
observed using SEM Model Carl Zeiss Leo Supra
50 VP. All samples were first coated with a thin layer
of gold by using VG Microtech–Polaron Sputter
Coater to render them electrically conductive.
Results and discussion
Properties of single kenaf fibre
Table 1 summarises the physical and tensile properties
of single KF extracted from the nonwoven kenaf mat.
The average longitudinal tensile strength of KF was
514.59  141.06 MPa; it was in the range of previous
reported studies.19,20
The anisotropic properties of KF can be proven by
comparing the fibre’s longitudinal Young’s modulus,
Ef1, with its transverse Young’s modulus, Ef2. The dif-
ference between these two moduli will indicate the
extent of the anisotropic behaviour of the fibre.
The average Ef1 obtained from the miniature tensile
test was 26.06  6.63 GPa. The obtained Ef1 value was
within the range of experimental values presented in the
literature.19–21
In order to evaluate the transverse Young’s modu-
lus, Ef2 of KF, micromechanical models that
Table 1. Physical and tensile properties of single KF.
Mean length (mm) 40.10  17.40
Mean diameter (mm) 63.79  37.37
Aspect ratio 628.63  151.10
Longitudinal tensile modulus (GPa) 26.06  6.63
Longitudinal tensile strength (MPa) 514.59  141.06
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
incorporated the properties of the composite and
matrix were used. In this study, a semi-empirical
model developed by Tsai and Hahn13 was employed
to help with the prediction of Ef2. This model was
developed under the assumption that the transverse
ð1Þ
stress in the matrix was less than the stress carried by
the fibre. The formulation is defined as
 
1 Vf Vm
E22 ¼ þ ð3Þ
ð2Þ Vf Vm Ef2 Em
where  denotes the stress partitioning factor which is
obtained by curve-fitting the equation to the elastic
modulus of composite, E22, at a range of fibre volume
fraction, Vf. The value of  ¼ 0.5 was employed in this
study following an acceptable curve fit of the predicted
transverse and shear moduli data to the experimental
data for a unidirectional glass fibre/epoxy composite.13
The fibre concentration was determined to be
0.3  0.02 Vf, assuming zero void contents in the com-
posites. Figure 3 shows the elastic modulus of UKFE
composites perpendicular (90 ) from the fibre direction
from 10 C to 50 C, which were obtained by the
dynamic mechanical analysis method. Gradual decre-
ments of the composite’s elastic modulus can be
observed as the temperature increased.
Figure 3 also shows the predicted Ef2 calculated using
equation (3). Results obtained from the DMA test and
the prediction by Tsai–Hahn model provides some insight
into the relationship between elastic modulus of fibre and
temperature. It can be seen that the calculated transverse
modulus of the fibre, Ef2, decreased as the temperature
rose. Due to the hygroscopic nature of natural fibre, it
may contain some residual water which is known to
increase its stiffness.22 At elevated temperature, the
water moisture is gradually removed which in turn,
Figure 3. The elastic modulus of UKFE composite perpen-
dicular to the fibre direction (EC) and the predicted KF transverse
modulus by Tsai–Hahn model.
Andre et al.
Table 2. Experimental tensile properties, Poisson’s ratio, and void content of epoxy and NKFE composites.
Fibre volume fraction, Vf Tensile modulus (GPa)
0 1.93 (0.12)
0.15 3.21 (0.16)
0.31 3.97 (0.10)
0.42 5.50 (0.27)
( ) ¼ Standard deviation.
decreased the fibre’s elastic modulus.23 Nevertheless, at
room temperature, the predicted transverse modulus of
the single KF was 2.50 GPa. This also shows that single
KF was highly anisotropic due to the large difference
between Ef1 and Ef2.
Effect of fibre loading
Table 2 presents the obtained experimental variation of
tensile properties of epoxy and NKFE composites at
different fibre volume fractions, Vf. The rigidity of the
composite materials increased with the increment of the
nonwoven KF loading. The tensile modulus increased
by 66% with the addition of 0.15 Vf of nonwoven mats.
Further addition of nonwoven mats, 0.31 and 0.42 Vf,
increased the tensile modulus by 106% and 185%,
respectively. The addition of stiffer fibres that exhibited
higher modulus than the polymer matrix inhibited the
movements of the polymer chain. This, in turn,
improved the stiffness of the resulting composites.
The tensile strength reduced by 26% upon incorpor-
ation of 0.15 Vf. At low fibre loading, the amount of
fibre is not sufficient in providing high strength to the
epoxy matrix, and thus the nonwoven KF act as
flaws.24,25 Nevertheless, as Vf increased, the properties
of the KF became more significant, and consequently
the tensile strength of the composite was improved. The
highest tensile strength was attained at 0.42 Vf with
16% improvement from the tensile strength of neat
epoxy. Meanwhile, the Poisson’s ratio exhibited small
changes upon incorporation of nonwovens, wherein the
highest value was attained at 0.42 Vf.
Table 2 also shows the void content of the NKFE
composites at different Vf. The void content shows an
increasing trend against Vf. The highest void content
was 5.2%, observed at 0.42 Vf. There are several rea-
sons why voids are formed in the composites. First is
the inability of the matrix to displace all the air which is
trapped within the nonwovens during fibre impregna-
tion26; this happened when the resin was shot into the
mould containing the nonwoven KF. Second is the
incomplete wetting of fibres by the resin due to the
poor adhesion between the hydrophobic matrix and
hydrophilic fibres.27
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
5
Tensile strength (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Void content (%)
28
43.18 (1.49) 0.39 (0.041) –
31.86 (1.16) 0.39 (0.004) 2.08 (0.33)
38.45 (1.38) 0.41 (0.004) 3.14 (0.44)
50.17 (0.82) 0.42 (0.018) 5.17 (0.30)
Prediction of composites’ tensile modulus
Various micromechanical models have been developed
and proposed to predict the modulus of fibre-reinforced
polymer composites. Nonwovens are basically made up
of a loose matting structure which consists of fibre
mechanical interlocking and hollow cylinders produced
by the needle punching process. However, assuming the
nonwoven to be a randomly oriented fibre composite,
the established micromechanical models might still be
useful to predict and validate experimental data. In
order to predict the tensile modulus of the NKFE com-
posites, models by Tsai–Pagano, Manera, and Cox-
Krenchel have been used.
Before any comparison can be done, it is vital to
understand the motivation behind the selection of
each model in this study. The Tsai–Pagano model was
selected as it took into account the fibre’s elastic anisot-
ropy. As for the model by Manera, it is basically based
on the classical laminate analogy and shares the same
invariants properties with the Tsai–Pagano model.14
Therefore, a comparison between these two models is
relevant to observe the performance of the model that
includes or does not include the fibre’s elastic anisot-
ropy. On the other hand, the Cox-Krenchel model was
based on the modification of the rule of mixture,
whereby the dimension and orientation factor of the
fibre phase was included. The relevance behind the
selection of this model was to compare a model
that was based on the laminate and invariants theory
(Tsai–Pagano) and a model that was based on other
consideration (Cox-Krenchel). Apart from that, it has
been proven previously that the model by Cox-
Krenchel has produced good tensile modulus
prediction.29–32
The model proposed by Tsai and Pagano10 was used
extensively to predict the elastic modulus of composites
consisting of fibres randomly oriented in a plane. The
equation is as follows
3 5
EC ¼ E11 þ E22 ð4Þ
8 8
6 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

where the E11 and E22 are the respective longitudinal with the properties’ laminates with infinite number of
and transverse moduli for a unidirectional aligned short layers oriented in every direction.
fibre composite having similar aspect ratio and fibre The Cox-Krenchel model utilised the modified rule
volume fraction, Vf. of mixture and is expressed as follows
In conjunction with the Tsai–Pagano model, the
equation proposed by Halpin-Tsai33 was used to deter- EC ¼ l o Ef Vf þ Em Vm ð8Þ
mine both E11 and E22. The mathematical expressions
are as follows where l is the fibre length distribution factor and o is
 the fibre orientation distribution factor; the effect of
    Ef1 voids has been neglected.15 The fibre orientation
1 þ 2ld 1 Vf Em  1
E11 ¼ Em where 1 ¼  ð5Þ factor was based on Krenchel’s16
1  1 V f Ef1
þ 2lEm d
o ¼ cos4 ðo Þ ð9Þ

  1
Ef2
1 þ 22 Vf Em where o is the fibre orientation limit angle. Proposed
E22 ¼ Em where 2 ¼  ð6Þ
1  2 V f E f2
þ2 by Thomason and Vlug, the orientation factor, o, for
Em
laminates containing an in-plane random fibre orienta-
tion is 0.375.35 On the other hand, the l was calculated
The combination of these models took into consid- based on the Cox shear lag theory, which is given by15:
eration the fibre loading and both of the fibres’ elastic
l
modulus: longitudinal and transversal. They have, tanh 2
therefore, been utilised in this study to predict the l ¼ 1  l
ð10Þ
2
NKFE composites’ modulus under variations of non-
woven KF loading. vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The physical properties as shown in Table 1, as well 2u
u Em
¼ t  ð11Þ
as the estimated fibre transverse modulus, were applied d E ð1   ÞLn 
f1 M i Vf
into the Halpin-Tsai and then Tsai–Pagano equations
to predict the elastic modulus of the NKFE composites.
Table 3 summarises the E11 and E22 under different where the shear-parameter  represents the coefficient
fibre loading calculated by using equations (5) and (6). of stress concentration rate at fibres’ end, vM is the
Manera has proposed a simplified equation to pre- Poisson’s ratio of matrix, and l is the length of fibre.
dict the elastic properties of randomly oriented short This study assumes a square fibre packing, and thus
fibre composites.14 The proposed equation by Manera i ¼ 4.
is as follows Figure 4 shows the experimental and predicted
  tensile modulus of NKFE composites over a range of
16 8 Vf. Predictions of tensile modulus by all three models
EC ¼ Vf Ef1 þ 2Em þ Em ð7Þ
45 9

The model is a result of the usage of the classical

laminate analogy alongside the invariant properties of
composite defined by Tsai–Pagano, and micromechanic
formulation proposed by Puck.34 The model also
assumes that the mechanical properties of randomly
oriented discontinuous fibre composites are the same

Table 3. E11 and E22 at different Vf .

Fibre volume fraction, Vf

Elastic modulus 0.15 0.31 0.42

E11 (GPa) 5.26 8.92 11.51

E22 (GPa) 2.00 2.09 2.15 Figure 4. Experimental and predicted tensile modulus of NKFE
composites at different Vf.

Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016

Andre et al.
displayed a linear increment as a function of Vf.
Comparing the theoretical and experimental values, it
can be seen that the model by Manera has failed in
predicting the tensile modulus accurately. There is a
significant overestimation by the model at all Vf. The
model deviates 20%, 45% and 31% at 0.15, 0.31, and
0.42 Vf, respectively. Based on previous study, the
model only works well when Em is in the range of 2
to 4 GPa and the fibre has a high aspect ratio: l/d > 300.
Both epoxy and nonwoven KF did not fulfil both
requirements by Manera.14 Furthermore, the model
that was meant for glass fibre disregards the elastic
anisotropy of fibre in the derivation. Unlike glass
fibre, natural fibre has been proven to have large vari-
ations in its properties due to varied (a) content of cel-
lulose and (b) fibre’s dimensions.11,36 Moreover, in the
previous part of this paper, the fibre that was utilised in
this study has proven to be elastically anisotropic. All
of these have influenced the ability of the model to pro-
duce an accurate prediction of tensile modulus.
Cox-Krenchel’s model has produced a very good
prediction at each Vf. It falls under the experimental
tensile modulus with very small deviations: <9%.
This is due to the inclusion of both fibre orientation
and length fibre in the model, which are both
important factors influencing the tensile properties
of composites. A previous study stated that the
improvement of prediction models could probably
be reached if factors such as fibre angle and length
distribution corrections were included.9 This is a
noteworthy finding as the Cox-Krenchel’s model
involves simple calculations and the required data
are obtainable from a simple test.
For the Tsai–Pagano model, at 0.15 Vf, the predic-
tion deviated 5.6% from the experimental result. At
0.31 and 0.42 Vf, the deviations were 14.6% and
2.8% above the experimental values. The model that
was used in conjunction with the Halpin-Tsai model
has yielded better tensile modulus prediction compared
to the prediction by Manera. This proves that taking
into consideration the fibre’s elastic anisotropy gives
out better prediction. However, comparison between
the model and the Cox-Krenchel model reveals that
the latter predicted tensile modulus more accurately.
The previous study shows that fibre stiffness was deter-
mined by spiral angles of the crystalline fibrils and the
content of cellulose in the fibre.36 The inconsistencies of
these two in the KF and the presence of void in the
composites as shown in Table 2 and Figure 5 might
be responsible for the small discrepancies in the predic-
tion as it is not included in the model. Nonetheless, the
differences between the deviations of Tsai–Pagano and
Cox-Krenchel models from the experimental values are
not significant and both could still predict the tensile
modulus fairly well.
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
7
Figure 5. SEM image of NKFE composites (voids are indicated
by the arrows).
Prediction of Poisson’s ratio
To predict the Poisson’s ratio vC of the NKFE compos-
ites by using the Tsai–Pagano model, the following
equation was used with the assumptions that the com-
posites have a random distribution of fibres10,33:
EC
C ¼ 1 ð12Þ
2GC
in which the EC was obtained from the previous pre-
diction; the shear modulus, GC, was estimated by
another equation proposed by Tsai–Pagano.10,33 It is
expressed as:
1 1
GC ¼ E11 þ E22 ð13Þ
8 4
where again, the E11 and E22 are longitudinal and trans-
verse elastic moduli of unidirectional aligned fibre com-
posite calculated from equations (3) and (4). The
predicted GC of the composites was 1.19, 1.69, and
2.03 GPa at 0.15, 0.31, and 0.42 Vf, respectively.
Meanwhile, both models by Cox-Krenchel and
Manera put constraints on the Poisson’s ratio and
were set to be vC ¼ 1/3 at every Vf.14,37
Figure 6 shows the experimental and predicted
Poisson’s ratio, vC. It can be observed that the experi-
mental vC lies between the models by Tsai–Pagano and
Manera/Cox-Krenchel but closer to the former.
Moreover, based on equation (12) by Tsai–Pagano,
the calculated vC at 0.15, 0.31, and 0.42 Vf were
0.395, 0.423, and 0.438. Likewise, at Vf of 0.15, the
predicted vC deviates by 2.3% above the experimental
value. In addition, the predictions of vC further deviate
as Vf increased, i.e. by 3.2% and 4.3% at 0.31 and 0.42
Vf, respectively. As for the prediction by Manera and
Cox-Krenchel model, the deviations from experimental
8 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)
Figure 6. Experimental and predicted Poisson’s ratio of non-
woven KF/epoxy composites at different Vf.
vC were 13.7%, 11.9%, and 8.5% at 0.15, 0.31, and 0.42
Vf, accordingly. In effect, the smaller percentage of
deviations from the experimental values compared to
the Manera and Cox-Krenchel model validated that the
Tsai–Pagano model was able to predict the elastic con-
stants of the NKFE composites under different Vf. This
also indicated that a good prediction of composites’
tensile modulus and Poisson’s ratio is possible by
taking into account the anisotropic nature of KF.
Prediction of tensile strength
Two pertinent models have been utilised to predict
the tensile strength of NKFE composites at various
Vf,: the Hirsch’s model and Bowyer–Bader’s model.
These models have been used extensively in previous
literatures and have produced reliable predictions.38,39
In particular, the first model proposed by Hirsch17 is
based on the combination of parallel (rule of mixture)
and series (inverse rule of mixture) models. According
to the model, the tensile strength of the composite is
given as
  m f
C ¼ x m Vm þ f Vf þ ð1  xÞ
m Vf þ f Vm
where  C,  m, and  f are the tensile strengths of the
composite, matrix (epoxy), and KF, respectively. Vm
and Vf are the volume fraction of matrix and fibre,
respectively, and x is the parameter which determines
the stress transfer between the matrix and fibre.
For randomly oriented fibre composites, x is 0.1
based on agreement between experimental and theoret-
ical values.38
The second model, which was used to predict the
strength, is by Bowyer and Bader.18 According to the
model, the tensile strength of short fibre-reinforced
thermoplastic composites is the sum of contributions
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
Figure 7. Experimental and theoretical tensile strength of
epoxy and its composites at different Vf.
from subcritical and supercritical fibres as well as that
of the matrix. Accordingly, the equation for tensile
strength is given as
C ¼ f K1 K2 Vf þ m Vm ð15Þ
where K1 is the fibre orientation and K2 is the fibre
length factor. For fibres with l > lc,
l  lc
K2 ¼ ð16Þ
2l
and for fibre with l < lc
l
K2 ¼ ð17Þ
2lc
in which l and lc represent the fibre length and critical
fibre length. For randomly oriented fibre composites,
K1 is 0.2 based on previous research.40 By using the
interfacial shear strength (IFSS) of KF obtained from
the study by Park et al.41 alongside the information in
Table 1, the estimated critical length of KF was
1.64 mm. As the length of the KF is significantly
larger than its critical fibre length, K2, therefore,
ð14Þ
becomes l/2l, thus equivalent to 0.5. The agreement
between theoretical and experimental values in previous
studies38,39 further corroborates the previous statement.
From Figure 7, it can be seen that Hirsch’s model
overestimates the tensile strength of the NKFE
composites at every Vf. Specifically, the theoretical ten-
sile strength deviates by 39%, 53%, and 41% at 0.15,
0.31, and 0.42 Vf, respectively. Unlike in previous stu-
dies,35,36 this model has failed to represent the tensile
strength of the composites. Meanwhile, the tensile
strength predicted by the Bowyer–Bader’s model was
much closer to the experimental values. Furthermore,
the deviation of the models at various Vf ranged from
0.9% to 18.6%. The smaller deviation is due to the
Andre et al.
introduction of fibre orientation and length factor in
the equation, which are important factors affecting
the mechanical properties of composites. Nevertheless,
the deviation of Bowyer–Bader’s model is still signifi-
cant, especially at higher Vf. At higher Vf, there would
be more fibre-rich area which would act as stress
concentration point. This, together with the poor
fibre-matrix interaction, would consequently affect the
tensile strength of the composites. Unfortunately, these
are not accounted for in the model, which explains the
deviations in the experimental values.
Conclusion
Several conclusions were drawn from this study. First, the
addition of nonwoven KF to the epoxy matrix resulted in
the increase of tensile modulus. However, the tensile
strength of NKFE composites decreased upon incorpor-
ation of 0.15 Vf but exhibited improvements at higher Vf.
Consequently, the highest tensile properties were attained
at 0.42 Vf. Second, the Tsai–Hahn model has allowed the
determination of transverse modulus Ef2 of single KF.
Additionally, it was noted that KF is highly anisotropic
with Ef1 and Ef2 values of 26.06 and 2.50 GPa, respect-
ively. Third, by taking the anisotropic nature of KF into
account, the Tsai–Pagano model in conjunction with the
Halpin-Tsai model has yielded fair predictions of EC.
Likewise, the Tsai–Pagano model has produced the best
prediction of vC, further validating the assumption that
the consideration of KF elastic anisotropy in a model will
yield a good prediction of the composite’s elastic con-
stants. Moreover, a comparative study between the tensile
strengths obtained from experimental and selected models
revealed that the Bowyer–Bader model produced better
predictions due to the inclusion of fibre length and orien-
tation factors.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support given by Universiti Sains Malaysia and the Ministry
of Higher Education, Malaysia by providing RUC Grant
(Grant no.: 1001/PBAHAN/814134) and LRGS Grant
(Grant no.: 1001/PKT/8640012), respectively.
References
1. Thilagavathi G, Pradeep E, Kannaian T, et al. Development
of natural fiber nonwovens for application as car interiors
for noise control. J Ind Text 2010; 39: 267–278.
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
9
2. Kamath M and Bhat G. Cotton fiber nonwovens for
automotive composites. Int Nonwovens J 2005; 14:
34–40.
3. Sreekumar PA, Albert P, Unnikrishnan G, et al.
Mechanical and water sorption studies of ecofriendly
Banana fiber-reinforced polyester composites fabricated
by RTM. J Appl Polym Sci 2008; 109: 1547–1555.
4. Idicula M, Sreekumar PA, Joseph K, et al. Natural fiber
hybrid composites-a comparison between compression
molding and resin transfer molding. Polym Compos
2009; 30: 1417–1425.
5. Sun Z, Zhao X, Wang X, et al. Predicting the elastic
properties of sisal fiber reinforced polypropylene compos-
ites by a new method based on generalized method of
cells and laminate analogy approach. Compos Sci
Technol 2014; 91: 45–49.
6. Ntenga R, Béakou A, Atangana Atéba J, et al.
Estimation of the elastic anisotropy of sisal fibres by an
inverse method. J Mater Sci 2008; 43: 6206–6213.
7. Epaarachchi J, Ku H and Gohel K. A simplified empir-
ical model for prediction of mechanical properties of
random short fiber/vinylester composites. J Compos
Mater 2009; 44: 779–788.
8. Islam MA and Begum K. Prediction models for the elas-
tic modulus of fiber-reinforced polymer composites: an
analysis. J Sci Res 2011; 3: 225–238.
9. Facca AG, Kortschot MT and Yan N. Predicting the
elastic modulus of natural fibre reinforced thermoplas-
tics. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2006; 37: 1660–1671.
10. Tsai S and Pagano N. Invariant properties of composite
materials. In: Composite materials workshop, 1968, pp.
233–253. St. Louis, MO: Technomic Publishing
Company.
11. Cichocki FR and Thomason JL. Thermoelastic anisot-
ropy of a natural fiber. Compos Sci Technol 2006; 62:
669–678.
12. Gibson RF. Principles of composite material mechanics,
3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011.
13. Hahn HT and Tsai SW. Introduction to composite mater-
ials, 1st ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1980.
14. Manera M. Elastic properties of randomly oriented short
fiber-glass composites. J Compos Mater 1977; 11:
235–247.
15. Cox HL. The elasticity and strength of paper and other
fibrous materials. Br J Appl Phys 1952; 3: 72–79.
16. Krenchel H. Fibre reinforcement: Theoretical and prac-
tical investigations of the elasticity and strength of fibre-
reinforced materials. Copanhagen: Akademisk Forlag,
1964.
17. Hirsch T. Modulus of elasticity of concrete affected by
elastic moduli of cement paste matrix and aggregate. ACI
J Proc 1962; 59: 427–452.
18. Bowyer WH and Bader MG. On the re-inforcement of
thermoplastics by imperfectly aligned discontinuous
fibres. J Mater Sci 1972; 7: 1315–1321.
19. Shibata S, Cao Y and Fukumoto I. Flexural modulus of
the unidirectional and random composites made from
biodegradable resin and bamboo and kenaf fibres.
Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2008; 39: 640–646.
10
20. Akil HM, Omar MF, Mazuki AAM, et al. Kenaf fiber
reinforced composites: a review. Mater Des 2011; 32:
4107–4121.
21. Ochi S. Mechanical properties of Kenaf fibers and Kenaf/
PLA composites. Mech Mater 2008; 40: 446–452.
22. Folster TH and Michaeli W. Flax—a renewable source of
reinforcing fibre for plastics. Kunststoffe Ger Plast 1993;
83: 687–691.
23. Hornsby PR, Hinrichsen E and Tarverdi K. Preparation
and properties of polypropylene composites reinforced
with Wheat and Flax straw fibres part I fibre character-
ization. J Mater Sci 1997; 2: 443–449.
24. Uma Devi L, Bhagawan SS and Thomas S. Mechanical
properties of pineapple leaf fiber-reinforced. J Appl Sci
1996; 64: 1739–1748.
25. Al-Khanbashi A, Al-Kaabi K and Hammami A. Date
palm fibers as polymeric matrix reinforcement: fiber char-
acterization. Polym Compos 2005; 26: 486–497.
26. Jawaid M, Khalil HPSA, Bakar AA, et al. Chemical
resistance, void content and tensile properties of oil
palm/jute fibre reinforced polymer hybrid composites.
Mater Des 2011; 32: 1014–1019.
27. Madsen B, Thygesen A and Lilholt H. Plant fibre com-
posites—porosity and volumetric interaction. Compos Sci
Technol 2007; 67: 1584–1600.
28. Mahjoub R, Yatim JM, Sam ARM, et al. Characteristics
of continuous unidirectional Kenaf fiber reinforced
epoxy composites. Mater Des 2014; 64: 640–649.
29. Pervaiz M, Sain M and Ghosh A. Evaluation of the influ-
ence of fibre length and concentration on mechanical per-
formance of Hemp fibre reinforced polypropylene
composite. J Nat Fibers 2006; 2: 67–84.
30. Thomason JL and Groenewoud WM. The influence of
fibre length and concentration on the properties of glass
fibre reinforced polypropylene: 2. Thermal properties.
Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 1996; 27: 555–565.
31. Garkhail SK, Heijenrath RWH and Peijs T. Mechanical
properties of natural-fibre-mat-reinforced thermoplastics
Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 6, 2016
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)
based on flax fibres and polypropylene. Appl Compos
Mater 2000; 7: 351–372.
32. Houshyar S, Shanks RA and Hodzic A. The effect of
fiber concentration on mechanical and thermal properties
of fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. J Appl
Polym Sci 2005; 96: 2260–2272.
33. Halpin J and Kardos J. The Halpin-Tsai equations: a
review. Polym Eng Sci 1976; 16: 344–352.
34. Puck A. Zur Beanspruchung und Verformung von GFK-
Mehrschichtenverbund-Bauelementen: Teil 1. Grundlagen
der Spannungs-und Verformungsanalyse. Teil 2. Spannungs-
und Verformungsanalyse an GFK-Wickelrohren unter
Überdruck. Teil 3. Versuche an Mehrschichtenverbunden.
Hanser, 1967.
35. Thomason JL and Vlug MA. Influence of fibre length
and concentration on the properties of glass fibre-rein-
forced polypropylene: 1. Tensile and flexural modulus.
Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 1996; 27: 477–484.
36. Bledzki AK and Gassan J. Composites reinforced with
cellulose based fibres. Prog Polym Sci 1999; 24: 221–274.
37. Pan N. The elastic constants of randomly oriented fiber
composites: a new approach to prediction. Sci Eng
Compos Mater 1996; 5: 63–72.
38. Kalaprasad G, Joseph K, Thomas S, et al. Theoretical
modelling of tensile properties of short Sisal fibre-
reinforced low-density polyethylene composites. J Mater
Sci 1997; 2: 4261–4267.
39. Venkateshwaran N and Elayaperumal A. Banana fiber
reinforced polymer composites—a review. J Reinf Plast
Compos 2010; 29: 2387–2396.
40. Curtis PT, Bader MG and Bailey JE. The stiffness and
strength of a polyamide thermoplastic reinforced with
glass and carbon fibres. J Mater Sci 1978; 13: 377–390.
41. Park JM, Son TQ, Jung JG, et al. Interfacial evaluation
of single Ramie and Kenaf fiber/epoxy resin composites
using micromechanical test and nondestructive acoustic
emission. Compos Interf 2012; 13: 105–129.