Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183

www.elsevier.com/locate/aescte

Investigation of engine jet/wing-tip vortex interference ✩

Untersuchung der Interaktion von Flügelrandwirbel

und Triebwerksstrahl
Guido Huppertz ∗ , Ehab Fares, Ronald Abstiens, Wolfgang Schröder
Aerodynamisches Institut, RWTH Aachen, Wüllnerstraße zw. 5 und 7, D-52062 Aachen, Germany
Received 24 February 2003; received in revised form 6 October 2003; accepted 31 October 2003

Abstract
The wing-tip vortex of a rectangular wing half-model with a model engine is studied experimentally and numerically. The airfoil has
a supercritical BAC 3-11/RES/30/21 geometry with a chord length of c = 150 mm. The investigations include three different spanwise
positions of the engine and two jet velocities with a constant free stream velocity of u∞ = 27 m/s yielding Rec = 2.8 × 105 . The numerical
simulation is divided into two parts. First the flow around the airfoil is calculated. In a second step the data is taken as an input to calculate
the wake downstream of the trailing edge. Experiments include 2C- and 3C-PIV-measurements for the velocity distribution of the jet and the
wing-tip vortices. The experimental and numerical results show the significance of the streamwise velocity component for the analysis of the
jet/wing-tip vortex interaction.
 2003 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
Zusammenfassung
Der Randwirbel des Halbmodells eines Rechteckflügels mit Modelltriebwerk wird numerisch und experimentell untersucht. Der Flügel
hat ein superkritisches BAC 3-11/RES/30/21-Profil mit einer Sehnenlänge von c = 150 mm. Die Untersuchung umfasst drei spannweitig
verschiedene Positionen des Triebwerks und zwei verschiedene Geschwindigkeiten des Triebwerksstrahls bei konstanter Geschwindigkeit
der Anströmung u∞ = 27 m/s, entsprechend Rec = 2.8 × 105 .
Die numerische Simulation ist untergliedert in zwei Abschnitte. Zunächst wird die Strömung um den Flügel berechnet. Im zweiten
Schritt werden die so gewonnenen Daten als Eingangswerte zur Berechnung des Strömungsfeldes im Nachlauf des Flügels verwendet. Im
Experiment werden mit Hilfe von 2C- und 3C-PIV-Messungen Verteilungen der Geschwindigkeit von Triebwerksstrahl und Flügelrandwirbel
ermittelt.
Die experimentellen und numerischen Ergebnisse zeigen die Bedeutung der Geschwindigkeitskomponente in Strömungsrichtung für die
Beurteilung der Triebwerksstrahl-Wirbel-Interaktion.
 2003 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Vortex; Wake; Engine; Jet; PIV; Numerical simulation

Schlüsselwörter: Wirbel; Nachlauf; Triebwerk; Strahl; PIV; Numerische Simulation

1. Introduction Particularly in the vicinity of airports this is of real concern,

Heavy aircrafts generate vortex wakes that are a serious
danger to the following air traffic, especially in the case
of a smaller aircraft crossing the wake of a large airplane.
✩
This article was presented at the German Aerospace Congress 2002.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: guidoh@aia.rwth-aachen.de (G. Huppertz).
1270-9638/$ – see front matter  2003 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ast.2003.10.008
where the planes fly in high-lift configuration. The trailing
vortices cause a reduction of starting and landing frequency
for the airports and an increase in flight-time and costs for
passengers as well as for airlines. The strength of these
vortex wakes slowly reduces by diffusion and dissipation.
Under still uncertain conditions strong and nearly abrupt
changes in the wake structure have been reported, that
even can lead to the collapse of the vortex system [23].
176 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183
Although these phenomena occur in the far field of the wake,
investigations of the near wake have to be performed to
detect the mechanisms that determine the structure of the
aircraft wake.
Recent measurements [1] and numerical studies of the
isolated turbulent wing-tip vortex [2] were successfully car-
ried out for a rectangular wing with small aspect ratio. It was
shown in the numerical investigations that good agreement
with experimental results could only be achieved with ap-
propriate grid resolution, turbulence models, and boundary
conditions. Other authors [9,11,21] investigated the dynam-
ics of engine jets and vortices in the far field using simplified
models to predict the inflow conditions from the near wake.
These investigations included a wide range of parameters
that influence the wake, such as stratification, wind shear,
buoyancy, and geometrical parameters. Numerical and ex-
perimental investigations with regard to engine jet location
[8,10,18] confirm the influence of the jet on wake properties
and decay mechanisms.
Therefore the vortex generating wing geometry and the
effects, which engine jets in the wake of the plane can
have on the vortex structure, are of major concern for
the investigation of the vortex wake. This analysis of the
interaction of engine jets and vortices in the wake of a wing
is done numerically and experimentally. The experimental
tests are limited to the immediate near field of the wing due
to the size of the test section of the wind tunnel.
2. Numerical method
Even when locally refined and automatically adapted
grids are used it is fair to say that the computational costs for
simultaneous numerical simulation of the flow field around
the wing and the far wake are extremely high. For this
reason the numerical method used in this study consists of
a two step approach: first, the flow field around the wing
is determined and subsequently, the data of this simulation
is used to provide the inflow condition for a separate wake
simulation.
2.1. Flow solver
The method of solution has been successfully applied
to predict a wide variety of internal and external flow
problems [5,17]. The version used in this paper solves
the Favre-averaged steady threedimensional Navier–Stokes
equations of a compressible ideal gas on the basis of a
finite-volume discretization on block-structured grids. The
viscous stresses are discretized using standard second-order
accurate central schemes. The spatial discretization of the
convective terms follows the AUSM scheme proposed by
Liou and Steffen [14,15]. The reconstruction of the left and
right values at the cell interfaces was extended from the
classical second-order MUSCL-interpolation [25] to a third-
order accurate scheme.
The temporal integration is based on an explicit 5-step
Runge–Kutta time stepping scheme [12] using the coeffi-
cients αi = (0.059, 0.145, 0.273, 0.5, 1.). The coefficients
are optimized to achieve maximum stability for upwind
schemes [16]. The scheme is second-order accurate and al-
lows a maximum Courant number of approximately 3.5. To
further accelerate the solution process to the steady state lo-
cal time stepping and multigrid [16] are used.
2.2. Turbulence modeling
The turbulent flow is modeled based on the standard con-
cept of Reynolds-averaging. Several simple models from al-
gebraic to transport equation turbulence models of varying
complexity have been developed and investigated for aero-
dynamic wall-bounded flows. The Spalart–Allmaras one-
equation model proved to be very efficient and robust for a
wide variety of aerodynamic flows and was already used in
similar calculations [3,4,6,13]. This model is slightly modi-
fied to account for free vortical flows. The original transport
equation is reformulated in a “conservative” manner to de-
termine the turbulent viscosity νt
D(ρ ν̃) ρ
   
= ∇ · νl + (1 + cb2 )ν̃ ∇ ν̃ − cb2 ν̃∇ 2 ν̃
Dt σ
 2
ν̃
+ ρcb1
S ν̃ − ρcw1 fw
d
with
 ν̃
S =S+ fv2 , νt = ν̃ · fv1 .
κ 2d 2
A more detailed description can be found in [7]. The
choice of the turbulence model and its implementation is
still a challenge in any turbulent flow simulation. Based on
the findings in former analyses [3,4] the slightly modified
Spalart–Allmaras model which contains a constraint for the
vorticity through the strain rate tensor
S = Ωij + 2 min(0, sij − Ωij )
is used in this investigation. The convective and dissipative
terms of the turbulence model are discretized to second-
order accuracy. The upwind approximation of the convective
terms follows the AUSM method using second-order recon-
struction of the left- and right-hand values.
No tripping corrections are used since the calculations are
performed for fully turbulent flows. This corresponds to the
experiments, where the flow field is tripped at the leading
edge of the wings.
2.3. Boundary conditions
Investigations have shown that special attention should be
given to boundaries where inflow and outflow can occur. Es-
pecially simple extrapolations have proven to be the worst
choice physically and numerically. A new formulation for
the free boundaries based on the weak-reflecting boundary
 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183 177

conditions as introduced by Thompson [24] for the Euler

equations and extended by Poinsot and Lele [19] for the
Navier–Stokes equations was presented in [6]. The proposed
boundary condition smoothly combines inflow and outflow
formulations depending on the velocity vectors at the bound-
aries. A further methodology has been also presented to cor-
rect the residuals at the boundaries using known values from
the interior of the computational domain [6].
The engine jet is simulated numerically by imposing
appropriate boundary conditions as described in [3]. The
jet flow is achieved by reducing the pressure at the inflow
section within the nacelle that results in an increase in the
flow rate that in turn is imposed on the outflow boundary
of the engine. No bypass flow, temperature increase or
swirl of the jet is considered, which is consistent with the
experimental setup.

Fig. 1. Sketch of the rectangular wing, the various used engine positions are
3. Experimental setup denoted by A, C and E.

3.1. Wind tunnel

3.3. Engine model
The experiments with wing/engine configuration are
carried out in the low-speed wind tunnel of the Aerodynami-
sches Institut Aachen. It is a closed circuit wind tunnel with The engine model consists of three parts, shown in
an open test section, which is 1.80 m long and has a diameter Fig. 2. It is a jet apparatus using pressurized air of 8 ×
of 1.2 m. The maximum wind speeds are up to 60 m/s. 105 Pa absolute pressure. The outer geometry corresponds
The test setup consists of a horizontal plate with an elliptic to a Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engine. Its typical dimensions
nose profile that cuts off the boundary layer of the wind agree with real engines used for large aircrafts such as the
tunnel nozzle. The wing model is mounted vertically on the Airbus A380. The engine is made out of aluminium and
plate. For the measurements the wind tunnel is operated at weighs less than 0.2 kg. To minimize reflections of the
a constant flow speed of u∞ = 27 m/s yielding a Reynolds laser light sheet a mat surface was generated by anodizing
number based on the chord length of Rec = 2.8 × 105 . the model. From the leading edge of the wing a small
flexible tube is introduced into the pylon. The engine is
3.2. Wing model mounted onto the wing using screws such that the tube also
is fixed.
The nozzle is put into the nacelle leaving a small gap
For the tests a half-wing model with rectangular shape
between them, the width of which is used to modify the
is used, which represents the cruise configuration, i.e., it
engine jet. Due to technical limitations the measurements are
is not equipped with any high-lift devices. It possesses a
performed at jet speeds of approximately uengine = 47 m/s,
BAC 3-11/RES/30/21 profile with a constant chord length
yielding uengine/u∞ = 1.74.
of c = 150 mm and a threedimensional wing-tip geometry.
The wing is built with an outer shell made out of glass fiber
sheets and a steely core plate. The interspace is filled with
plastics. At five different positions located in the spanwise
direction an engine model can be mounted to the wing.
The mounting points are denoted by A to E, with A
being the nearest position to the wing-tip. Fig. 1 shows a
sketch of the wing, indicating the various engine positions.
To reduce reflections of the laser light sheet the wing
has a black surface. During the experiments the wing-tip
is located 680 mm above the measurement plate. With a
semi-span of s = 680 mm the aspect ratio is λrw = 9.06.
The flow field was tripped at 5% chord length by a zig-
zag tape. Throughout the measurements the angle of attack Fig. 2. Sketch and photo of the engine model and its three components
was α = 8◦ . pylon, nozzle, nacelle.
178 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183
3.4. Measurement technique
Velocity distributions in the wake of the wing/engine con-
figuration are measured by the particle image velocimetry
(PIV) method. In different test cases velocity components
in planes orthogonal to the wind tunnel flow are recorded
at several locations downstream of the trailing edge. For
the 2C-PIV arrangement a PCO SensiCam with a 1280 ×
1024 px. CCD and 12-bit resolution is installed in the dif-
fuser section of the wind tunnel, approximately 2.10 m
downstream the wing trailing edge and orientated perpen-
dicular to the laser light sheet. The Stereo- or 3C-PIV setup
comprises two SensiCams arranged under the Scheimpflug-
condition with an optimum angle of ±45◦ between the axis
of the lenses and the wind tunnel centerline [20].
Since they are mounted outside the air flow the cameras
are looking either up or downstream, depending on the
distance from the measurement plane to the trailing edge. To
be more precise planes at x/c
1.5 are investigated by the
3C-PIV setup looking upstream, planes at x/c  3.5 looking
downstream.
The planes at 0.5
x/c
4.0 are investigated by 2C-PIV
with a spacing x/c = 0.5. The light sheet is generated by a
double pulsed Spectron Nd:YAG-Laser with a power rating
of 150 mJ. The cameras and the light sheet are controlled by
an external ILA synchronizer. Some of the measurements
are done by a parallel or superimposed combination of
2C- and 3C-PIV setup, using three PCO SensiCams and
an additional signal converter after the synchronizer. Fig. 3
gives an overview of the 3C-PIV arrangement, showing the
cameras looking upstream.
Considering a third camera, installed in the diffuser, it is
evident, that each camera due to the spatial non-uniformity
of lightscattering sees a different amount of laserlight,
which is scattered by the DEHS seeding-particles [22].
To partially compensate this effect the grey levels of the
particle images are adapted before the evaluation process,
which is done using the inhouse written software PIA. The
typical interrogation window size was 64 × 64 px. with
Fig. 3. Sketch of the 3C-PIV setup with the CCD-cameras looking
upstream.
a mean particle shift of ≈ 6 px. which corresponds to
 4.5 m/s. In future investigations a modification of
1 px. ≈
the experimental setup will allow equal access to forward
scattered light for both 3C-PIV cameras, also in the area
of 1.5 < x/c < 3.5.
3.5. Data acquisition
The PIV cameras are connected to I/O-cards of conven-
tional PC’s by light-wave cable. They are operated using
the PCO CamWare-Software. Each camera records up to
60 images in ∗.b16-format at a frequency of 2 Hz. For the
3-camera setup more than 900 MB data are recorded for each
wing/engine-configuration such that the total amount of data
for this specific measurement campaign exceeds 40 GB.
4. Results
4.1. Numerical results
Six numerical simulations are run with three different po-
sitions of the engine (Fig. 1) and two different jet velocities,
representing cruise and take-off situation, respectively. The
simulation of the flow field around the wing is performed on
structured multiblock grids consisting of 74 blocks and 1.1
million grid cells. The domain of integration around the wing
has a size of approx. 15c. The wake flow calculation ranging
to x/c = 4.0 is performed on a stretched cartesian grid con-
sisting of 7.0 million grid cells. Qualitatively the pressure
distribution on the wing, not shown here, is not affected by
the presence of the engine or the jet velocity, since the dis-
tance of the engine and the main wing is relatively large. This
is a consequence of the defaults given by the pylon geometry
of the experimental model. For all six configurations only a
minor change of less than 1% in the cL coefficient is deter-
mined. Thus an almost equal strength of the circulation Γ of
the wing-tip vortex is obtained. On the other hand, a change
of almost 10% of the cD coefficient is noticed. The smaller
the distance between the engine and the wing-tip, the higher
the drag. This tendency is found at both jet velocities.
The formation of the wing-tip vortex is documented in
Fig. 4 at x/c = 1.0 behind the trailing edge for the six con-
figurations simulated. The velocity distribution u indicates
not only the wing-tip vortex but also the shear layer of the
trailing edge. It is apparent that the position and the form
of the wing-tip vortex is almost identical in all cases. This
result is in agreement with the aforementioned negligible
change in the lift coefficient cA and the circulation. At po-
sition x/c = 2.0 first small differences are visible (Fig. 5).
The position of the wing-tip vortex and the inner core are
still similar. This behaviour extends to position x/c = 3.0 as
shown in Fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the jet veloc-
ity plays a minor role for the engine at position A, whereas
a more evident impact occurs at position C and E. Further-
more, the formation of the shape of the vortex at engine po-
 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183 179

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48

Fig. 4. Distribution of the streamwise velocity component u at x/c = 1 at various engine positions and different jet speeds.

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48

Fig. 5. Distribution of the streamwise velocity component u at x/c = 2 at various engine positions and different jet speeds.

sitions C and E show the same behaviour in the region stud- Concerning the shear layer it can be stated that hardly any
ied. The differences are interpreted as a consequence of the impact of the jet velocity occurs at the most outboard engine
interaction between the engine jet and the wing-tip vortex. position (A) whereas especially at x/c  2.0 the stronger en-
180 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74 uengine /u∞ = 1.74

engine position A engine position C engine position E

uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48 uengine /u∞ = 3.48

Fig. 6. Distribution of the streamwise velocity component u at x/c = 3 at various engine positions and different jet speeds.

gine jet results in a more pronounced weakening of the shear
layer at positions C and E.
4.2. Experimental results
First, 2C-PIV measurements for the rectangular wing
model are conducted to investigate the wake in five planes
downstream of the trailing edge. In the spanwise direction
the area captured extended from engine position A to ap-
proximately 30 cm away from the√wing-tip. In Fig. 7 con-
tours of the tangential velocity v 2 + w2 in five planes
for the engine at position A evidence the development of
the wing-tip vortex (at y/c ≈ 0.0) and the engine jet (at
y/c ≈ −1.1). The jet is inclined at 8◦ to the free stream
flow. It drifts away from the trajectory of the wing-tip vor-
tex and leaves the measurement planes. Obviously, even for
the most outboard engine position there is no direct interac-
tion between wing-tip vortex and engine jet. Consequently
therefore should be none when the engine is located fur-
ther inboard, i.e., farther away from the wing-tip. If the
2C-PIV vortex measurements in Fig. 8 are compared with
the corresponding 3C-PIV data in Fig. 9, some differences

Fig. 7. Velocity contours V = v 2 + w 2 in the wake of the rectangular wing with engine at position A (at y/c = −1.1).
 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183 181

engine position A engine position C engine position E

Fig. 8. 2C-PIV measurements in the yz-plane at x/c = 3.5, contours of the in plane velocity V = v2 + w2 .

engine position A engine position C engine position E

Fig. 9. 3C-PIV measurements in the yz-plane at x/c = 3.5, contours of the in plane velocity V = v2 + w2 .

engine position A engine position C engine position E

Fig. 10. 3C-PIV measurements in the yz-plane at x/c = 3.5, distribution of the streamwise velocity component u at various engine positions.

appear. The tangential velocities in the vortex core of the
2C-PIV evaluation exceed the 3C-PIV values approximately
by 2 m/s. The discrepancy between the measurement tech-
niques arises from the perspective error due to the out-of-
plane component of the fluid, which cannot be accounted
for in 2C-PIV measurements. According to the numerical
results the 3C-PIV velocity distributions of engine position
C and E resemble each other more closely than the flow field
of position A. Fig. 10 shows the color coded velocity distri-
bution u in the yz-plane of the foregoing figure. Compared
with the numerical results for uengine/u∞ = 1.74 and pre-
sented in Fig. 6 both experiment and simulation possess a
smaller u in the vortex center for engine positions C and E
than in position A. More precisely the velocity at the center
changes from u ≈ 24 m/s (pos. A) to u ≈ 23 m/s (pos. C)
and u ≈ 22 m/s (pos. E). This tendency corresponds to the
numerical findings described in Fig. 6. This behaviour is re-
garded as an effect of the interaction of the wing-tip vortex
with the engine jet. The development of the wing-tip vor-
tex (Fig. 11) shows an increase in u in the vortex core from
plane x/c = 1.5 to x/c = 3.5. 2C-PIV measurements for en-
gine position A also show an increase in the tangential ve-
182 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183

x/c = 1.0 x/c = 1.5

x/c = 3.5 x/c = 4.0

Fig. 11. 3C-PIV measurements in yz-planes x/c = 1.0 (upper left), x/c = 1.5 (upper right), x/c = 3.5 (lower left), x/c = 4.0 (lower right), engine at position A,
distribution of the streamwise velocity component u.

x/c = 1.0 x/c = 4.5

Fig. 12. 3C-PIV measurements of the engine jet in the yz-plane at x/c = 1.0 (left) and x/c = 4.5 (right), distribution of the streamwise velocity component u.

locity from plane x/c = 2.0 to x/c = 3.0. This is caused by
the mixing of the vortex flow with the accelerated flow field
of the upper side of the wing. Even at plane x/c = 4.0 there
still exists an excess of u in the vortex core compared to
plane x/c = 1.5.
In Fig. 12 the deformation of the engine jet is visible.
The pictures show the color coded u-component of the jet.
Note that various areas are visualized. In the left picture the
wake of the wing is still visible. In the right picture the jet
possesses a larger diameter and a smaller centerline velocity,
 G. Huppertz et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 8 (2004) 175–183
due to the entrainment of the flow. The shape of the jet has
changed from an almost circular to a nephritic structure. This
is a consequence of the superposition of the engine jet flow,
which is characterized by strong velocity gradients for the u-
component, and the vortex wake with weaker gradients for
the tangential velocity. In other words the deformation of
the jet shape evidences the mutual impact of engine jet and
wing-tip vortex.
5. Summary
In this paper the very near wake up to five chord lengths
behind the trailing edge of a rectangular wing with an
engine model is discussed. The investigation comprises
numerical and experimental analysis with variations of
the engine position and the jet speed. It is fair to say
that a good qualitative agreement of the computations
and the measurement is achieved. The tangential velocity
distributions show a little impact of the engine position and
exit velocity on the formation and the behaviour of the
wing-tip vortex. The velocity distribution of the streamwise
component u however reveals to be significantly influenced
by the spanwise distance between the engine and the
wing-tip. At smaller distances a lower deficit of the axial
velocity in the vortex center compared to the free stream
occurs. Overall the engine jet therefore is relevant for the
characteristics of the shear stress in the streamwise direction
of the vortical field.
Acknowledgement
This work is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-
schaft within the collaborative research program SFB 401.
References
[1] J.S. Chow, G.G. Zilliac, P. Bradshaw, Mean and turbulence measure-
ments in the near field of a wingtip vortex, AIAA J. 35 (10) (1997)
1561–1567.
[2] J. Dacles-Mariani, G.G. Zilliac, J.S. Chow, P. Bradshaw, Numer-
ical/experimental study of a wingtip vortex in the near field,
AIAA J. 33 (9) (1995) 1561–1568.
[3] E. Fares, M. Meinke, W. Schröder, Numerical simulation of the
interaction of wingtip vortices and engine jets in the near field, AIAA
Paper, 2000–2222, 2000.
183
[4] E. Fares, M. Meinke, W. Schröder, Numerical simulation of the
interaction of flap side-edge vortices and engine jets, in: ICAS 2000
Congress Proceedings, ICA0212, 2000.
[5] E. Fares, W. Schröder, Zonal approach for the solution of the Navier–
Stokes equations, ZAMM 2000 80 (1) (2000).
[6] E. Fares, W. Schröder, Numerical simulation of wake flows, in:
ECCOMAS CFD 2001 Congress Proceedings, 2001.
[7] E. Fares, G. Huppertz, R. Abstiens, W. Schröder, Numerical and
experimental investigation of the interaction of wing-tip vortices and
engine jets in the near field, AIAA Paper, 2002–0403, 2002.
[8] F. Garnier, S. Brunet, L. Jacquin, Modelling exhaust plume mixing in
the near field of an aircraft, Ann. Geophys. 15 (1997) 1468–1477.
[9] T. Gerz, T. Ehret, Wake dynamics and exhaust distribution behind
cruising aircraft, AGARD-CP-584, 35, 1996.
[10] T. Gerz, F. Holzäpfel, D. Darracq, Aircraft wake vortices – a position
paper, WakeNet Position Paper, 2001.
[11] L. Jacquin, F. Garnier, On the dynamics of engine jets behind a
transport aircraft, AGARD-CP-584, 35, 1996.
[12] A. Jameson, Solution of the Euler equations for two-dimensional
transonic flow by a multigrid method, Appl. Math. Comp. 13 (1983)
327–355.
[13] M.R. Khorrami, B.A. Singer, R.H. Radeztsky Jr., Reynolds averaged
Navier–Stokes computations of a flap side-edge flow field, AIAA
Paper, 98-0768, 1998.
[14] M.S. Liou, A sequel to AUSM : AUSM + , J. Comput. Phys. 129 (1996)
164–382.
[15] M.S. Liou, Ch.J. Steffen, A new flux splitting scheme, J. Comput.
Phys. 107 (1993) 23–39.
[16] M. Meinke, D. Hänel, Time accurate multigrid solutions of the Navier–
Stokes equations, in: W. Hackbusch, U. Trottenberg (Eds.), Multigrid
Methods III, Birkhäuser, 1991, pp. 64–88.
[17] M. Meinke, E. Krause, Simulation of incompressible and compressible
flows on vector-parallel computers, in: Parallel Computational Fluid
Dynamics: Proceedings of the Parallel CFD’98 Conference in Taiwan,
1999, pp. 25–34.
[18] R. Paoli, F. Laporte, B. Cuenot, T. Poinsot, Dynamics and mixing in
jet/vortex interactions, Phys. Fluids 15 (7) (2003) 1843–1860.
[19] T.J. Poinsot, S.K. Lele, Boundary conditions for direct simulations of
compressible viscous flows, J. Comput. Phys. 101 (1992) 104–129.
[20] A.K. Prasad, Stereoscopic particle image velocimetry, in: Experiments
in Fluids, vol. 29, Springer-Verlag, 2000, pp. 103–116.
[21] T.R. Quackenbush, M.E. Teske, A.J. Bilanin, Dynamics of exhaust
plume entrainment in aircraft vortex wakes, AIAA Paper, 96-0747,
1996.
[22] M. Raffel, Ch. Willert, J. Kompenhans, Particle Image Velocimetry –
A Practical Guide, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998.
[23] P.R. Spalart, Airplane trailing vortices, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 30
(1998) 107–138.
[24] K.W. Thompson, Time dependent boundary conditions for hyperbolic
systems II, J. Comput. Phys. 89 (1990) 439–461.
[25] B. van Leer, Toward the ultimate conservative difference scheme V.
A second-order, J. Comput. Phys. 32 (1979) 101–136.