UNITS IN THIS COURSE

compressors compressors

UNIT 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES

UNIT 2 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

UNIT 3 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating

UNIT 4 TURBINES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating

Para
Page

2.0 COURSE OBJECTIVES 3

2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 4

2.1.1 How a Reciprocating Compressor Works 5

2.2 CAPACITY CONTROL 8

2.2.1 Valve Unloaders 8

2.2.2 Compressor Speed 10

2.2.3 Clearance Pockets 11

2.2.4 Hot Gas Bypass 13

2.3 CONTROL OF SUCTION PRESSURE 13

2.4 AUTOMATIC SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS 14

& Turbines

2.0 COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course describes the different types of compressors and turbines found in
process plants. The course progresses in Units from basic terminology to the
Compressors

principles of operation of reciprocating and centrifugal compressors and steam

and gas turbines. On completion of the course the student will be able to:
Turbines

• Explain the basic terminology used in describing compressor and turbine

operations.
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• Explain the functions and classifications of compressors and turbines in

Compressors

process plants, and identify the different types of prime movers used to
power compressors.
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• Identify suction scrubbers and explain how they work.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of reciprocating compressors

including capacity control methods, control of suction pressure, and

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 automatic shutdown systems.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of centrifugal compressors including

capacity control methods, surge control, and automatic shutdown systems.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of gas turbines, steam turbines, and
turbo-expanders.

2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressors can be either single acting machines or double acting

machines. A reciprocating compressor works by a piston moving within a cylinder.
If the piston compresses gas on one stroke only, then the compressor is called
'single acting. If the piston compresses gas on both the forward and the backward
strokes, then the compressor is called 'double acting.

Figure 2-1 Single Cylinder Reciprocating Compressor

Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

A single cylinder reciprocating compressor has the following parts:

• A crankshaft to change the rotary movement of the prime mover into

reciprocating movement. The crankshaft works in conjunction with the
crosshead.

• A connecting rod to connect the crankshaft to the crosshead.

• A crosshead to work in conjunction with the crankshaft to convert rotary

movement into reciprocating movement.

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 • A distance piece placed between the prime mover and the compressor. The
distance piece is really a housing which joins the prime mover to the
compressors

compressor.

• A piston rod to connect the crosshead to the piston.

• A piston to work within the cylinder to compress the gas.

compressors
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating

• Piston rings to form a-seal between the piston and the cylinder wall.

• A cylinder which contains the gas which is to be compressed.

• A suction valve (or suction valves) to permit gas to enter the compressor
cylinder.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating

• A discharge valve (or discharge valves) to permit gas to leave the cylinder
after compression.

• A head end clearance pocket can be installed on the head end of, the
compressor. The head end is the end opposite to the end the piston rod passes
through. The clearance pocket allows the Operator to vary the capacity of the
compressor. Clearance pockets can be fixed or variable volume and controlled
either manually or automatically.

If the compressor has more than one cylinder most of these component parts will be
found for each cylinder.

2.1.1 How a Reciprocating Compressor Works

Figure 2-2 shows a reciprocating compressor cycle. At the start position (Figure 2-2
A) the piston has reached the end of its travel towards the head end. The suction
and discharge valves are both closed.

In Figure 2-2B the piston has started its backward stroke. The backward stroke may
also be called the suction stroke or the induction stroke. Backward stroke will be
used throughout this course. As the piston travels down the cylinder, the pressure
& Turbines & Turbines

in the cylinder decreases. When the pressure outside the cylinder is greater than
the pressure inside the cylinder the suction valve opens. Gas is drawn. into the
cylinder as the piston continues on its backward stroke.

Figure 2-2C shows the piston at the end of the backward stroke. The cylinder is now
No. 6 : Compressors

full of gas. The pressure in the cylinder is such that both the suction and discharge
valves are closed.
: Compressors
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Module No. 6

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Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

Figure 2-2 Reciprocating Compressor Cycle

As the piston starts on its forward stroke (Figure 2-2D) the pressure of the gas in the
cylinder is increased. The pressure in the cylinder increases until it is greater than
the pressure in the discharge pipeline. The discharge valve opens and the
compressed gas is released to the discharge pipeline.

As the piston comes near the end of its forward stroke the pressure in the cylinder
gets less. When the pressure in the cylinder falls to less than the pressure in the
discharge pipeline, the discharge valve closes.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

The compressor has now completed one full cycle and is once again at the start
position as shown in Figure 2 - 2A.

If the compressor is a double acting type exactly the same sequence of events
takes place as for a single acting compressor. The sequence takes place on both
sides of the piston.

This means that when the piston is on its backward stroke gas is being drawn into
the cylinder on one side of the piston. At the same time, gas is being compressed
and discharged on the other side of the piston. On the forward stroke of the piston

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 the same thing happens, but the other way around. The gas previously drawn into
the cylinder is now being compressed. At the same time gas is being drawn into the
cylinder on the other side of the piston.

The piston rod passes through one end of the compressor cylinder. This end of the
cylinder is called the drive end. Anything which takes place on this side of the piston
is said to take place on the drive side. The other end of the cylinder is called the
head. end. Anything which takes place on this side of the piston is said to take
place on the head side.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

Because gas is compressed on both sides of the piston, the strokes of the piston
are only called the forward stroke and the backward stroke.

Figure 2-3 Double Acting Compressor Backward Stroke

2.2 CAPACITY CONTROL

Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

The output of a compressor must be controlled (regulated) to provide enough gas

for the system it supplies. The most common control point is the discharge
pressure of the compressor.

For reciprocating compressors four methods of capacity control are available:

• Valve unloaders,

• Controlling the speed of the compressor,

• * Variable or fixed volume clearance pockets,

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 • * Hot gas bypass.

The type of capacity control chosen depends on the size of the compressor, the
type of prime mover used, and the amount and range of control ~ required. It may
sometimes be necessary to combine two types of capacity control to get the result
wanted.

2.2.1 Valve Unloaders

Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

When a reciprocating compressor is running normally the suction and discharge

valves open and close in a set sequence (order) as the piston moves backwards
and forwards in the cylinder.

Special equipment can be fitted to the compressor to hold the suction valve (or
valves) open. This equipment is known as a valve unloader. Valve unloaders can
be operated manually or automatically.

Valve unloaders are usually used only on constant speed compressors. They are
always fitted to the suction valve (or valves) of the compressor.

When a valve unloader is in use it holds the suction valve open. On the backward
stroke of the piston, gas is drawn into the cylinder. The same gas is pushed out of
the cylinder through the open suction valve on the forward stroke of the piston.
With nothing to hold the gas in the cylinder there is no increase in the pressure of
the gas.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 2-4 Manual Valve Unloaders

Look at the single cylinder, double acting compressor arrangement shown in Figure
2-4. Manual valve unloaders are fitted to each of the suction valves. If neither of
the valve unloaders is used, the compressor is running at 100% capacity. With one
of the valve unloaders used the compressor only works on one stroke of the piston,
not on both strokes. The compressor is running at 50% capacity. If both valve
unloaders are in use the compressor is running at 0% capacity which is also called
'no load'.

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 Large reciprocating compressors are often started up on 'no load'. This means that
the prime mover does not have to do as much work as it would do if there was a
load on the compressor. This increases the life of the prime mover.

Valve unloaders can also be controlled automatically. Figure 2-5 shows an

automatic valve unloader fitted to the drive end of a single cylinder, double acting
reciprocating compressor. In this case, the control signal to load or unload the
suction valve comes from the compressor discharge pipeline.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

The unloader mechanism is operated by an air signal from a pilot. The pilot receives
a supply of instrument air and a separate signal from the compressor discharge
pipeline. At the pre-set compressor discharge pressure the pilot opens to supply
instrument air to the unloader mechanism on the suction valve.

The unloader mechanism includes a diaphragm. As the instrument air enters the
chamber above the diaphragm, the diaphragm is forced downwards. Below the
diaphragm are rods which rest on the suction valve. As the diaphragm moves
downwards, so do the rods. This makes the suction valve open and this unloads
that side of the cylinder which, in this case, is the drive end.

When the compressor discharge pressure falls below the pre-set level the pilot
valve closes, shutting off the instrument air supply to the Unloader. The diaphragm
rises due to springs place , beneath it. The rods come off the suction valve and the
suction valve closes. The drive end of the cylinder is once again loaded.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 2 - 5 Automatic Valve Unloader

2.2.2 Compressor Speed

As the speed of a compressor is increased its capacity also increases. So, as the
compressor speed is decreased its capacity also decreases.

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 Using compressor speed to control capacity is limited by the type of prime mover
driving the compressor. The speed of internal combustion engines, usually diesel
engines, can easily and accurately be controlled either manually or automatically.
The speed range is usually between 100% and 50% of rated speed.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

Steam turbines and gas turbines can also be speed controlled although it is more
usual to consider these prime movers as constant speed machines.

Most reciprocating compressors run at low to medium speeds. Steam and gas
turbines are high speed drivers. When a steam or gas turbine is used as the prime
mover for a reciprocating compressor the output speed of the turbine is normally
reduced using gears or a V-belt drive. This drive arrangement is known as the
transmission. Variable speed transmissions are available but are not commonly
seen in process plants. A variable speed transmission works like the gearbox of a
car.

Variable speed electric motors are expensive. For this reason it is unusual for them
to be used as prime movers for capacity control by compressor speed.

2.2.3 Clearance Pockets

Capacity control using a clearance pocket is one method which can be used on
constant speed reciprocating compressors.

At the end of each compression stroke some gas is left in a clearance space inside
the cylinder. The clearance space is made up of spaces in the valve recesses and
the space that there is between the piston and the cylinder end at the finish of the
stroke. (See Figure 11 - 19.)
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 2-6 Clearance Space

The capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be controlled by changing the

amount of clearance in the cylinder. To do this a

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 clearance pocket is used

The clearance pocket increases the amount of clearance in the cylinder. The
amount of clearance can be controlled and so the capacity of the compressor can
compressors

also be controlled.

Normally a clearance pocket is fitted to the head end of the compressor cylinder.
Sometimes clearance pockets can be fitted to each end of the compressor
cylinder.
compressors
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating

Clearance pockets can be fixed volume or variable volume. Examples of both types
are shown in Figure 2-7.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating & Turbines & Turbines
No. 6 : Compressors
: Compressors

Figure -2-7-.Clearance Pockets

Module
Module No. 6

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 2.2.4 Hot Gas Bypass

A compressor fitted with hot gas bypass capacity control has a bypass line running
from the discharge of the compressor to the suction of the compressor. The bypass
line includes a valve which is usually controlled automatically.

Capacity control of this type gives a very wide range of control. However, the
compressor must be operating at full load and full capacity all the time.
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

It is also necessary for the gas being returned to the suction side of the compressor
to be cooled to normal suction temperature. If this is not done, compressor
discharge temperatures will be too high.

2.3 CONTROL OF SUCTION PRESSURE

Control of the suction pressure of a reciprocating compressor is particularly

important when the compressor forms part of a continuous process.

Imagine a compressor Which receives gas from one process plant. The purpose of
the compressor is to increase the pressure of the gas so it can be sent to another
process plant for further processing or storage. The process plant which receives
the gas from the compressor is set up to handle the gas at a certain temperature
and pressure, and at a certain flow rate.

If the suction pressure at the compressor falls below the normal operating range the
temperature of the gas leaving the compressor will be higher than the normal
range. It may be unacceptable to the downstream process plant.

If the suction pressure at the compressor rises above the normal operating range,
both the flow of gas and the discharge pressure of the gas will be higher than the
normal range. These increases may also be unacceptable to the downstream
process plant.

Also, when the compressor suction pressure is higher than normal, the compressor
and its prime mover are overloaded. This may cause the compressor or its prime
mover to fail. If this happens the upstream process plant may have to shut down
because it can not get rid of its gas. The downstream process plant may also have
to shut down because it is not receiving gas.

Control of reciprocating compressor suction pressure is done in a similar way to

capacity control, which has been described in Paragraph 2.2. Clearance pockets,
compressor speed and hot gas bypass can all be used to control compressor
suction pressure.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

2.4 AUTOMATIC SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS

A compressor is an expensive piece of equipment. If, for example, the compressor

is not being supplied with enough lubricating oil it will be damaged. Repairing the
damage will cost money. Also, with the compressor out of service for repair,
upstream or downstream processes could be affected.

For this reason, compressors are fitted with automatic shutdown systems. These
systems detect when something is going wrong and shut down the compressor
before damage can occur. Although this could still affect upstream or downstream
processes, the cost is far less than repairing a damaged compressor.

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 Listed below are some of the usual automatic shutdown systems fitted to a
reciprocating compressor. The numbers in brackets refer to the instruments shown
on Figure 2-8.

1. Low lubricating oil Pressure (1) is detected by a low pressure sensor. The low
pressure sensor is usually located on the lubricating oil supply line.

1. Low lubricating oil level (2) is detected by a low level sensor fitted on the
Unit No. 2 - Reciprocating compressors

lubricating oil sump.

1. High vibration (3 and 4) is detected by instruments called vibration monitors.

The vibration monitors can be fitted to various places on the compressor or its
prime mover.

1. High liquid level in the suction scrubber (5) is detected by a high level sensor
fitted on the suction scrubber. A high liquid level in the suction scrubber could
cause liquid to be carried over into the compressor.

1. High differential pressure across the lubricating oil filter (6) is detected by a
high differential pressure sensor fitted on the filter. A high differential pressure
across the lubricating oil filter shows that the filter is dirty and requires cleaning.
If the filter is not cleaned it will lead to a low lubricating oil pressure.

1. High temperature of the discharged gas (7, 8 and 9) is detected by high

temperature sensors. The sensors may be fitted on the compressor discharge
line or on the discharge line from each stage of the compressor.

1. Overspeed (10) is detected by an overspeed sensor which is usually fitted to

the prime mover of the compressor.

1. Low suction pressure (11) is detected by a low pressure sensor fitted in the
compressor suction line.

1. Packing failure (12) is detected either by measuring the volume of gas venting
from the seal area or by measuring the temperature of the vented gas. An
increase in either volume or temperature will indicate packing failure.

All of these sensors are linked to the shutdown arrangements for the compressor.
The usual method of shutdown is to cut off the supply of fuel, steam or electricity to
the prime mover of the compressor.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

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Figure 2 -8 Automatic Shutdown Systems

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