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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 435

19
X

Static behaviour of natural

gas and its flow in pipes
Ohirhian, P. U.
University of Benin, Petroleum Engineering Department, Benin City, Nigeria.
Email: peter@ohirhian.com, okuopet@yahoo.com

Abstract
A general differential equation that governs static and flow behavior of a compressible fluid
in horizontal, uphill and downhill inclined pipes is developed. The equation is developed
by the combination of Euler equation for the steady flow of any fluid, the Darcy–Weisbach
formula for lost head during fluid flow in pipes, the equation of continuity and the
Colebrook friction factor equation. The classical fourth order Runge-Kutta numerical
algorithm is used to solve to the new differential equation. The numerical algorithm is first
programmed and applied to a problem of uphill gas flow in a vertical well. The program
calculates the flowing bottom hole pressure as 2544.8 psia while the Cullender and Smith
method obtains 2544 psia for the 5700 ft (above perforations) deep well
Next, the Runge-Kutta solution is transformed to a formula that is suitable for hand
calculation of the static or flowing bottom hole pressure of a gas well. The new formula
gives close result to that from the computer program, in the case of a flowing gas well. In the
static case, the new formula predicts a bottom hole pressure of 2640 psia for the 5790 ft
(including perforations) deep well. Ikoku average temperature and deviation factor method
obtains 2639 psia while the Cullender and Smith method obtaines 2641 psia for the same
well.. The Runge-Kutta algorithm is also used to provide a formula for the direct calculation
of the pressure drop during downhill gas flow in a pipe. Comparison of results from the
formula with values from a fluid mechanics text book confirmed its accuracy. The direct
computation formulas of this work are faster and less tedious than the current methods.
They also permit large temperature gradients just as the Cullender and Smith method.
Finally, the direct pressure transverse formulas developed in this work are combined wit the
Reynolds number and the Colebrook friction factor equation to provide formulas for the
direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate

Introduction
The main tasks that face Engineers and Scientists that deal with fluid behavior in pipes can
be divided into two broad categories – the computation of flow rate and prediction of
pressure at some section of the pipe. Whether in computation of flow rate, or in pressure
transverse, the method employed is to solve the energy equation (Bernoulli equation for

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436 Natural Gas

liquid and Euler equation for compressible fluid), simultaneously with the equation of lost
head during fluid flow, the Colebrook (1938) friction factor equation for fluid flow in pipes
and the equation of continuity (conservation of mass / weight). For the case of a gas the
equation of state for gases is also included to account for the variation of gas volume with
pressure and temperature.
In the first part of this work, the Euler equation for the steady flow of any fluid in a pipe/
conduit is combined with the Darcy – Weisbach equation for the lost head during fluid flow
in pipes and the Colebrook friction factor equation. The combination yields a general
differential equation applicable to any compressible fluid; in a static column, or flowing
through a pipe. The pipe may be horizontal, inclined uphill or down hill.
The accuracy of the differential equation was ascertained by applying it to a problem of
uphill gas flow in a vertical well. The problem came from the book of Ikoku (1984), “Natural
Gas Production Engineering”. The classical fourth order Runge-Kutta method was first of all
programmed in FORTRAN to solve the differential equation. By use of the average
temperature and gas deviation factor method, Ikoku obtained the flowing bottom hole
pressure (P w f) as 2543 psia for the 5700 ft well. The Cullender and Smith (1956) method

that allows wide variation of temperature gave a P w f of 2544 psia. The computer program

obtaines the flowing bottom hole pressure (P w f ) as 2544.8 psia. Ouyang and Aziz (1996)
developed another average temperature and deviation method for the calculation of flow
rate and pressure transverse in gas wells. The average temperature and gas deviation
formulas cannot be used directly to obtain pressure transverse in gas wells. The Cullender
and Smith method involves numerical integration and is long and tedious to use.
The next thing in this work was to use the Runge-Kutta method to generate formulas
suitable for the direct calculation of the pressure transverse in a static gas column, and in
uphill and downhill dipping pipes. The accuracy of the formula is tested by application to
two problems from the book of Ikoku. The first problem was prediction of static bottom hole
pressure (P w s). The new formula gives a P w s of 2640 psia for the 5790ft deep gas well.
Ikoku average pressure and gas deviation factor method gives the
P w s as 2639 psia, while the Cullender and Smith method gives the P w s as 2641 psia. The
second problem involves the calculation of flowing bottom hole pressure (P w f). The new
formula gives the P w f as 2545 psia while the average temperature and gas deviation factor
of Ikoku gives the P w f as 2543 psia. The Cullender and Smith method obtains a P w f of
2544 psia. The downhill formula was first tested by its application to a slight modification of
a problem from the book of Giles et al.(2009). There was a close agreement between exit
pressure calculated by the formula and that from the text book. The formula is also used to
calculate bottom hole pressure in a gas injection well.
The direct pressure transverse formulas developed in this work are also combined wit the
Reynolds number and the Colebrook friction factor equation to provide formulas for the
direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate in uphill and down hill dipping pipes.

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 437

A differntial equation for static behaviour of a compressible

fluid and its flow in pipes
The Euler equation is generally accepted for the flow of a compressible fluid in a pipe. The
equation from Giles et al. (2009) is:

dp vdv
  d sin   dh l  0 (1)
 g

In equation (1), the plus sign (+) before d  sin  corresponds to the upward direction of the
positive z coordinate and the minus sign (-) to the downward direction of the positive z
coordinate.
The generally accepted equation for the loss of head in a pipe transporting a fluid is that of
Darcy-Weisbach. The equation is:
f L v2
HL  (2)
2gd

The equation of continuity for compressible flow in a pipe is:

W= A  (3)

Taking the first derivation of equation (3) and solving simultaneously with equation (1) and
(2) we have after some simplifications,

 fW2 
 2
  sin   .
dp  2 A dg 
 (4)
d  W2 d 
 1  
  2 A 2 g dp 

All equations used to derive equation (4) are generally accepted equations No limiting
assumptions were made during the combination of these equations. Thus, equation (4) is a
general differential equation that governs static behavior compressible fluid flow in a pipe.
The compressible fluid can be a liquid of constant compressibility, gas or combination of gas
and liquid (multiphase flow).
By noting that the compressibility of a fluid (C f) is:

1 d
C f (5)
 dp

Equation (4) can be written as:

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438 Natural Gas

 f W2 
 2
  sin 
dp  2A dg 
 (6)
d  W2 Cf 
1  2 
  A g 

Equation (6) can be simplified further for a gas.

Multiply through equation (6) by  , then

 f W2 2

 2
  sin  
 dp  2g  dg 
 (7)
d  W Cf 
2
1  
  A 2 g 

The equation of state for a non-ideal gas can be written as

p 
 (8)
zR 

Substitution of equation (8) into equation (7) and using the fact that

pdp 1 dp2
 , gives
d 2 d
 fW 2 zR 2p2  sin  
 2  
dp2   d g
 zR 

 (9)
d  W 2 zRC f 
 1  
  2 g p 

The cross-sectional area (A) of a pipe is

2
2
  d2  2 d 4
    (10)
 4  16
 

Then equation (9) becomes:

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 439

 fW2 zR 2  sin 2 

 1.621139 5
 
d2 d  g zR
   .
 (11)
d 1.621139W2 zRCf
 1 
  g d4  

The denominator of equation (11) accounts for the effect of the change in kinetic energy
during fluid flow in pipes. The kinetic effect is small and can be neglected as pointed out by
previous researchers such as Ikoku (1984) and Uoyang and Aziz(1996). Where the kinetic
effect is to be evaluated, the compressibility of the gas (C f) can be calculated as follows:
For an ideal gas such as air,

1 1 1 z
Cf  . For a non ideal gas, C f =  .
p p z p

Matter et al. (1975) and Ohirhian (2008) have proposed equations for the calculation of the
compressibility of hydrocarbon gases. For a sweet natural gas (natural gas that contains CO2
as major contaminant), Ohirhian (2008) has expressed the compressibility of the real gas (Cf)
as:

Cf 
p
For Nigerian (sweet) natural gas K = 1.0328 when p is in psia
The denominator of equation (11) can then be written as
KW 2 zRT
1 , where K = constant.
M g d 4P2
Then equation (11) can be written as

dy (A By)
 (12)
d (1  G )
y

where
2 1.621139fW 2 zRT 2M sin  KW 2 zRT
yp , A , B ,G .
gd 5 M zRT gMd 4

The plus (+) sign in numerator of equation (12) is used for compressible uphill flow and the
negative sign (-) is used for the compressible downhill flow. In both cases the z coordinate is
taken positive upward. In equation (12) the pressure drop is y1 - y 2 , with y1 > y2 and
incremental length is l2 – l1. Flow occurs from point (1) to point (2). Uphill flow of gas occurs
in gas transmission lines and flow from the foot of a gas well to the surface. The pressure at

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440 Natural Gas

the surface is usually known. Downhill flow of gas occurs in gas injection wells and gas
transmission lines.
We shall illustrate the solution to the compressible flow equation by taking a problem
involving an uphill flow of gas in a vertical gas well.

Computation of the variables in the gas differential equation

We need to discuss the computation of the variables that occur in the differential equation
for gas before finding a suitable solution to it.. The gas deviation factor (z) can be obtained
from the chart of Standing and Katz (1942). The Standing and Katz chart has been curve
fitted by many researchers. The version that was used in this section of the work that of
Gopal(1977). The dimensionless friction factor in the compressible flow equation is a
function of relative roughness (  / d) and the Reynolds number (RN). The Reynolds
number is defined as:
vd W d
RN   (13)
 Ag

The Reynolds number can also be written in terms of the gas volumetric flow rate. Then

W=  bQb
Since the specific weight at base condition is:

p M 28.97Gg p
  b  b (14)
b z T R z T R
b b b b
The Reynolds number can be written as:

36.88575Gg Pb Q b
RN  (15)
Rgd g z b Tb

By use of a base pressure (p b) = 14.7psia, base temperature (T b) = 520oR and R = 1545

20071Q b Gg
R N= (16)
g d

Where d is expressed in inches, Q b = MMSCF / Day and g is in centipoises.

Ohirhian and Abu (2008) have presented a formula for the calculation of the viscosity of
natural gas. The natural gas can contain impurities of CO2 and H2S. The formula is:

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 441

0.0109388  0.0088234xx  0.00757210xx 2

g  (17)
1.0  1.3633077xx  0.0461989xx 2
Where
0.0059723p
xx =
z  16.393443  T 
 p

In equation (17) g is expressed in centipoises(c p) , p in (psia) and Tin (oR)

The generally accepted equation for the calculation of the dimensionless friction factor (f) is
that of Colebrook (1938). The equation is:

1   2.51 
 2 log    (18)
f  3.7d R f
 N 

The equation is non-linear and requires iterative solution. Several researchers have
proposed equations for the direct calculation of f. The equation used in this work is that
proposed by Ohirhian (2005). The equation is

2
  
f   2 log a  2b log  a  bx 1  

(19)

Where
 2.51
a ,b .
3.7d R
 
x 1 = 1.14 log   0.30558   0.57 log R N  0.01772 log R N  1.0693 
d 
After evaluating the variables in the gas differential equation, a suitable numerical scheme
can be used to it.

Solution to the gas differential equation for direct calculation of pressure transverse in
static and uphill gas flow in pipes.

The classical fourth order Range Kutta method that allows large increment in the
independent variable when used to solve a differential equation is used in this work. The
solution by use of the Runge-Kutta method allows direct calculation of pressure transverse..
The Runge-Kutta approximate solution to the differential equation

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442 Natural Gas

dy (20)
 f(x, y) at x  x n
dx
given that y  y o when x  xo is
1
y  y o  (k 1  2(k 2  k 3 )  k 4 ) (21)
6
where
k 1  Hf(xo , y o )
1 1
k 2  Hf(x  H, y o  k 1 )
2 2
1 1
k 3  Hf(xo  H, y o  k 1 )
2 2
k 4  Hf(xo  H, y  k 3 )
x  xo
H n
n
n  number of applications

The Runge-Kutta algorithm can obtain an accurate solution with a large value of H. The
Runge-Kutta Algorithm can solve equation (6) or (12). The test problem used in this work is
from the book of Ikoku (1984), “Natural Gas Production Engineering”. Ikoku has solved this
problem with some of the available methods in the literature.

Example 1
Calculate the sand face pressure (p wf) of a flowing gas well from the following surface
measurements.
Flow rate (Q) = 5.153 MMSCF / Day
Tubing internal diameter (d) = 1.9956in
Gas gravity (G g) = 0.6
Depth = 5790ft (bottom of casing)
Temperature at foot of tubing (T w f ) = 160 oF
Surface temperature (T s f) = 83 o F

Tubing head pressure (p t f) = 2122 psia

Absolute roughness of tubing (  ) = 0.0006 in
Length of tubing (l) = 5700ft (well is vertical)
Solution
When length (  ) is zero, p = 2122 psia
That is (xo, yo ) = (0, 2122)
By use of 1 step Runge-Kutta.
5700  0
H=  5700ft.
1

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 443

The Runge-Kutta algorithm is programmed in Fortran 77 and used to solve this problem.
The program is also used to study the size of depth(length ) increment needed to obtain an
accurate solution by use of the Runge-Kutta method. The first output shows result for one-
step Runge-Kutta (Depth increment = 5700ft). The program obtaines 2544.823 psia as the
flowing bottom hole pressure (P w f ).

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2122.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 620.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT

PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT

2122.000 .000
2544.823 5700.000

To check the accuracy of the Runge-Kutta algorithm for the depth increment of 5700 ft
another run is made with a smaller length increment of 1000 ft. The output gives a p wf of
2544.823 psia. as it is with a depth increment of 5700 ft. This confirmes that the Runge-
Kutta solution can be accurate for a length increment of 5700 ft.

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2122.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 620.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 1000.0000000 FT

PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT

2122.000 .000
2206.614 1140.000
2291.203 2280.000
2375.767 3420.000
2460.306 4560.000
2544.823 5700.000

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444 Natural Gas

In order to determine the maximum length of pipe (depth) for which the computed P w f
can be considered as accurate, the depth of the test well is arbitrarily increased to 10,000ft
and the program run with one step (length increment = 10,000ft). The program produces the
P w f as 2861.060 psia..

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2122.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 687.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 10000.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 10000.0000000 FT
PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT
2122.000 .000
2861.060 10000.000
Next the total depth of 10000ft is subdivided into ten steps (length increment = 1,000ft). The
program gives the P w f as 2861.057 psia for the length increment of 1000ft.

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2122.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 687.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 10000.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 1000.0000000 FT
PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT
2122.000 .000
2197.863 1000.000
2273.246 2000.000
2348.165 3000.000
2422.638 4000.000
2496.680 5000.000
2570.311 6000.000
2643.547 7000.000
2716.406 8000.000
2788.903 9000.000
2861.057 10000.000

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 445

The computed values of P w f for the depth increment of 10,000ft and 1000ft differ only in
the third decimal place. This suggests that the depth increment for the Range - Kutta
solution to the differential equation generated in this work could be a large as 10,000ft. By
neglecting the denominator of equation (6) that accounts for the kinetic effect, the
result can be compared with Ikoku’s average temperature and gas deviation method that
uses an average value of the gas deviation factor (z) and negligible kinetic effects. In the
program z is allowed to vary with pressure and temperature. The temperature in the
program also varies with depth (length of tubing) as
(Twf  Ts f )
T = GTG  current length + T s f, where, GTG 
Total Depth
The program obtains the P w f as 2544.737 psia when the kinetic effect is ignored. The
output is as follows:

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2122.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 620.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT

PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT

2122.000 .000
2544.737 5700.000

Comparing the P w f of 2544.737 psia with the P w f of 2544.823 psia when the kinetic effect is
considered, the kinetic contribution to the pressure drop is 2544.823 psia – 2544.737psia =
0.086 psia.The kinetic effect during calculation of pressure transverse in uphill dipping pipes
is small and can be neglected as pointed out by previous researchers such as Ikoku (1984)
and Uoyang and Aziz(1996)
Ikoku obtained 2543 psia by use of the the average temperature and gas deviation method.
The average temperature and gas deviation method goes through trial and error calculations
in order to obtain an accurate solution. Ikoku also used the Cullendar and Smith method to
solve the problem under consideration. The Cullendar and Smith method does not consider
the kinetic effect but allows a wide variation of the temperature. The Cullendar and Smith
method involves the use of Simpson rule to carry out an integration of a cumbersome
function. The solution to the given problem by the Cullendar and Smith method is p w f =
2544 psia.
If we neglect the denominator of equation (12), then the differential equation for pressure
transverse in a flowing gas well becomes

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446 Natural Gas

dy (22)
 A  By
dl
where
1.621139fW 2 zRT (23)
A 5
gd M
2M sin  2  28.79Gg sin  (24)
B 
zRT RTz

The equation is valid in any consistent set of units. If we assume that the pressure and
temperature in the tubing are held constant from the mid section of the pipe to the foot of
the tubing, the Runge-Kutta method can be used to obtain the pressure transverse in the
tubing as follows.
46.9643686 GgQ 2b fzRT 59.940Gg Sin  y
5

dy gd zRT
 2
(25)
d 46.9643686KzGgQ 2b  p b   T 
1    
gRd 4  Tb   y 

The weight flow rate (W) in equation (12) is related to Q b (the volumetric rate measurement
at a base pressure (P b) and a base temperature (T b)) in equation (25) by:

W=
 bQb (26)

Equation (25) is a general differential equation that governs pressure transverse in a gas
pipe that conveys gas uphill. When the angle of inclination (  ) is zero, sin  is zero and the
differential equation reduces to that of a static gas column. The differential equation (25) is
valid in any consistent set of units. The constant K = 1.0328 for Nigerian Natural Gas when
the unit of pressure is psia.
The classical 4th order Runge Kutta alogarithm can be used to provide a formula that serves
as a general solution to the differential equation (25). To achieve this, the temperature and
gas deviation factors are held constant at some average value, starting from the mid section
of the pipe to the inlet end of the pipe. The solution to equation (25) by the Runge Katta
algorithm can be written as:

p1  p22  y.
(27)

Where

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 447

aa p22 u
y
6
 2 3
1  x  0.5x  0.36x 
6
 
4.96x  1.48x 2  0.72x 3 
6
 
4.96  1.96x  0.72x 2 
 46.9643686 Gg Q b2 f2 z 2 RT2 57.94Gg sin   22 
aa   5
 L
 gd z 2 z R 
 
46.9643686 Gg Q b2 f2 zav av L
u
gd 5
57.940 Gg sin  L
x
zav Tav R
When Q b = 0, equation (27) reduces to the formula for pressure transverse in a static gas
column.
In equation (27), the component k 4 in the Runge Kutta method given by k 4 =
H f(xo + H, y + k 3) was given some weighting to compensate for the fact that the
temperature and gas deviation factor vary between the mid section and the inlet end of the
pipe.
Equation (27) can be converted to oil field units. In oil field units in which L is in feet, R =
1545, temperature is in oR, g = 32.2 ft/sec2, diameter (d) is in inches, pressure (p) is in pound
per square inch (psia), flow rate (Qb) is in MMSCF / Day, Pb = 14.7 psia and Tb = 520o R.,the
variables aa, u and x that occur in equation (25) can be written as:

25.130920Gg Q 2b f2 zav Tav L

u
d5

G g L s in 
x  0 .0 3 7 4 9 
z a v Ta v

The following steps are taken in order to use equation (27) to solve a problem.
1. Evaluate the gas deviation factor at a given pressure and temperature. When
equation (27) is used to calculate pressure transverse in a gas well, the given
pressure and temperature are the surface temperature and gas exit pressure (tubing
head pressure).
2. Evaluate the viscosity of the gas at surface condition. This step is only necessary
when calculating pressure transverse in a flowing gas well. It is omitted when
static pressure transverse is calculated.
3. Evaluate the Reynolds number and dimensionless friction factor by use of surface
properties. This step is also omitted when considering a static gas column.
4. Evaluate the coefficient aa in the formula. This coefficient depends only on surface
properties.

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448 Natural Gas

5. Evaluate the average pressure (p a v) and average temperature (T a v).

6. Evaluate the average gas deviation factor.(z a v )

7. Evaluate the coefficients x and u in the formula. Note that u = 0 when Q b = 0.
8. Evaluate y in the formula.
9. Evaluate the pressure p1 . In a flowing gas well, p1 is the flowing bottom hole
pressure. In a static column, it is the static bottom hole pressure.

Equation (27) is tested by using it to solve two problems from the book of Ikoku(1984),
“Natural Gas Production Engineering”. The first problem involves calculation of the static
bottom hole in a gas well. The second involves the calculation of the flowing bottom hole
pressure of a gas well.

Example 2
Calculate the static bottom hole pressure of a gas well having a depth of 5790 ft. The gas
gravity is 0.6 and the pressure at the well head is 2300 psia. The surface temperature is 83oF
and the average flowing temperature is 117oF.
Solution
Following the steps that were listed for the solution to a problem by use of equation (27) we
have:
1. Evaluation of z – factor.
The standing equation for Pc and T c are:
P c (psia) = 677.0 + 15.0 G g – 37.5 Gg2

T c (o R) = 168.0 + 325.0 G g – 12.5 Gg2

Substitution of G g = 0.6 gives, Pc = 672.5 psia and T c = 358.5oR. Then Pr = 2300/672.5 = 3.42
and T r = 543/358.5 = 1.52
The Standing and Katz chart gives z2 = 0.78.
Steps 2 and 3 omitted in the static case.

 25.13092 Gg Q b2 f z 2 T2 0.037417Gg p 22 sin  

4. aa   5
  L
 d z 2 T2 
 
Here, Gg = 0.6, Qb = 0.0, z 2 = 0.78, d = 1.9956 inches, p 2 = 2300 psia,
T2 = 543 o R and L = 5700 ft. Well is vertical,  =90 o , sin  = 1. Substitution of the
given values gives:
aa = 0.0374917  0.6  23002  5790 / (0.78  543) = 1626696
5. p a v= 2300 2  0.5  1626696  2470.5 psia
Reduced p a v = 2470.5 / 672.5 = 3.68
T a v = 117 o F = 577 o R

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 449

Reduced T a v = 577/358.5 = 1.61

From the standing and Katz chart, z a v = 0.816
7. In the static case u = 0, so we only evaluate x
0.0374917  0.6  5790Sin90o
x  0.2766
0.816  577
aa p2
8. y
6
  
1  x  0.5x 2  0.36x 3  2 4.96x  1.48x 2  0.72x 3
6

Substitution of a = 1626696, x = 0.2766 and P2 = 2300 gives
y  358543  1322856  1681399

 
0.5
9. p1  p22  y  2300 2  1681399  2640.34 psia  2640 psia

Ikoku used 3 methods to work this problem. His answers of the static bottom hole pressure
are:
Average temperature and deviation factor = 2639 psia
Sukkar and Cornell method = 2634 psia
Cullender and Smith method = 2641 psia
The direct calculation formula of this work is faster.
Example 3
Use equation (27) to solve the problem of example 1 that was previously solved by
computer programming.
Solution
1. Obtain the gas deviation factor at the surface. From example 2, the pseudocritical
properties for a 0.6 gravity gas are, Pc = 672.5 psia. and T c = 358.5, then
Pr = 2122 / 672.5 = 3.16
T r = 543 / 358.5 = 1.52
From the Standing and Katz chart, z 2 =0.78
2. Obtain, the viscosity of the gas at surface condition. By use of Ohirhian and Abu
0.0059723 p 0.0059723  2122
equation, xx    0.9985
   543 
z  16.393443   0.78  16.393443 
 p  2122 
2
0.0109388  0.008823  0.9985   0.0075720  0.9985 
Then g  2
 0.0133 cp
1.0  1.3633077  0.9985   0.0461989  0.9985 
3. Evaluation of the Reynolds number and dimensionless friction factor
20071Q b Gg 20071  5.153  0.6
RN   2.34  106
gd 0.0133  1.9956

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450 Natural Gas

The dimensionless friction factor by Ohirhian formula is

2
f   2 log  a  2b log  a  bx1   
Where
a  /3.7d, b  2.51 /R N
 
x1   1.14 log   0.30558   0.57 log R N  0.01772 log R N  1.0693 
d 
6
Substitute of  0.0006, d  1.9956, R N  2.34  10 gives f  0.01527
4. Evaluate the coefficient aa in the formula. This coefficient depends only on surface
properties.
 2
25.13092 G g Q b f z 2 T2 0.037417G g p 2 sin  
2

aa    L
 d
5
z 2 T2 
 
Here, Gg = 0.6, Qb = 5.153 MMSCF/Day, f = 0.01527, z 2 = 0.78, d = 1.9956 inches,
p 2 = 2122 psia, T2 = 543 o R, z = 5700 ft
Substitution of the given values gives;
aa = (81.817446 + 239.14594)  5700 = 1829491
5. Evaluate P a v
2 2
p av
 p2  0.5 aa  2122  0.5  1829491  2327.6 psia
6. Evaluation of average gas deviation factor.
Reduced average pressure = p a v / p c = 2327.6 / 672.5 = 3.46
av  2   L / 2
Where  is the geothermal gradient.
   1  2  L   620  543  5700  0.01351
T a v at the mid section of the pipe is 2850 ft. Then, T a v = 543 + 0.01351  2850
= 581.5 o R
Reduced T a v = 581.5 / 358.5 = 1.62
Standing and Katz chart gives z a v = 0.822
7. Evaluation of the coefficients x and u
0.0374917Gg L 0.0374919  0.6  5700
x   0.26824
za v av 0.822  581.5

25.13092Gg Q2bf zavav L

u
d5
25.13092  0.6  5.1532  0.01527  0.822  581.5  5700
  526662
1.99565

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 451

8. Evaluate y
aa p 22 u
y
6
 2 3
1  x  0.5x  0.36x 
6
 
4.96x  1.48x 2  0.72x 3 
6
 
4.96  1.96  0.72x 2 
Where u = 526662, x = 0.26824, p2 = 2122 psia and aa = 1829491. Then,
2
y  399794  1088840  485752  1974386 psia
9. Evaluate p1 (the flowing bottom hole pressure)

p1  p 2  y

 2122 2  1974386  2545.05 psia

 2545 psia
The computer program obtains, the flowing bottom hole pressure as 2544.823 psia. For
comparison with other methods of solution, the flowing bottom hole pressure by:
Average Temperature and Deviation Factor, P1 = 2543 psia
Cullender and Smith, P1 = 2544
The direct calculating formula of this work is faster. The Cullendar and Smith method is
even more cumbersome than that of Ikoku.t involves the use of special tables and charts
(Ikoku, 1984) page 338 - 344.

The differential equation for static gas behaviour

and its downhill flow in pipes
The problem of calculating pressure transverse during downhill gas flow in pipes is
encountered in the transportation of gas to the market and in gas injection operations. In the
literature, models for pressure prediction during downhill gas flow are rare and in many
instances the same equations for uphill flow are used for downhill flow.
In this section, we present the use of the Runge-Kutta solution to the downhill gas flow
differential equation.
During downhill gas flow in pipes, the negative sign in the numerator of differential
equation (12) is used..The differential equation also breaks down to a simple differential
equation for pressure transverse in static columns when the flow rate is zero. The equation
to be solved is:

dy (A By)
 (28)
d (1  G )
y
Where y  p2 ,

2 2
1.621139 f W zRT 2M sin  KW zRT
A , B ,G
5 4
gd M zRT gMd

Also, the molecular weight (M) of a gas, can be expressed as M = 28.97Gg.

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452 Natural Gas

Then, the differential equation (28) can be written as:

 2 5 9 .9 4 0 G g s i n   2 
 0 .0 5 5 9 5 9 2 f z R  W  
d2

 gd5G g zR  

(29)

d  2 
 1  0 .0 5 5 9 5 9 2 z R  W  

 gd5Gg 2 


The differential equation (29) is valid in any consistent set of units. The relationship between
weight flow rate (W) and the volumetric flow rate measured at a base condition of pressure
and temperature (Q b) is;
W=  b Qb (30)

The specific weight at base condition is:

pb M 28.97Gg p b
b   (31)
z b Tb R z b Tb R

Substitution of equations (30) and (31) into differential equation (29) gives:

 46.9583259f zG g  2b Q b2 59.940Gg sin   2 

 5 2 2
 
dp
2
 gd z b  b R zR 

dl  46.95832593Gg Q 2b    b 2     (32)
1  4     2 
 g Rd  b     

The differential equation (32) is also valid in any consistent set of units.

Solution to the differential equation for downhill flow

In order to find a solution to the differential equation for downhill flow (as presented in
equation (29) and (32) we need equations or charts that can provide values of the variables z
and f. The widely accepted chart for the values of the gas deviation factor (z) is that of
Standing and Katz (1942). The chart has been curve fitted by some researchers. The version
used in this section is that of Ohirhian (1993). The Ohirhian set of equations are able to read
the chart within  0.777% error. The Standing and Katz charts require reduced pressure
(Pr) and reduced temperature (T r). The Pr is defined as Pr = P/Pc and the T r is defined as T
r = T / T c; where Pc and T c are pseudo critical pressure and pseudo critical temperature,
respectively.
Standing (1977) has presented equations for Pc and T c as functions of gas gravity (G g). The
equations are:
Pc = 677 + 15.0 G g – 37.5Gg2 (33)
T c = 168 + 325 G g – 12.5 Gg2 (34)

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 453

The differential equation for the downhill gas flow can also be solved by the classical fourth
order Runge-Kutta method.
The downhill flow differential equation was tested by reversing the direction of flow in the
problem solved in example 3.

Example 4
Calculate the sand face pressure (p w f) of an injection gas well from the following surface
measurements.
Flow rate (Q) = 5.153 MMSCF / Day
Tubing internal diameter (d) = 1.9956 in
Gas gravity (G g) = 0.6
Depth = 5790ft (bottom of casing)
Temperature at foot of tubing (T w f) = 160oF
Surface temperature (T s f) = 83oF
Tubing head pressure (P s f’) = 2545 psia
Absolute roughness of tubing (  ) = 0.0006in
Length of tubing (L) = 5700ft (well is vertical)

Solution
Here, (xo, yo) = (0, 2545)
By use of I step Runge-Kutta.
 5700  0   5700
H=
1
The Runge-Kutta algorithm is programmed in Fortran 77 to solve this problem. The output
is as follows.

TUBING HEAD PRESSURE = 2545.0000000 PSIA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE = 543.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
TEMPERATURE AT TOTAL DEPTH = 620.0000000 DEGREE RANKINE
GAS GRAVITY = 6.000000E-001
GAS FLOW RATE = 5.1530000 MMSCFD
DEPTH AT SURFACE = .0000000 FT
TOTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT
INTERNAL TUBING DIAMETER = 1.9956000 INCHES
ROUGHNESS OF TUBING = 6.000000E-004 INCHES
INCREMENTAL DEPTH = 5700.0000000 FT

PRESSURE PSIA DEPTH FT

2545.000 .000
2327.930 5700.000
The other outputs from the program (not shown here) indicates that the contribution of
kinetic effect to pressure transverse during down hill flow is also negligible. The program
also shows that an incremental length as large as 5700 ft can yield accurate result in pressure
transverse calculations.

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454 Natural Gas

Neglecting the kinetic effect, the Runge-Kutta algorithm can be used to provide a solution to
the differential equation (32) as follows

p1  p22  y (35)
Here
aa p2 u
y
6
  
1  x  0.5x 2  0.3x 3  1 5.2x  2.2x 2  0.6x 3 
6
 
6
5.2  2.2x  0.6x 2 
 46.958326 f1 z1 T1 Gg  2b Q b2 57.940 Gg sin p12 
aa    L
 gd 5 z 2b Tb2 R z1 T1 R 
 

46.958326f1zav Tav GgPb2 Q b

2L
57.940 Gg sin  L
u , x
gd 5 z b
2 T2R
b
zav Tav R

f1 = Moody friction factor evaluated at inlet end pipe

T1 = Temperature at inlet end of pipe
T a v = Temperature at mid section of pipe = 0.5(T1 + T2)
p1 = Pressure at inlet end of pipe
z1 = Gas deviation factor evaluated with p1 and T1
z av = Gas deviation factor calculated with temperature at mid section (T a v) and pressure
at the mid section of pipe (p a v ) given by pav  p12  0.5 aa
p2 = Pressure at exit end of pipe, psia
p1 = Pressure at inlet end of pipe
Note that p1 > p2 and flows occurs from point (1) to point (2)
Equation (35) is valid in any consistent set of units.
Equation (35) can be converted to oil field units. In oil field units in which L is in feet, R =
1545, temperature(T) is in o R , g = 32.2 ft/sec2, diameter (d) is in inches, pressure (p) is in
pound per square inche (psia), flow rate (Q b) is in MMSCF / Day and P b = 14.7 psia, Tb =
520o R. The variables aa, u and x that occur in equation (35) can be written as:

 25.1472069 G f1z1 T1Q 2 0.0375016 G sin  p12 

g b g
aa    L
 d5 z1 T1 
 
2L
25.1472069 Gg f1zav Tav Q b 0.0375016 G Sin L
g
u= , x 
5 zav Tav
d

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 455

Example 5
Use equation (35) to solve the problem of example 4
Solution
Step 1: obtain the gas deviation factor at the inlet end
T1 = 83oF = 543o R
P1 = 2545 psia
Gg = 0.6
By use of equation (33) and (34)
Pc (psia) = 677 + 15 x 0.6 – 37.5 x 0.62 = 672.5 psia
Tc (o R) = 168 + 325x0.6 – 12.5 x 0.62 = 358.5 o R
Then, P1 r = 2545/672.5 = 3.784, T1 r = 543/358.5 = 1.515
The required Ohirhian equation is

z  z1   1.39022  r  0.06202  0.02113  r    log r Fc 
Where
z1  0.60163  r  0.06533  0.0133r 
Fc  20.208372  Tr( 44.0548  Tr(37.55915  Tr( 14.105177  1.9688Tr)))
Substitution of values of Pr = 3.784 and Tr = 1.515 gives z = 0.780588
Step 2
Evaluate the viscosity of the gas at inlet condition. By use of Ohirhian and Abu formula
(equation 17)
0.0059723  2545
xx   1.203446
0.780588  16.393443  543 2545 

0.0109388  0.008823  1.203446   0.0075720  1.203446 

2

g   0.015045 cp
1.0  1.3633077  1.203446   0.0461989  1.203446 
2

Step 3
Evaluation of Reynolds number (RN) and dimensionless friction factor (f). From eqn. (26)

20071  5.153  0.6

R   2066877
0.015045  1.9956

The dimensionless friction factor can be explicitly evaluated by use of Ohirhian formula
(equation 19)
 d  0.0006 1.9956  3.066146E  4
a  3.066146E  4 3.7  8.125985E  5
b  2.51 2066877  1.21393E  6
x1  1.14log  3.066146E  4  0.30558   0.57  log 2066877  0.01772 log 2066877  1.0693 
 4.838498
2

Substitution of values of a, b and x1 into f   2 log a  2b log  a  bh  
  gives
f = 0.01765

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456 Natural Gas

Step 4
Evaluate the coefficient aa in the formula. This coefficient depends only on surface (inlet)
properties. Note that the pipe is vertical  = 90o and sin 90o = 1

aa  25.147207  0.6  0.017650  0.780588  543  5.153 2  5700  1.9956 5
  0.037502  0.6  1  2545  5700   0.780588  543 
 539803  1959902  1420099
Step 5
Evaluate the average pressure (p a v) at the mid section of the pipe given by

pav  p12  0.5 aa  25452  0.5  1420099  2401.5

Step 6:
Evaluate the average gas deviation factor (za v). Reduced average pressure(p a v r ) =
2401.5/672.5 = 3.571. av  1  L 2 where   geothermal gradient given by :
   T2  T1  L   620  543  5700  0.013509
o
T a v at mid section of pipe (2850 ft) then, is: av  543  0.013509  2850  581.5 R
Reduced Tav = 581.5/358.5 = 1.622
Substitution into the Ohirhian equation used in step 1, gives z = 0.821102
Step 7:
Evaluate the coefficients x and u
0.0375016  0.6  1  5700
x  0.268614
0.821102  581.5

u  25.147207  0.6  0.017650  0.821102  581.5  5.1532  5700  1.9956 5  608079

Step 8: Evaluate y
u p12 aa
y
6
 2
5.2  2.2x  0.6x 
6
 
5.2x  2.2x 2  0.6x 3 
6
 
1  x  0.5x 2  0.3x 3 
Substitution of u = 608079,p1 = 2545 psia, aa = -1420099 and x = 0.268614 gives
y  471499  1349039  180269  1057809
Step 9: Evaluate p2 , the pressure at the exit end of the pipe

2   2545 2

 1057809  2327.92 psia  2328 psia
Pressure drop across 5700 ft of tubing is 2545 psia – 2328 psia = 217 psia
This pressure drop may be compared with the pressure drop across the 5700 ft of tubing
when gas flows uphill against the force of gravity. From example 3, tubing pressure at the
surface = 2122 psia when the bottom hole pressure (inlet pressure) = 2545 psia. Then
pressure drop = 2545 psia – 2122 psia = 423 psia. The pressure drop during down hill flow is
less than that during up hill flow.
The general solution (valid in any system of units) to the differential equation for downhill
flow was tested with slight modification of a problem from the book of Giles et al (2009). In
the original problem the pipe was horizontal. In the modification used in this work, the pipe

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 457

was made to incline at 10 degrees from the horizontal in the downhill direction. Other data
remained as they were in the book of Giles et al.. The data are as follows:
Example 6
Given the following data,
Length of pipe (L) = 1800ft
z 2 = z 1 = z a v = 1 (air is flowing fluid)
p1 = 49.5 psia = 49.5  144 psf = 7128 psf
W = 0.75 lb/sec
Q b = 9.81937 ft3/sec
P b = 14.7 psia = 2116.8 psf
Tb = 60 oF = 520 o R
T1 = T a v = 90 o F = 550 oR
G g = 1.0 (air)
R = 1544
 = 390 x 10-9 lb sec/ft2
d = 4 inch = 0.333333 ft
Absolute Roughness (  ) = 0.0003 ft
calculate the exit pressure (p2) at 1800 ft of pipe.
Solution
Step 1: Obtain the gas elevation factor at inlet end, z1 = 1.0, air in flowing fluid
Step 2: Obtain the viscosity of the gas at inlet condition. Viscosity of gas is 390  10-9 lb sec /
ft 2 (given)
Step 3: Evaluate the Reynolds number and friction factor.
36.88575 Gg  b Q b
R 
g R d  z b Tb
Here, Gg  1.0(air) ,  b  2116.8 psf, Q b  9.81937 ft 3 /sec,g  32.2 ft /sec 2 , d  0.3333ft,
R  1544,   390  10 9 , z b  1.0 (air), Tb  520o R
Then
36.88575  1  2116.8  9.81937  10 9
R   2281249
32.2  1544  0.3333  390  1  520
 0.0003
  0.0009
d 0.33333
From Moody chart, f1 =0.0205

Step 4: Evaluate the coefficient aa in the formula

 46.958326f1 z1 T1Gg 2 Q 2 57.940GgSin 2 
aa  
b b - 1
L
 5 2 2 z T R 
 gd z b Tb R 1 1 

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458 Natural Gas

46.958326  0.0205  1  550  1  2116.8 2  9.81937 2

 4134.70
32.2  0.33333 5  520 2  1544

57.94  1  0.173648  71282 511191540.9

  601.97
1  550  1544 849200

Then aa = (4134.70 – 601.97)  1800 = 6358914

Step 5
Evaluate the average pressure (p a v) at the mid section of the pipe

pav  p12  0.5  6358914  6901.4 psf

Step 6: Evaluate average gas derivation factor (z a v ) for air, z a v = 1.0

Step 7: Evaluate the coefficients x and u

57.94Gg SinL 57.94  1  0.173648  1800

x   0.021326
zav Tav R 1  550  1544
46.958326f1 z av Tav Gg 2b Q 2b L
u
gd 5 z b2 Tb2 R
46.958326  0.0205  1  550  1  2116.8 2  9.81937 2  1800
  7442642.4
32.2  0.333335  1  520 2  1544
Step 8: Evaluate y
u p2 aa
y
6
  
5.2  2.2x  0.6x 2  1 5.2x  2.2x 2  0.6x 3 
6 6
 
1  x  0.5x 2  0.3x 3 
Where x = 0.021326, (5.2 – 2.2x + 0.6x2) = 5.153356, (-5.2x + 2.2x2-0.6x3) = - 0.10990
(1 – x + 0.5x2-0.3x3) = 0.9789.
7442642.4 71282 6358914
Then, y  5.153356   0.1099    0.9789 
6 8 6
= 6392431 – 930644 + 1037457 = 6499244
Step 9: Evaluate p2 , the pressure at the exit end of the pipe

6656.5 psia
p2  71282  6499244  6656.5psf   46.2 psia
144

Pressure drop = 49.5 psia – 46.2 psia = 3.3 psia

When the pipe is horizontal, p2 (from Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics) is 45.7 psia. Then,
pressure drop = 49.5 psia – 45.7 psia = 3.8 psia

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 459

Direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate

The rate of gas flow through a pipe can be calculated if the pipe properties, the gas
properties, the inlet and outlet pressures are known. The gas volumetric rate is obtained by
solving an equation of pressure transverse simultaneously with the Reynolds number and
the Colebrook friction factor equation.

Direct calculation of the gas rate in uphill pipes

Ohirhian(2002) combined the Weymouth equation with the Reynolds number and the
Colebrook friction factor equation to arrive at an equation for the direct calculation of the
gas volumetric rate during uphill gas flow. In this section, the formula type solution to the
differential equation for horizontal and uphill gas flow is combined with the Reynolds
number and the Colebrook equation to arrive at another equation for calculating the gas
volumetric rate during uphill gas flow.
Combination of the pressure transverse formula for uphill gas flow (equation (27) in oil field
units, with the Reynolds number, equation (16 ) and equation (18 ) which is the Colebrook
friction factor equation, leads to:

1   2.51 
 - 2 log   ….. (36)
f  3.7 d  

R N  -2  log 
   2.51  (37)

 3.7 d  
-  dR -2 2 d
Q b  2 N 
20071 G g 20071 Gg
log
3.7 d 
  2.51
 (38)

xb 0.5
 2  1 
20071 G g
2
 p1 - p 2  1 
6
 -
6
S Lxa   
 
   
0.5
2 d B  z 2 T2 x a  z av Tav x c 

Where,

0.0375016 G g sin  L
x 
z av T av
4.191201 G g L
B
d5
0.03075016 G g sin  p 2 2
S 
z2 T2
z av is computed with Tav = 0.5(T1 + T 2) and p av 2 = 0.5(p1 2 + p2 2).
 2 is viscosity of gas at p 2 and T2 . The subscript 2 refers to surface condition.

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460 Natural Gas

xa  1  x  0.5x 2  0.36x 3

x b  4.96x  1.48x 2  0.72x 3

x c  4.96  1.96x  0.72x2

The above equations are in oil field units in which d is expressed in inches, L in feet,
 in centipoises, T in degrees rankine and pressure in pounds per square inches. In this
system of units, pb = 14.7 psia, Tb = 520  R, zb = 1.0. The subscript 2 refers to
surface condition in the gas well.

Example 7

A gas well has the following data:

L = 5700ft, G g = 0.6,   90  , z2 = 0.78, z av = 0.821, f = 0.0176, T2 = 543  R ,
T av = 581.5  R , d = 1.9956 in, absolute roughness of pipe= 0.0006 in.,p 1 = 2545 psia, p2 =
2122 psia,  2 , viscosity of gas at p 2 and T2  0.0133 cp . Calculate the flow rate of

the well ( Q b ) in MM SCF / Day,

Solution
Substituting given values,
0.6  1  5700
x  0.0375016   0.268250
0.822  581.5
0.6  5700
B  4.191201   452.6012689
1.9956 5
0.6  1  2122 2
S  0.0375016   238.680281
0.78  543
xa  1  x  0.5x 2  0.36x 3 = 1+0.268250 + 0.5x0.2682502 +0.36x0.2682503
= 1.311178
x b  4.96x  1.48x 2  0.72x 3 = 4.96x0.268250+1.48x0.2682502+0.72x0.2682503
= 1.45096
x c  4.96  1.96x  0.72x 2 = 4.96+ 1.96x0.268250+0.72x0.2682502=5.53758
0.5
 2 2 1.45096  1 
20071  0.6  2545 - 2122  1   - 238.68028157001.311178  
  6  6 
 
0.0133  1.9956 452.6012689 1.45096  0.78  543  0.822  581.5  5.53758 0.5
 
 288996.2

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 461

From example 3, actual Reynolds number is 2.34E06 and f = 0.01527. Then,

  R N f  234000  0.01527 = 289158.1

 0.0006 2.51 
-2 d   20.01331.9956288996.2 
log    2.51  
2   
Qb   log  3.71.9956 288996.2 
20071 G  3.7 d   200710.6  
g  
= 5.154 MMSCF / Day

Direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate in downhill flow

Combination of equation (35) in oil field units, with the Reynolds number, equation (16 )
and equation (17 ) which is the Colebrook friction factor equation, leads to:

1   2.51 
 - 2 log   … …. (39)
f  3.7 d  1 

  2.51 
R -2  1 log   … .… (40)
 1 

 3.7 d
N

-  dR - 2  av d  1
Q b  av N  log    2.51  (40)
20071 G g 20071 G g  3.7 d 1 

0.5
20071 G g
 J  1 ( S Lx ) 
 6 d 
1 
0.5
41)
1 d B  z 1 T1 x d  z av Tav x f 

 x 
J  p2 2 - p12  1  e  , if B  S (42a)
 6 

J  p
1
2
 1 -
xe
6  -p
2
2
, if B  S (42b)

xd  1  x  0.5x 2  0.3x 3
xe  - 5.2x  2.2x 2 - 0.6x 3

x f  5.2 - 2.2x  0.6x2

4.191201 G g L
B
d5

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462 Natural Gas

0.03075016 G g sin  p 12
S 
zT1 1

0.0375016 G g sin L
x 
z av T av
z av and  av are evaluated with T av = 0.5(T1 + T2) and p av
= (2p1p2) / (p1 + p2)

The subscript 1 refers to surface condition and 2 to exit condition in the gas injection well.
The above equations are in oil field units in which d is expressed in inches, L in feet,
 in centipoises, T in degrees rankine and pressure in pounds per square inches. In this
system of units, pb = 14.7 psia, Tb = 520  R, zb = 1.0. The subscript 2 refers to surface
condition in the gas well.

Example 8
A gas injection well has the following data:
L = 5700ft, G g = 0.6, θ = 90 o, sin90 o= 1, z1= 0.78059, zav = 0.821, T1= 543 oR,
T av= 543 oR, d = 1.9956 in, p1= 2545 psia, p2= 2327.92 psia, absolute roughness of tubing(  ) =
0.0006 in. Calculate the gas injection rate in MMSCF / Day. Take the viscosity of the at
surface condition(  1
) as 0.015045 cp and the average viscosity of the gas(  av ) as
0.0142 cp.

Solution
0.6  1  5700
x  0.0375016   0.26865
0.821  581.5
0.6  5700
B  4.191201   452.89458
1.9956 5
2
0.6  1  2545
S  0.0375016   343.83795
0.78059  543
xd  1  x  0.5x2  0.3x3 = 1 - 0.26865 + 0.5  0.268652 +0.36  0.268653
= 0.76162
xe  - 5.2x  2.2x 2 - 0.6x 3

 - 5.2  0.26865  2.2  0.268652 - 0.6  0.268653

= - 1.24982
x f  5.2 - 2.2x  0.6x2 =

5.2 - 2.2  0.26865  0.60.  268652  4.65228

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 463

xe 
Since B > S, J  p2 2 - p 2  1   is used
1  6 
1.24982 
J  2327.92 2 - 25452  1 -   291372.42
 6 
1 1
( S Lxd ) = ( 343.83795  5700  0.76162)  248780.17
6 6
0.5
z 1 T1 xd  z av Tav x f  

 0.78  543  0.76162  0.821  581.5  4.65228 0.5

= 50.43440
0.5
20071 G g
 J  1 ( S Lx )
 6 d 

 
0.5
1 d B  z 1 T1 xd  z av Tav x f 

20071  0.6  291372.42  248780.17  0.5

  274641.7
0.015045  1.9956  452.89458  50.43440
From example 5, actual Reynolds number is 2066877 and f = 0.01765. Then,

  R N f  2066877  0.01765 = 274591.4

 0.0006 2.51 
-2 d   20.01421.9956274641.7 
log    2.51  
av   
Qb   log  3.71.9956 274641.7 
20071 Gg  3.7 d   200710.6  
 
= 5.227 MMSCF / Day
By use of an average viscosity of 0.0140 cp, the calculated Q b= 5.153 MMSCF / Day.
Taking 0.0140 cp as the accurate value of the average gas viscosity, the absolute error in
estimated average viscosity is (0.0002 / 0.014 = 1.43 %) . The equation for the gas volumetric
rate is very sensitive to values of the average gas viscosity. Accurate values of the average
gas viscosity should be used in the direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate.

Conclusions
1. A general differential equation that governs static behavior of any fluid and
its flow in horizontal, uphill and downhill pipes has been developed.
2. classical fourth order Runge-Kutta numerical method is programmed in
Fortran 77, to test the equation and results are accurate. The program shows
that a length ncrement as large as 10,000 ft can be used in the Runge-Kutta
method of solution to differential equation during uphill gas flow and up to
5700ft for downhill gas flow
3. The Runge-Kutta method was used to generate a formulas suitable to the
direct calculation of pressure transverse in static gas pipes and pipes that
transport gas uphill or downhill. The formulas yield very close results to other
tedius methods available in the literature.

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464 Natural Gas

4. The direct pressure transverse formulas developed are suitable for wells and
pipelines with large temperature gradients.
5. Contribution of kinetic effect to pressure transverse in pipes that transport gas
is small and ca n be neglected..
6. The pressure transverse formulas developed in this work are combined with
the Reynolds number and Colebrook friction factor equation to provide
accurate formulas for the direct calculation of the gas volumetric rate. The
direct calculating formulas are applicable to gas flow in uphill and downhill
pipes.

Nomenclature
p = Pressure
 = Specific weight of flowing fluid
v = Average fluid velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity in a consistent set of umits.
d  = Change in length of pipe
 = Angel of pipe inclination with the horizontal, degrees
dh l = Incremental pressure head loss
f = Dimensionless friction factor
L = Length of pipe
d = Internal diameter of pipe
W = Weight flow rate of fluid
C f = Compressibility of a fluid
C g = Compressibility of a gas
K = Constant for expressing the compressibility of a gas
M = Molecular weight of gas
T= Temperature
R N = Reynolds number
 = Mass density of a fluid
 =Absolute viscosity of a fluid
z = Gas deviation factor
R = Universal gas constant in a consistent set of umits.
Q b = Gas volumetric flow rate referred to P b and T b,
 b = specific weight of the gas at p b and Tb
p b = Base pressure, absolute unit
T b = Base temperature, absolute unit
z b = Gas deviation at p b and Tb usually taken as 1
G g = Specific gravity of gas (air = 1) at standard condition
g = Absolute viscosity of a gas
 = Absolute roughness of tubing
GTG = Geothermal gradient
f2 = Moody friction factor evaluated at outlet end of pipe.

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Static behaviour of natural gas and its low in pipes 465

z2 = Gas deviation factor calculated with exit pressure and temperature of gas

z1 = Gas deviation factor calculated with exit pressure and temperature of gas
p2 = Pressure at exit end of pipe.
p1 = Pressure at inlet end of pipe p1 > p2
T2 = Temperature at exit end of pipe
T1 = Temperature at inlet end of pipe
T a v = 0.5( T1 + T2)

zav  Gas deviation factor evaluated with T a v and average pressure (p a v) given

by p a v  p22  0.5aa in uphill flow, and pav  p12  0.5 aa

in downhill flow

SI Metric Conversion Factors

  F - 32  / 18  C
ft  3.048000 *E-01  m
m  2.540 * E  00  cm
lbf  4.448222 E  00  N
lbm  4.535924 E - 01  kg
psi  6.894757 E  03  Pa
2
lb sec / ft  4.788026 E  01  Pa.s
cp  1.0 E - 3  Pas
foot3 / second (ft3 / sec) x 2.831685 E – 02 = metre3 / sec ( m3 / s )
foot3 / second x 8.64 *E - 02 = MMSCF / Day
MMSCF / Day x 1.157407 E + 01 = foot3 / second (ft3 / sec)
MMSCF / Day x 3.2774132E + 01 = metre3 / sec ( m3 / s )
MMSCF / Day = 4.166667E + 04 ft3/hr
ft3/hr = 7.865792E – 06m3/s
* Conversion factor is exact.

References
1. Colebrook, C.F.J. (1938), Inst. Civil Engineers, 11, p 133
2. Cullender, M.H. and R.V. Smith (1956). “Practical solution of gas flow equations for wells
and pipelines with large temperature gradients”. Transactions, AIME 207, pp 281-89.
3. Giles, R.V., Cheng, L. and Evert, J (2009).. Schaum’s Outline Series of Fluid Mechanics
and Hydraulics, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York.
4. Gopal, V.N. (1977), “Gas Z-factor Equations Developed for Computer”, Oil and Gas
Journal, pp 58 – 60.
5. Ikoku, C.U. (1984), Natural Gas Production Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
pp. 317 - 346

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466 Natural Gas

6. Matter, L.G.S. Brar, and K. Aziz (1975), Compressibility of Natural Gases”, Journal of
Canadian Petroleum Technology”, pp. 77-80.
7. Ohirhian, P.U.(1993), “A set of Equations for Calculating the Gas Compressibility
Factor” Paper SPE 27411, Richardson, Texas, U.S.A.
8. Ohirhian, P.U.: ”Direct Calculation of the Gas Volumeric Rates”, PetEng. Calculators,
Chemical Engineering Dept. Stanford University, California, U.S.A, 2002
9. Ohirhian, P.U. and I.N. Abu (2008), “A new Correlation for the Viscosity of Natural Gas”
Paper SPE 106391 USMS, Richardson, Texas, U.S.A.
10. Ohirhian, P.U. (2005) “Explicit Presentation of Colebrook’s friction factor equation”.
Journal of the Nigerian Association of Mathematical physics, Vol. 9, pp 325 – 330.
11. Ohirhian, P.U. (2008). “Equations for the z-factor and compressibility of Nigerian
Natural gas’’, Advances in Materials and Systems Technologies, Trans Tech
Publications Ltd, Laubisrtistr. 24, Stafa – Zurich, Switzerland..
12. Ouyang, I and K. Aziz (1996) “Steady state Gas flow in Pipes”, Journal of Petroleum
Science and Engineering, No. 14, pp. 137 – 158.
13. Standing, M.B., and D.L. Katz (1942) “Density of Natural Gases”, Trans AIME 146, pp. 140–9.
14. Standing, M.B. (1970), Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Hydrocarbon
Systems, La Habra, California.

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 Natural Gas
Edited by Primož PotoÄÂ​nik

ISBN 978-953-307-112-1
Hard cover, 606 pages
Publisher Sciyo
Published online 18, August, 2010
Published in print edition August, 2010

The contributions in this book present an overview of cutting edge research on natural gas which is a vital
component of world's supply of energy. Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases, primarily
methane but also heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane and butane. Unlike other fossil
fuels, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful by-products into the air.
Therefore, it is considered as one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all energy sources applied in
variety of residential, commercial and industrial fields. The book is organized in 25 chapters that cover various
aspects of natural gas research: technology, applications, forecasting, numerical simulations, transport and
risk assessment.

How to reference
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Peter Ohirhian (2010). Static Behaviour of Natural Gas and its Flow in Pipes, Natural Gas, Primož
PotoÄÂ​nik (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-112-1, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/natural-gas/static-behaviour-of-natural-gas-and-its-flow-in-pipes

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