Book 1 Module 1

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
MATHEMATICS 1

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CONTENTS

Page

Arithmetic 1
Basic operations involving whole numbers 2
Fractions 7
Decimals 13
Rounding 15
Estimating 17
Units, weights, measures & conversion factors 18
Ratio and proportion 23
Percentages 25
Averages 28
Mensuration 29
Lines and angles 41
HOW TO TACKLE THESE BOOKS

The subject of mathematics has been divided into two books with book 2 being a
continuation of book 1.

The books have been written for the B1/B2/B3 engineer where all subject knowledge
levels are the same. For most of the EASA Part 66 syllabus this is level 2, but for
some it is level 1. We have separate books published for the category A line mechanic
syllabus.

Mathematics is a form of modelling – taking data from the real world, converting it
into numbers (and letters and symbols) and working on them in accordance with a set
of rules to produce an outcome. For example – there are 8 identical boxes of cargo to
be loaded onto an aircraft, each one has a mass of 60kg. The total mass is 8 x 60kg =
480kg. This could be written as an equation y × x = w (y times x equals w),

where y = the number of boxes

x = their individual mass
w = the total mass

With the above equation ‘w’ is the unknown but is found by multiplying y by x. If w is
known (ie the total mass) and if the number of boxes are known then the average
mass of each box can be found by dividing the total mass by the number of boxes, ie x
= w/y or

x=w .
y

Almost everyone will have studied mathematics before, and understanding the subject
for some people does not come easy, for others it does not present a particular
problem. For the former group of people these books will have to be studied carefully –
re-reading, and re-reading again, any subject that is not fully understood. For the
latter group the books may be used as revision – and as a guide to the syllabus
coverage.

Most students will have studied mathematics at school/college. If you have learnt
procedures for carrying out mathematical calculations that are different from the
procedures used in these books then do not try to learn these new procedures but
stay with the ones you know – so long as the procedure works for you and you get
the right answer.

In general:

1. Study each section of the book and make sure you fully understand the
material before moving on to the next section. If you have difficulties, re-
read it. If it is still a problem and you are an FS student, contact your
tutor.
2. Complete each activity as you complete each section.
3. Complete the revision questions at the back of book 2.
4. Plan your CAA examination and study timetable so that after completion
of your studies you have about one week for revision then do the CAA
examination.
The use of x and x

To try and avoid confusion between ‘×’ the times sign and ‘x’ the unknown, we have
used ‘×’ for the times sign and ‘x’ for the letter as in xyz.

Pi

Is a letter in the Greek alphabet which is used to denote a constant when dealing with
circles. This constant is the ratio between the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
It is equal to 3.142 approximately or 22/7 to be more precise. It may be written as π or
Π. Either of these symbols may be found in this book depending on whether normal
text is used or Maths text is used. You should commit 3.142 to memory. Pronounced
as ‘pie’.

Length

On some drawings the upper case letter L is used to denote length but in many books
the lower case l is used. We have used L where we think there might be confusion
with the letters l or i or the number 1.

Calculators

Not allowed in any CAA examination so it would be advisable to avoid their use here
(but during your studies they are very useful for checking answers).

Scientists

Details of various scientists are given in the text. This is to provide some historical
perspective and details need not be remembered.

Units, Weights and Conversion Factors

There is some overlap with this topic between modules 1 and 2 but it has been
included in this module in its entirety for the sake of completeness.

Books in this module 1 series = 2 with a copy of the CAA syllabus in the appendix to
book 2.
 ARITHMETIC

Terms and Signs

A whole number is called an INTEGER and they can exist as either a positive number
or a negative number. Positive numbers are recognised by a positive sign in front of
the number, eg:

+2 +4 +7 + 15 etc

Negative numbers are recognised by a negative sign in front of the number, eg:

–3 –6 – 12 – 28 etc

If no sign is shown then the number is considered to be positive, eg:

2 4 7 15 etc

Prime Numbers

A prime number is an integer that is exactly divisible only by itself and by 1. For
example 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc are prime numbers. Numbers such as 4, 6, 8, etc are called
Composite Numbers and a composite number can be divided by itself and by 1 and
one or more other numbers. For example 11 can only be divided by 1 and 11 only
(prime number). 8 can be divided by 1, 2, 4 and 8 (composite number).

Basic Operations

In arithmetic four basic operations are performed. These are:

(i) Addition (+)

(ii) Subtraction (–)
(iii) Multiplication (×)
(iv) Division (÷)

When carrying out these operations the following rules apply:

1. When there is no sign shown in front of a number then it is considered

as a positive number.
2. When adding or subtracting two numbers, one a negative number and
the other a positive number, the result will be a number with a negative
or positive sign.
3. When two positive signs are used together the result is a positive sign. If
both signs are negative the answer will be negative.
4. a + b is the same as b + a.
5. a × b is the same as b × a.
6. When two numbers with unlike signs are multiplied, or divided, with
each other the result is a negative number.

eg –5 × 6 = –30
12 ÷ –3 = –4

-1-
 7. When two numbers with like signs are multiplied, or divided, with each
other the result is a number with a positive sign.

eg 1. –7 × –6 = 42
2. –40 ÷ –5 = 8
3. 40 ÷ 5 = 8

BASIC OPERATIONS INVOLVING WHOLE NUMBERS

Addition

When adding numbers the result is called the SUM, eg:

1. 6 + 4 = 10
(the sum of 6 & 4 is 10).

2. The addition of +6 and –4 is written as:

6 + –4

Applying rule 2 this becomes 6 – 4, the sum of which is 2

Subtraction

This is the process of finding the difference between numbers, eg:

1. 10 – 6 = 4

2. –10 – 6 = –16

Example

Add together the following numbers: +5, –3, –7, and +4.

+ 5 + –3 + –7 + +4

(applying rules 2 & 3 becomes)

5–3–7+4

gives an answer of –1

written as 5 – 3 – 7 + 4 = –1

The equal sign (=) means that the quantity on the right is equal to that on the left.

-2-
 Fig. 1 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE NUMBERS

The signs positive (+) and negative (–) can also be thought of as indicators of direction
(figure 1). Conventionally it is accepted that the positive direction is to the right of
some datum and the negative direction is to the left of the datum.

Thus if zero (0) is considered as the datum in figure 1, the sum (+5 – 3 – 7 + 4) would
follow the path as shown, starting at the start (at 0) and finishing at –1 taking the
sequence +5 (5 divisions to the right), -3 (3 divisions to the left), -7 (a further 7
divisions to the left) then +4 (four divisions to the right), to finish at -1.

Multiplication

Multiplication is the name given to the process of repeated addition of identical

numbers (which is the way the computer does it anyway).

So 5 × 4 can be written as 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 which equals 20. Shown as 5 × 4 = 20.

Rule 6 applies to multiplication.

ie Multiplying 6 and –8 (6 × –8)

gives the answer –48.
and Multiplying –3 and –7 (–3 × –7)
gives the answer +21.

Be careful when multiplying more than 2 negative numbers. For example:

(–6) × (–3) × (–2) = ? (Brackets have been used to make the equation clearer.)

Multiply the first 2 numbers gives +18 so the equation becomes:

(+18) × (–2) = ?

Multiplying these 2 numbers above gives:

(+18) × (–2) = –36

-3-
When multiplying larger numbers without the use of a calculator it is important to
keep the numbers on the page in their respective columns.

Consider 62 × 14

This is written as 62
14 ×

To solve this problem the following procedure is adopted:

62
14 ×
620 62 × 10
248 62 × 4
add 868 62 × 14

Division

This is the name given to the process of determining the number of times one number
(the DIVISOR) is contained within a second number (the DIVIDEND), the result being
known as the QUOTIENT.

There are several ways to show division.

ie Divide 12 by 4 may be written as:

12 ÷ 4

or as 12 or 12/4
4

The answer, the quotient, is 3 in all cases. If either number was a negative number
then the answer would be negative, eg –3.

Consider a further example 569 ÷ 4 (569/4)

For convenience this may be written as 4 569

142
Which may be solved thus: 4 569
400 4 × 100
169 Difference
160 4 × 40
9 Difference
8 4×2
1 Difference

So the answer to the problem 569/4 is 142, remainder 1.

-4-
Brackets

Brackets are used in mathematics to group terms that are to undergo a common
operation. Brackets are always used in pairs of the same type. A wide range of
shapes exist including the following: [ ], { }, ( ).

A number, positioned immediately outside a bracket, will be multiplied by the term or

terms inside the bracket, as the bracket is removed.

ie 3(7 + 2)
= 3(9)
= 3×9
= 27
The multiplying number written in the previous question in front of the bracketed
terms has the same effect if written immediately behind.

Thus (7 + 2)3 also gives an answer of 27.

The solution could be found by multiplying 3 by 7 to give 21, then multiplying 3 by 2

to give 6. Adding 21 to 6 = 27.

If no number is shown immediately outside the bracket, then it is understood to be 1.

Thus (7 – 3) is understood as 1(7 – 3) = 4

However –(7 – 3) is understood as –1(7 – 3) = –1 × 4 = –4

Adjacent bracketed terms indicate multiplication.

Thus (8 – 5)(6 +2)

= (3)(8)

= 3 × 8 = 24

Problems that involve multiple brackets are solved by working outwards from the
innermost bracket.

For example: 2[6(7 – 4)]

= 2[6(3)]

= 2[18]

= 36

Mixed Operations

In arithmetic the operations required, when the signs are mixed, must be carried out
in a particular order (in effect the signs have different strengths). The sequence of
operations follow the pattern shown below:

-5-
 Firstly ‘Brackets’ must be removed.
Then any ‘Division’ must be carried out,
Followed by ‘Multiplication’
Then ‘Addition’
And finally ‘Subtraction’

This is more easily remembered from the word made up of the first letter of each
operation.
‘BODMAS’

‘O’ has been added to help form the word and may be taken as the operation ‘of’.
Consider the following:

Example 1. Solve: 2 + 6 × 9 ÷ 3(2 +5) – 8

Answer = 2 + 6 × 9 ÷ 3(7) – 8 Brackets (add 2 to 5)

= 2+6×9÷3×7–8
= 2+6×3×7–8 Division (9 divided by 3)
= 2 + 126 – 8 Multiplication (6 x 3 x 7)
= 128 – 8 Addition
= 120 Subtraction

Example 2. Solve: 162 ÷ (–18) + (–5 – 10) – 2(–33 +6)

Answer = 162 ÷ (–18) + (–15) – 2(–27) Brackets
= – 9 + (–15) – 2(–27) Division
= – 9 + (–15) + 54 Multiplication
= – 9 + 39 Addition
= 30 Subtraction

Now try activity 1. Do not look at the answers until you have completed the questions.

Activity 1

1) Find the product of 24 and 13

2) Solve 6390 ÷ 15.

3) What is the answer to the following problem?

9 + 4 × 30 ÷ 3(6 + 4) – 4

-6-
 Answer to Activity 1

1) 312

2) 426

3) 405

If you feel confident with this section then continue onto the next.

FRACTIONS
A fraction is part of a whole.

ie 3 is ½ (one half) of 6

1
Similarly 1mm is 10 (one tenth) of 1cm.

Quantities expressed in a way that involves one integer divided by another integer are
called VULGAR or COMMON FRACTIONS. The term vulgar is used to distinguish
them from decimal fractions which we will cover later.

The fraction ⅞ (or 78 ) indicates that the whole has been divided into 8 equal parts and
that 7 of these parts are being considered. The number above the line, 7 in this
example, is known as the NUMERATOR and the number below the line, 8, as the
DENOMINATOR.

Vulgar fractions may be further classified into the following groups: Proper Fractions,
Improper Fractions and Mixed Fractions.

7
A Proper Fraction has the numerator smaller than the denominator eg, 16 and ¾ etc.
Proper fractions are therefore always less than 1.

An Improper Fraction is one in which the numerator is the same as or greater than
the denominator eg, 53 and 18
18 etc.

Mixed fractions are a combination of a proper fraction and whole numbers eg, 1 14 and
15 78 etc.

Mixed fractions are therefore always greater than 1.

18
Improper fractions can be changed into either 1, as with 18 , or into a mixed number
5
as with 3 which can be expressed as 1 . 2
3

We will now consider the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division, as applied to fractions.

-7-
Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract fractions, first express them with a common denominator. When
this has been done the numerators may then be simply added or subtracted. As
previously shown, unity or 1 can be represented by a fraction in which the numerator
and denominator are the same ie 33 , 77 , 10
10 , etc, thus the value of any fraction remains
the same if both the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same integer.

1 2 3 12
ie = = = etc
2 4 6 24

The value also remains the same if the numerator and denominator are divided by the
same number.

36 18 9
ie = = (dividing by 2 in each case)
80 40 20

This process is known as SIMPLIFICATION and can reduce the fraction to a simpler
form. Consider the following examples.

2 1
Example 1. +
3 9

6 1
= + (both fractions now have the same common denominator)
9 9

6 +1
=
9

= 7
9

5 5
Example 2. −
6 12

10 5
= -
12 12

10 − 5
=
12

5
=
12

1 15
Example 3. 4 −1
8 16

= 3 1 − 15 (subtracting the integer part of the mixed fraction)

8 16

-8 -
 2 15
= 3 −
16 16

Here, although both the denominators are the same, 15 cannot be arithmetically
2
subtracted from 2, therefore it is necessary to convert 3 to 2 18 .
16 16

18 15
Hence 2 −
16 16

18 − 15
= 2
16

= 23
16

So for adding or subtracting fractions a common denominator is found. If all else fails
this can be found by multiplying both denominators. For example, solve:

3 + 1
5 3 (common denominator = 5 x 3 = 15). 5 into 15 go 3.
3 times 3 = 9. 3 into 15 go 5. 5 times 1 = 5.) So:

3 + 1 = 9 + 5
5 3 15

= 14
15

Multiplication

The product of two or more fractions is obtained by multiplying the numerators

together to form the numerator of the product and by multiplying the denominators
together to form the denominator of the product. The final fraction is then reduced to
its lowest form.

2 12 1
Example 1. × ×
5 15 4

Multiplying the numerators together, ie 2 ×12 × 1, equals 24.

Multiplying the denominators together ie 5 × 15 × 4 equals 300.

24
Hence the resulting fraction is
300

Reduce this to its lowest form (divide both top and bottom by 6 then 2)

gives 4
2
=
50 25

-9-
 2 21
Example 2. ×
7 40

The solution to this multiplication may be obtained as in the previous example.

Multiplying the top line across and then the bottom line across:

42
= reducing this to its lowest form.
280

21
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 2)
140

3
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 7)
20

Alternatively a cancellation method may be used before multiplication takes

place. The 21 in the numerator and the 7 in the denominator can both be
divided by 7.
2 213
×
71 40

The 40 denominator and the 2 numerator can both be divided by 2.

21 3
×
1 40 20

1 3
= ×
1 20

3
=
20

Multiplication of fractions involving mixed numbers is best dealt with by changing the
mixed number into an improper fraction before the multiplication takes place.

2 4
Example 3. 1 ×
3 25

51 4
= ×
3 255

1 4
= ×
3 5

4
=
15

- 10 -
Division

With division of fractions, the rule to follow is, ‘invert the divisor and then proceed as
for multiplication’.

6 2 2
Example ÷ ( being the divisor)
11 5 5

6 5
= ×
11 2

63 5
= × (cancelling)
11 21

15
=
11

4
= 1
11

Mixed Operations

Where addition, subtraction, multiplication and division occurs in the same

calculation involving fractions the basic rule of BODMAS applies. For example, solve:

5 7 3
÷ −
6 8 7

There are no Brackets so Division comes first. Solving the first two fractions first:

5 7 5 8 40
÷ = × =
6 8 6 7 42
Substituting 40/42 for the first two fractions in the equation gives:

40 3 40 − 18 22 11
− = = =
42 7 42 42 21

Now try some problems for yourself.

- 11 -
 Activity 2

Solve the following, expressing your answer in the lowest fractional form.

3 3
1. +
4 16

2 1
2. 1 +2
3 12

3 3
3. 2 −
8 4

5 12
4. ×
9 25

1 9
5. 3 ×
2 14

2 3
6. 2 ÷
3 8

Answers to Activity 2

15
1.
16

3
2. 3
4

5
3. 1
8

4
4.
15

1
5. 2
4

1
6. 7
9

If you have managed to do all of these correctly, well done. If not, look back over the
areas in which you have had difficulty, and attempt the problem questions again. The
next section to consider is decimal fractions, or simply decimals.

- 12 -
 DECIMALS

Decimals are fractions whose denominators are 10, or some multiple of 10, such as
100, 1000, 10,000 etc. They are indicated by writing one, or more digits to the right of
the decimal point.

2
Thus may be expressed in decimal form as 0.2
10

Decimal point

2
= 0.02
100

2
and = 0.002 etc.
1000

Decimal fractions written as above, that is, without a whole number, are called ‘pure
decimals’. When a whole number is combined with the decimal fraction, such as 2.2,
15.4, 120.65 etc then the number is known as a ‘mixed decimal’.

A decimal such as 7.459 may be written in the fractional form as:

4 5 9
7+ + +
10 100 1000

400 + 50 + 9
= 7
1000

459
= 7
1000

Decimal Addition

When computing decimals, the rule of likeness requires that addition or subtraction
is carried out only with like denominations. This means that the decimal points of
each number must be kept in line as the example below shows.

Consider the addition of 2.57, 34.8, and 0.04

2.57
34.8
0.04
37.41
11

Aligning the decimal point in each case, puts the numbers into their correct position.
Addition can then be carried out as with whole numbers.

Subtraction is carried out in a similar way.

- 13 -
ie Subtract 1.370 from 2.620

2. 6120
- 1.4 3 70
1. 2 50

So 2.620 minus 1.370 = 1.250

Note that when taking 7 away from 2 above we have used the rule ‘add 1 to the top
and 1 to the bottom’ making the 2 into 12 and the 3 into 4. Some people will use the
rule ‘add 1 to the right and take 1 from the left’ making the 2 into 12 and the 6 into 5.
We suggest you use the rule you are used to.

Decimal Multiplication

This is carried out in the same way as that used for whole numbers.

Thus 100 × 6.542 = 654.2

This is achieved by ignoring the decimal point until the multiplication is completed.

ie (for the same example) 100 × 6542 = 654200

The position of the decimal point can then be found by counting, from right to left, the
total sum of the decimal places, in the original problem, (three in this case) and
inserting it into the final product.

ie 654.200 3 places of decimals from the right

Example 1. Multiply 0.216 × 2.31

Ignoring the decimal points 216

× 231
43 200
6 480
+ 216
49 896

Summing the number of decimal places involved in this problem gives a total of five
(three for 0.216 and two for 2.31). Moving the decimal point from its position to the
right of the figure 6 (not shown) five places to the left and the answer becomes:

0.49896 5 places of decimals from the right

Decimal Division

Again, this procedure is performed the same way as for long division. However, if the
divisor (the number on the bottom line) is in decimal form, the problem may be
simplified by making it a whole number and correcting the dividend (the number on
the top line) accordingly. In other words moving the decimal point for both, several
places to the right to create at least one whole number.

- 14 -
Take the dividend 72.828 to be divided by the divisor 2.52.

72.828 7282.8
For example can be written as
2.52 252

ie To make the divisor a whole number, the decimal point (in this case) is
moved two places to the right. In order that the mathematical problem
remains unaltered, the decimal point of the dividend must also move the
same number of places in the same direction (to the right). So:

28.900
252 7282.800
- 504
1
22 4 2
2
- 2016
2268
- 2268

72.828
∴ = 28.9
2.52

ROUNDING

In the last example the problem happened to terminate after one place of decimals,
however in many problems an exact answer will not always occur and it will be
necessary to terminate the problem after a suitable number of decimal places has
been reached. This number will depend on the requirements of the question or
situation, and the operation performed is known as ‘rounding off’.

As an example. If a budget was being worked out for the running of a machine and
the hours were estimated at 23.75 running hours and the hourly running costs for
electricity were £8.3357, then the total cost would be (23.75 x 8.3357) = £197.97287

For budgeting purposes the sum of £197.97287 must be rounded to pounds and
pence. In other words to ---.-- (up to 99 pence). Starting with the last digit on the right
(7). It is greater than 5 so this makes the next digit (8) into a 9. The 9 is greater than 5
and this makes the next digit (2) into a 3. The 3, however is less than 5 so the next 7
is not rounded up.

So the nearest price after ‘rounding’ is £197-97. Of-course the accountants might like
to round it up further but the above is the mathematical answer.

Consider the number 15.7508. This becomes 15.751 if rounded off to three decimal
places, or 15.75 if rounded off to two decimal places, or 15.8 if rounded off to one
decimal place.

Note: The last decimal place number required, is increased by one if it is followed by
a 5 or larger digit.

- 15 -
The answers to decimal and non decimal problems are often required in the form of a
number of ‘significant figures’.

The number 3172 is 3000 correct to one significant figure, or 3200 correct to two
significant figures, or 3170 correct to three significant figures.

The count of the number of significant figures starts with the first number that holds
a value (ie 1, 2, 3 etc. Anything other than a zero) and is obtained by counting left to
right. Zeros before this value do not signify anything, but zeros within the number are
significant.

Thus 0.004283 = 0.00428 correct to three significant figures.

18.00718 = 18.0072 correct to six significant figures.
and 293.275 = 293.28 correct to five significant figures.

As with decimal places, the last significant figure required in the number is increased
by one if it is followed by a 5 or larger digit.

Before leaving this section on decimals, the relationship between vulgar fractions and
decimal fractions should be understood. If it is necessary to convert a vulgar fraction
into a decimal fraction, then all that is required is to divide the numerator by the
denominator.

0.5
Thus ½ becomes 0.5 ie 1 divided by 2 = 2 1.0
- 1.0

0.75
4 3.00
and ¾ becomes 0.75 ie - 2 .8
20
- 20

0.3125
16 5.0000
- 48
20
5 - 16
and becomes 0.3125 ie
16
40
- 32
80
- 80

- 16 -
 ESTIMATING

It is always a good idea to estimate an answer during an examination. In some cases

with multi choice exams all that is needed is an estimate. For example:

What is the product of 3.142 × 8.831?

(a) 277.47
(b) 2.77
(c) 27.74

3.142 is nearly 3 and 8.831 is nearly 9 and 3 x 9 = 27 so the answer must be

near to 27. The answer must be (c).

Some examiners realise this and would put all the alternative answers closer to 27, so
you cannot always rely on estimates, but sometimes you can. When completing any
calculation it is always best to carry out an estimate afterwards just as a check.

Now try activity 3.

Activity 3

Solve the following problems

1. 27.65 + 4.012

2. 60.25 – 4.71

3. Multiply 0.142 by 2.93 correct to four significant figures.

4. Divide 0.455 by 0.14 stating your answer correct to one decimal place.

5. Divide 367.2 by 1.2 stating your answer correct to two significant figures.

5
6. (i) Convert to a decimal.
8

(ii) Convert 0.875 to a fraction.

Answers to Activity 3

1. 31.662
2. 55.54
3. 0.4161
4. 3.3
5. 310
6. (i) 0.625
7
(ii)
8

- 17 -
 UNITS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES & CONVERSION FACTORS

This section has some overlap with the Physics module 2.

In the UK two systems of units exist, the imperial system and the metric system.

The imperial system is one that has existed from ancient times and, units such as the
‘inch’ - a unit of length (defined in early records as the length of three barleycorns
round and dry), and the ‘pound’ - a unit of mass (incorrectly called weight) (defined by
William the Conqueror as 7000 grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear of
corn) are part of this system of units.

These units have been modernised and standardised over the centuries, with the inch
being standardised against a very accurate test piece and the pound taking the form
of a cylinder of platinum known as the ‘British Standard Pound’.

The metric system was devised by the French in 1791 and has now been adopted for
general use in many countries. This system is based on the unit of length - the metre
and the unit of mass - the kilogram. The metre was originally defined as one ten-
millionth of the Earth’s quadrant (a quarter of the circumference), however, it is now
defined in terms of wavelengths of light.

A simplification of the metric system now exists, known as the ‘System International
d’Unit’ (the SI system), and this is the system most commonly used in engineering in
Europe and the UK – as well as other countries around the world.

There are six fundamental quantities in the SI system, from which all others are
derived, these are:

Quantity Units Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature (thermodynamic) Kelvin K
Electric Current ampére A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

The above units can be used in combination to produce ‘Derived Units’. For example:

Velocity = length divided by time = length = metres = m/s

time seconds

Area = length × length = metres x metres = m × m = m2

This system is a coherent system in that the product or quotient of two or more unit
quantities will in itself produce a unit quantity.

For example: 1N (unit of force) = 1kg × 1m/s2

- 18 -
To make the writing of large numbers easier (and use up less space) the unit can be
raised (or lowered) by 10 to a power. The power can be any value but is normally in
units of 3. For example:

Prefix Symbol Value raised to Value

a power of 10

Tera T 1012 1,000,000,000,000

Giga G 109 1,000,000,000
Mega M 106 1,000,000
kilo k 103 1,000
milli m 10-3 0.001
micro µ 10-6 0.000,001
nano n 10-9 0.000,000,001
pico p 10-12 0.000,000,000,001

Non SI multiples and sub-multiples that may be encountered include:

hecta h 102 100

deca da 101 10
deci d 10-1 0.1
centi c 10-2 0.01

As can be seen from the SI table above the values are of ten raised to a power divisible
by 3. For some quantities, in particular length, this means that there is no division
between the metre and the millimetre. Because of this, the centimetre, a non-SI unit
is occasionally used.

In the introductory paragraphs on this topic, some terms were used which you may
not be familiar with, for instance, ‘mass’. This term is used as a measure of the
quantity of matter which a substance possesses (solid, liquid or gas). In calculations,
if a ‘mass’ is quoted, then it is assumed that this value will remain constant, even
though the volume, state or location of the mass may change. In the SI system the
fundamental unit, as already stated, is the kilogram (kg) (not the gram). Of course,
these two terms are related, the gram being one thousandth of a kilogram.

If mass is used in calculations and the values are given in anything other than kgs
then the units given must be converted to kgs. For example:

15grams = 15kg = 15 × 10-3kg

15 x 103

Weight is also a term that you are familiar with and although it is discussed in more
detail in the Science Module 2, an understanding of it here is useful. The weight of an
object is the force of attraction between the Earth and the mass of the object in
question. As the weight of a body varies slightly at different latitudes, due to the non-
spherical shape of the Earth, weight is not constant. Thus the piece of platinum used
as the British Standard pound is a standard mass and not a standard weight.

The unit of weight (and force) is the ‘Newton’ symbol ‘N’. 1N may be thought of as the
weight of a small apple approximately, so it is quite small. (Sir Isaac Newton was
supposed to have an apple fall on his head when he discovered the laws relating to
gravity).

- 19 -
If you are still unsure of the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ then consider a bag of sugar. In
the UK the standard bag of sugar has a mass of 1kg. If it is placed on a set of
weighing scales (using an internal spring) they will, or should, read 1kg. In fact the
scales are measuring the force of attraction between the bag of sugar and the earth
not the mass of the bag of sugar. The force in fact being about 10N. If the scales and
the bag of sugar were to be taken to the moon, for example, the mass of the bag of
sugar would remain unchanged at 1kg, but put the bag of sugar on the scales and the
reading you would get would be about 0.2kg (1.6N). In other words the bag of sugar
would produce a force of about 1/6th of that which it exerted on the earth although
it’s mass has not altered.

Below are some of the units in use in the metric and imperial systems.

Imperial units

Length: inch, foot (ft), yard (yd) and mile (m).

12 inches (in) = 1 foot

3ft = 1yd
1760yd = 1 mile

Mass: ounce, pound, stone, hundredweight and ton.

16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)

14lb = 1 stone (st)
8st = 1 hundredweight (cwt)
20cwt = 1 ton

Fluid Volume: fluid ounce, pint, quart and imperial gallon.

20 fluid ounces (oz) = 1 pint (pt)

2pt = 1 quart (qt)
4qt = 1 gallon (imp gal)

Metric Units

Length: millimetre, centimetre (non SI unit), metre and kilometre.

10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)

100cm = 1 metre (m)
1000m = 1 kilometre (km)

Mass: gram, kilogram and tonne (sometimes called the metric ton).

1000 grams (gm) = 1 kilogram (kg)

1000kg = 1 tonne (t)

Fluid Volume: millilitres, centilitres (non SI unit) and litres.

10 millilitres (ml) = 1 centilitre (cl)

100cl = 1 litre (l)

- 20 -
It is frequently necessary to convert between units, particularly from larger to smaller
units and vice versa. On occasions conversions are also required between metric and
imperial units. The table below provides some of the multiplying factors that will allow
this conversion to take place.

Remember, when working on aircraft it is most important to verify conversion factors

and not try to remember them – memories are not reliable and verification can easily
be made by reference to:

* The AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual).

* Published conversion tables and graphs.
* Conversion tables/graphs on data plates attached to the
appropriate part of the aircraft – refuelling points for example for
conversion from gallons to litres and vise-versa.
* On-board computer data.
* Pocket or desk-top calculators.

Having said this, it is still necessary to remember the most important ones as the CAA
are likely to ask questions on them in the multi-choice paper.

TO CONVERT FROM TO MULTIPLY BY:

Length inches millimetres 25.4

metres inches 39.37
statute mile nautical mile (nm) 0.87
kilometre statute mile 0.62137

Mass pounds (mass) kilograms 0.45

kilograms pounds (mass) 2.2
tonnes kilogram’s 1000
tonnes ton (imp) 0.9842
tonnes ton (US) 1.1032

Fluid gallons (imp) litres 4.54

Volume litres gallons (imp) 0.22
US gallon imp gallon 0.83
imp gallon US gallon 1.2

Pressure bar pounds per 14.5

& Stress square inch
(psi) (lb/in2)
psi Pa (Pascal) 6895
Pa N/m2 1.0
kPa psi 0.145
kPa bar 0.01

Note that there is a US ton (sometimes called a short ton) which equals 2000lb and
there is a long ton (used in the UK) which equals 2240lb.

- 21 -
Examples

(i) Express 20 millimetres in metres. 20mm = 20 ÷ 1000m = 0.02m

(ii) How many feet are there in 10yd? 10yd = 10 × 3ft = 30ft

(iii) Convert 0.25 tonnes into kilograms. 0.25t = 0.25 × 1000kg = 250kg

(iv) Convert 30 inches into millimetres. 30in = 30 × 25.4mm = 762mm

If you feel confident with this section, then try Activity 4.

Activity 4

1. Express 210mm in terms of m.

2. How many in are there in 3½yd.

3. Convert 150mm into in, giving your answer correct to two decimal
places.

4. Convert 20l into gal.

5. How many pd (mass) are there in 15kg.

6. Convert 30in into mm.

Answers to Activity 4

1. 0.210 m

2. 126 in

3. 5.91 in

4. 4.4 galls

5. 33lbs
Ratio and Proportion
6. 762mm

- 22 -
 RATIO & PROPORTION

In previous work, we covered vulgar fractions and you will remember that these are
written as ¾, 7/16, 1/8 etc. Written in this way they also form ratios, so that ¾ is the
ratio of 3 to 4, 7/16, the ratio 7 to 16 and 1/8, the ratio 1 to 8.

These may be written as 3:4, 7:16 and 1:8, where the symbol : means ‘is to’ and is a
corruption of the (÷) division sign.

Ratios are often used as a means of comparison of two or more quantities of the same
kind, that is in terms of weight or size or cost etc.

A lift to drag ratio of 10 to 1, (10:1) (for a wing for example) would indicate that for
every 1 unit of drag force the lift value would be 10 times as great.

The laws that are related to fractions may also be applied to ratios, hence since 12/16
may be cancelled down to ¾ a ratio of 12:16 should be expressed in the smallest
possible numbers, ie (in this case) as 3:4. In some circumstances ratios may appear
inconveniently large, such as 15:72. In such a case it is acceptable that the smallest
value is represented by 1 and, the other as whole numbers and decimals.

Thus 15:72 becomes 1:4.8 (dividing both terms by 15)

Ratios are not always confined to two elements. For example, the ratio of £12,000 to
£8,000 to £4,000 is in the ratio of 3:2:1.

As with all the previous examples, note that the ratio is a number independent of the
nature of the quantities involved.

Ratios are in direct proportion when the ratios are equal.

For example, the ratios 4:6 and 6:9 have the same ratios and may be written as 4:6 ::
6:9 (where :: means ‘as’).

or 4 is to 6 as 6 is to 9

or 4:6 = 6:9

or 4/ 6 = 6/ 9

If you are not sure about this divide 6 into 4 and then divide 9 into 6. The answer in
each case is 0.666.

On occasions you will come across the term ‘inverse proportion’. In this case, if two
quantities are involved an increase in one results in a decrease in the other. A
practical example of this occurs in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine
between the pressure and volume of the gas. As the piston moves in, compressing the
gas, the volume reduces but the pressure increases.
ie , the pressure (p) is inversely proportional to the volume (v).
p∝v

- 23 -
Example 1. In mechanics the mechanical advantage is defined as the ratio of the
load that is to be moved, to the effort that has to be applied in order to
move the load. Hence, determine the mechanical advantage of a
machine if an effort of 20N is required to move a load of 600N.

Mechanical advantage: Load:Effort

600 : 20 = 30 : 1

Example 2. Divide £630 in the ratio of 7:3.

If the ratio is of the order 7:3 then there are 7 + 3 = 10 parts

a single part will equal 630/10 = £63 so 7 parts = £63 × 7 = £441
and 3 parts = £63 × 3 = £189

Example 3. Five cleaners can clean an aircraft in 1½ hours. Determine how long it
will take two cleaners working at the same rate. If five cleaners take
1½ hours, One cleaner will take five times as long ie, 5 × 1½ = 7½
hours. Two cleaners will therefore take half this time ie, 3¾ hrs.

Example 4. Express 3 inches as a ratio of 1 foot.

A ratio can only be made if the units are of the same kind. In this
example 1ft = 12in. Therefore the ratio is 3:12 or 1:4.

Example 5. Two meshing gearwheels have 20 teeth and 60 teeth respectively. How
far does the larger wheel rotate for 1 complete rotation of the smaller
one.

Gear ratios are 60:20, which is equal to 6:2 or 3:1. The smaller one
has to rotate 3 times to the larger one’s single rotation. So for 1
rotation of the smaller one the larger one rotates 1/3 of a revolution =
0.333 of 360° = 119.9° (nearly 120°).

Now try Activity 5.

Activity 5

1. In machines the velocity ratio is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to
the distance moved by the load. Determine the velocity ratio if the effort moves
through a distance of 6m causing the load to move a distance of 200mm.

2. Divide £253 in the ratio 12:8:3

3. Express 16 months as a ratio of 3 years.

4. If it takes 3 persons to paint the livery on an aircraft, 5 days, how long will it
take 2 persons working at the same rate.

5. Divide the following into the ratio of 3:2

(a) 250 litres. (b) 370mm. (c) 25gms.

- 24 -
 Answers to Activity 5

1. 30:1

2. £132:£88:£33

3. 4:9

4. 7½ days.

5. (a) 150:100
(b) 222:148
(c) 15:10

PERCENTAGES

A percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100, although this is not written.

Instead the symbol % meaning ‘per cent’ or ‘for every hundred’ is used.

Thus 25% (twenty five per cent) means 25 parts in every hundred and as a fraction is
written as 25/100 or, better still ¼. 75% as a fraction would be written as 75/100 or
better still ¾.

To convert a proper fraction into a percentage it is necessary to multiply the

denominator by a suitable number to make it 100. Having achieved this, the
numerator is then multiplied by the same number.

1 1 × 25 25
ie: = = = 25%
4 4 × 25 100

When converting decimal fractions into percentages it is only necessary to multiply by

100 and attach the percentage sign.

ie: 0.63 is 63%

and 0.375 is 37.5%

If the proper fraction is such that it is not easy to convert the denominator to 100
then convert the proper fraction to a decimal fraction first. The percentage can then
be obtained by multiplying by 100 as before.

5
Thus = 0.3125 = 31.25%
16

- 25 -
Example 1. Express 35% as a proper fraction.

35
=
100

7
=
20

Example 2. Find 8% of 720.

8
= × 720
100

= 57.6

3
Example 3. Express as a percentage.
16

3
= 0.1875
16

As a percentage = 0.1875 × 100

= 18.75%

Example 4. Express 50mm as a percentage of 2m.

50
=
2 × 1000

= 0.025

As a percentage = 0.025 × 100

= 2.5%

Example 5. What is 30% of 180?

30
= × 180
100

= 54

Example 6. The total fuel tank capacity of an aircraft is 6500 imperial gallons.
Number 1 tank holds 22% and number 2 tank holds 38%. How much fuel (in gallons)
is in the remaining tanks?

- 26 -
 Total fuel in 1 and 2 tanks = (22% + 38%) × 6500 gals

= 60 × 6500 gals
100

= 60 × 65

= 3900 gals

Remaining fuel = 6500 – 3900 = 2600 gals.

If you feel confident about this section then try Activity 6.

Activity 6

1. Calculate ½ % of £560.

2. Express 28% as a proper fraction.

3. What is 25 seconds as a percentage of 1 minute.

1
4. What percentage is 30mA of 0.6A (a ‘mA’ is of an ‘Amp’).
1000

5. A particular steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, has a carbon content of

0.25% by mass. Find the mass of iron in 600kg of this steel.

6. An engine is able to generate 30kW of power. Of this 25kW is usefully

engaged. Find the percentage of the power lost.

Answers to Activity 6

1. 2.8

7
2. 25

3. 41.67%

4. 5%

5. 598.5kg

6. 16.67%

- 27 -
 AVERAGES

Often to make sense of, or simplify, a mass of numerical data, an average value or
mean is calculated. This is a single value that can be used for comparison or
estimation purposes. You will have heard of ‘average rainfall’ for the month, or the
‘average family’ size. The average family in the UK consisted of 2.4 children. In reality
this is not possible but it does allow governments to calculate population growths,
school allocations, health service requirements etc.

Very often we talk about the ‘average speed’ of an aircraft or car which is the total
distance covered, divided by the total time taken, even though this may involve the
aircraft or car being stationary at intermediate airports or service stations en route.

Example 1. In an examination of six students the resulting marks obtained were 98,
73, 92, 65, 77 and 30. Determine the average mark.

98 + 73 + 92 + 65 + 77 + 30 435
Average = =
6 6

= 72.5

Comparisons can now be made. Those with marks above 72.5 can be considered to be
above average and those with marks less than 72.5 below average.

Example 2. What is the average speed of an aircraft in miles per hour if it travels
7,680 miles in 12 hours?

total distance 7680 miles

Average speed = =
total time taken 12 hours

= 640 miles/hour

Given the average speed of an aircraft now allows estimations of time to be made for
other journeys, ie the time taken for the same aircraft to travel 2500 miles would be:

Total distance 2500

Time taken = =
Average speed 640
= 3.9 hours

Example 3. A person driving to work uses main roads, motorways and side roads.
The total journey distance is 25 miles and the roads used are:

Side roads 3 miles (4.8 km), time taken 6 minutes.

Motorway (freeway) 15 miles (24 km), time taken 15 minutes.
Main roads 5 miles (8 km), time taken 15 minutes.

What is the average speed (miles/hour) for the whole journey?

- 28 -
 Total distance (miles)
Average speed =
Total time (hours)
3 + 15 + 5
=
60 + 60 + 60
6 15 15

23
= 36
60

= 38.3 miles/hour

or 36.8
36
60

= 61.3 km/hour

MENSURATION

The measurement of length, area and volume. All complex shapes can be broken
down into simpler basic forms and each basic form calculated separately. It is
important that you can recognise these basic forms and be able to apply the correct
formula or calculation when an area or volume is required.

An area is a measure of the region contained within the boundaries of a two-

dimensional figure. The SI unit of area is the ‘square metre’, written as ‘m2’ (metres ×
metres). The imperial unit of area is the square inch, square yard or square foot.

A volume is a measure of the region contained within the outside surfaces of a three-
dimensional shape. The SI unit is ‘cubic metres’, written as ‘m3’ (metres × metres ×
metres). The imperial unit is cubic inch, cubic foot or cubic yard.

Below are listed some of the more common shapes together with the formula for their
area and volume as appropriate.

A ratio exists when it comes to the circle or shapes of which a circle is a part. This
ratio is between the circumference of the circle and it’s diameter. It is denoted by the
Greek symbol π (pi).

Such that π = circumference

diameter

Irrespective of the size of the circle this ratio remains constant and approximates to
3.142. The fractional form 22/7 is often used as it is more accurate.

- 29 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

The first five forms are all polygons ie, plane closed
figures bounded by straight lines, in addition
these are further defined as quadrilaterals, ie
bounded by four sides. The sum of the interior
angles equals 360°.

The Square. All four sides are of equal length and

the corners are all right angles (90°).

b×d

The centroid is the centre of the area.

The Rhombus. All four sides are of equal length

and the opposite sides are parallel. The opposite
interior angles are equal but not 90°.

b×d

The Rectangle. Opposite sides are of equal length

but adjacent sides are not. All angles are 90°.

b×d

- 30 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

The Parallelogram. Opposite sides are of equal

length and parallel. Adjacent sides are of different
lengths. The opposite interior angles are equal but
not 90°.

b×d

The Trapezium. Four sided figure with two sides

parallel.

A = ½(a+d)b

The area is calculated from one-half the sum

of the lengths of the parallel sides, times the
perpendicular distance between them.

The Trapezoid. Four sided figure with no parallel

sides.
A= (H+h).a+bh+cH
2

- 31 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

The Triangle. A 3 sided figure, the sum of the

interior angles equals 180° (or π radians).

A = ½bh

ACUTE ANGLED TRIANGLE

The area of an acute (& obtuse) triangle is

calculated from one-half the base length (b)
times the perpendicular height (h).

OBTUSE-ANGLED TRIANGLE

Where all sides are of equal length then the

triangle is known as equilateral. All the
interior angles of an equilateral triangle are
60°.

EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE

- 32 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

If just two sides are of equal length, then

the triangle is known as an isosceles
triangle. In an isosceles triangle the two
base angles are equal.

A = ½bh

ISOSCELES TRIANGLE

When one angle in a triangle is 90°, then the

triangle is known as a right-angled triangle.

RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE

blank

- 33 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

The Circle. A plane figure enclosed by a curved

line which is always equidistant from the centre
(the centroid).

A = πd2
4

or

A = πr2

The length of the curved line, forming the circle, is

the Circumference. The distance from the centre to
this is called the Radius (r) of the circle and the
straight line distance (d) from one side of the circle
to the other, passing through the centre, is called
the Diameter.

Circular Sector

A = ½rL

Circular Segment

A = ½[rL-c(r-h)]

- 34 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

Annular Ring

A = πD2 - πd2
4 4

The area of the ring (shaded) is the area of the

small circle diameter (d) taken away from the
area of the large circle diameter (D)

Rectangular Prism

V= a × b × d

Pyramid. If the tip is over the centre of the

base it is called a Right Pyramid.

V = Ah
3

The volume of any pyramid is one-third of the

base area (A) and the perpendicular height ‘h’.
The area is the base (L x L) plus the four
sides. Each side is calculated as a triangle
(1/2 base x slant height measured at right
angles to the base).

- 35 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

Right Cone. Where the tip lies above the centre of the

Curved surface area = πr√(r2 + h2)

circle.
V = πr2h
3

Curved area = πrL

Sphere

A = 4πr2 V = 4 πr3
3

Right Cylinder. Where the cylinder ends are

square with the sides.

Two ends
A = 2(πr2)
+ V = πr2L
2πrL
curved
surface

- 36 -
FORM AREA VOLUME

Regular Hexagon

A= 2.598s2
or
= 2.598r2

Regular Octagon

A
= 4.828s2
or
= 2.828r2

Prism
V=h×A
where
A = end
surface area

Wedge

V=
(2a+c).bh
6

- 37 -
WARNING Trapezium. The American definition is no sides parallel (on a four sided
figure), the UK definition is two sides parallel. With no sides parallel, in the UK this is
called a Trapezoid. If you get a Q on this on the CAA exam and it is not clear – put
your hand up and have a word. Remember, the CAA do use books published in the
US and the examiners may not be aware of the problem.

Centroid (or Centroid of Area)

Is the centre of area of a two dimensional figure. The centroid of a circle, for example,
is the centre of the circle, the centre of a square is where the two lines intersect that
join alternate corners. Centroids for triangles and other shapes are worked out using
equations – which should not be necessary to know.

Centre of Gravity (C of G)

Applies to three dimensional objects and is the position where all the weight is said to
act. For a solid uniform sphere, for example, it is in the middle of the sphere. For a
horse-shoe it is the space between the two sides of the shoe. For an aircraft it is a
point where the lateral, longitudinal and normal (vertical) datum lines meet. On a
conventional jet airliner this would be somewhere in the fuselage near the centre
section about floor level (specified in the AMM).

Triangles

Several triangles have been shown above but two further points should be noted.

Similar Triangles are triangles that have a similar shape but their size may be
different.

Congruent Triangles have the same shape and are the same size.

The Circle (figure 2)

A circle is easily constructed using a compass to produce a continuous arc from a

centre through 360°. The properties of a circle include:

Segments. Drawing a chord from one side to the other will create two segments. If the
chord is not the diameter there will be a minor segment and a major segment.

Sectors. Bounded by two radii subtending an arc to each other.

Diameter. A straight line drawn from one side to the other through the centre.

Radius. A straight line drawn from the centre to one side. Is equals to halve the
diameter.

Centre is at the centroid of the circle. The centroid is the centre of the area.

Tangent. A straight line drawn to touch the side of the circle. A line drawn at right
angles at the point where the tangent line touches the circle will cross the centre of
the circle.
- 38 -
 Fig. 2 PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

The above covers most of the common shapes that you are likely to come across, so
lets now use these formulae and attempt activity 7.

Activity 7

1. Determine the area of the following, assuming π = 22/7 where appropriate.

(a) A triangle with a base length 4cm and perpendicular height 6cm.
(b) A circle of diameter 12cm.
(c) A sphere of radius 6cm.

2. Determine the area of the trapezium shown below.

3. Determine the volume of a sphere of diameter 5 cm.

Answers to Activity 7

1. (a) 12 cm2
(b) 113.14 cm2
(c) 452.57 cm2
2. 19.5 cm2
3. 65.48 cm3

- 39 -
Squares and Roots

The shape below is a square of side 4cm. Its area is = 4 × 4 = 16cm2

The statement 4 × 4 = 16 may be written as 42 = 16 (four squared equals sixteen).

Fig. 3 A SQUARE

The suffix ‘2’ positioned to the top right of the digit 4 is known as the index and
indicates the number of times the 4 (or base number) is multiplied by itself.

When we talk about ‘squaring’ a number this is the process that is referred to, thus:

two squared is 22 = 2 × 2 = 4

three squared is 32 = 3 × 3 = 9

ten squared is 102 = 10 × 10 = 100

Frequently we need to reverse this operation and this is known as finding the ‘square
root’ of a number. To indicate that this is required, a ‘square root’ sign is used. It
appears as √. If the square root is required a small number 2 is positioned just
outside and to the top of the sign thus, 2√.

With square roots, and only square roots, the small number 2 is often omitted.

So, working in reverse, we see that:

the square root of four = 2√4 = 2

the square root of nine = 2√9 = 3

and the square root of one hundred = √100 = 10

Cubes and Cube Roots

Consider the cube below with sides of 4cm. The volume of the cube = 4 × 4 × 4 =
64cm3. In a similar way as that described for a square, the statement 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
may be written as 43 = 64 (four cubed equals sixty four).

- 40 -
 Fig. 4 A CUBE

Similarly:

two cubed = 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8

three cubed = 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27

and ten cubed = 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000

As before, the ‘cube root’ of a number is the reverse of this process and uses the same
symbol but with a small ‘3’ positioned just outside and at the top of the root sign.

Hence: the cube root of sixty four = 3√64 = 4

the cube root of eight = 3√8 = 2

the cube root of twenty seven = 3√27 = 3

and the cube root of one thousand = 3√1000 = 10

The examples in this section have been selected to give a whole number answer. This
will not always be the case, and you may need to seek the use of calculators or tables
to solve such problems (not allowed on the CAA examination – but of course, when
doing calculations with reference to aircraft a calculator will almost certainly be used).

LINES & ANGLES

A line is defined as a long narrow mark whereas an angle is the space between two
straight intersecting lines usually measured in terms of the amount of rotation.

Fig. 5 LINES & ANGLES

- 41 -
In the majority of cases, angular measurement is made in degrees, the symbol of
which is a small ‘°’ ie, 20°, 45° etc. In a full circle or one complete revolution there are
360 divisions or degrees. ie one revolution = 360°. Thus in a semi-circle or one-half a
revolution there are 180°, and in one-quarter of a circle there are 90°.

Fig. 6 ANGLES ON A CIRCLE

A 90° forms what is known as a right angle and is often indicated by a small square
situated at the intersection of the two straight lines.

Fig. 7 A RIGHT ANGLE

The lines which form a right angle are said to be perpendicular to each other.

To make one complete revolution, irrespective of the radius, the number of degrees
moved through will always be 360. Making two complete revolutions would mean
moving through 720°, three revolutions 1080° and so on.

The degree may be subdivided into smaller divisions of minutes (') which can then be
further divided into seconds (") of a degree.

One degree (1°) = sixty minutes (60')

And one minute (1') = sixty seconds (60")

In some instances, particularly in science, angles are measured in RADIANS.

A radian is a ratio and as such has no units, ie it is just a number. However its name,
abbreviated to RADS may occur in certain units for the purpose of clarity, ie angular
velocity has units of rad/s, angular acceleration rad/s2.

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 Fig. 8 THE RADIAN

One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length
formed between two radial lines, is equal in length to the radius.

If the arc length is made the length of the circumference (2πr), where ‘r’ is the radius,
then the number of radians
arc length
=
radius

2πr
=
r

= 2π
So one revolution or 360° is equal to 2π radians. Radians are frequently quoted as
multiples of π, so:

360° = 2π radians

then 180° = π radians

π
and 90° =
2
As a guide as to how big a radian is; since π = 3.142 then 2π = 6.284, ie in one
revolution or 360° there are just over six radians, each approximately 57°.

Examples

1. Convert 120° into radians. Since 360° = 2π radians and 120° as a fraction of
360° is 120/360 then:

120 2
= × 2π = π radians
360 3

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2. Convert 66°33'22" to radians.

Here it is necessary to convert the minutes and seconds to degrees, so

converting the seconds to minutes first:

22"
22" = = 0.37' (ie 0 point 37 of a minute)
60

Adding this to the original 33' gives a total of 33.37'.

33.37
33.37' =
60

= 0.556°

Adding this to the original 66° gives a total of 66.556°.

360° = 2π radians

66.556
then 66.556° = × 2π
360

= 1.162 radians

3. Convert 4.761 radians to degrees, minutes and seconds.

2π radians = 360°

4.761
∴ 4.761 radians = × 360°
2π

= 272.785°

now, 0.785° = 0.785 × 60'

= 47.1'

and 0.1' = 0.1 × 60"

= 6"

∴ 4.761 radians = 272° 47' 6"

4π
4. Convert radians to degrees.
7

2π radians = 360°

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 4π
4π
∴ radians = 7 × 360°
7 2π
4π
= × 360°
14π

= 102.9°

The following part of the book deals with the angular relationships that are formed
when straight lines intersect. Much of this section is confined to the definitions of
these relationships.

An angle that lies between 0° and 90° is known as an ACUTE ANGLE. Angles lying
between 90° and 180° are called OBTUSE ANGLES, whilst angles greater than 180°
but less than 360° are referred to as REFLEX ANGLES.

When 90° is formed from two angles, ie 60° and 30° or 42° and 48° etc, then the
angles are known as COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES, with each angle being the
COMPLEMENT of the other.

Fig. 9 OBTUSE & ACUTE ANGLES

When the sum of two angles make an angle of 180°, then the angles are known as
SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES with each angle being the SUPPLEMENT of the other.

In the figure 10 below, two straight lines intersect. The angle w and y are equal in
value and are called VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES.

Fig. 10 OPPOSITE ANGLES

In figure 11, a straight line cuts two parallel lines. Angles d and y are equal in value
and are named ALTERNATE ANGLES. Angles a and x, as a pair are also equal in
value to each other and are known as CORRESPONDING ANGLES.

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 Fig. 11 ALTERNATE & CORRESPONDING ANGLES

Activity 8

1. In figure 12 below, where lines PQ and RT are parallel, the angle PQS is equal
to:

(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) a right angle

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

2. In figure 13 above the sum of angles ABC and BAC is equal to:

(a) 50°
(b) 130°
(c) 180°

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 Fig. 14

3. If AB and DE are parallel in figure 14 above, the angle BAC is equal to: (Hint,
put a horizontal line through C.)

(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) 40°

Fig. 15

4. Figure 15 above shows two intersecting straight lines, angle ‘b’ relative to angle
‘a’ is called:

(a) The supplement of angle ‘a’.

(b) The complement of angle ‘a’.
(c) The corresponding angle.

Fig. 16

5. The pair of angles, x and y, shown above in figure 16 are called:

(a) Vertically opposite angles.

(b) Alternate angles.
(c) Corresponding angles

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6. In a straight line, that represents 180°, there are:

(a) 2π radians.
(b) π radians.
2
(c) π radians.
3

7. The sum of the internal angles of a triangle in terms of radians is equal to:

(a) 3π radians.
(b) 2π radians.
(c) π radians.

8. A right angle in terms of radians is equal to:

π
(a) radians.
2
(b) π radians.
(c) 2π radians.

9. If a point ‘P’ on a wheel makes 2 complete revolutions, this in radians, is equal

to:

(a) 2π radians.
(b) πradians.
(c) 4π radians.

10. An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° is called:

(a) An acute angle.

(b) An obtuse angle.
(c) A reflex angle.

2
11. π radians in degrees is:
3

(a) 120°
(b) 60°
(c) 20.9°

12. 45° in radians is:

π
(a) radians
6
(b) 0.013 radians.
(c) 0.785 radians.

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Answers to Activity 8

1. (b)
2. (b)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. (c)
8. (a)
9. (c)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (c)

”””””””

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