Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361

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Prediction of worn geometry in cone crushers

M. Lindqvist *, C.M. Evertsson
Department of Machine and Vehicle Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteburg 412 96, Sweden
Received 27 June 2003; accepted 26 August 2003

Abstract
A cone crusher is used for crushing rock material in mines and quarries. The performance of the crusher changes during its
lifetime due to wear of the crusher liners. Previous research has made it possible to model, simulate and optimize the performance of
a given crusher. A problem is that due to wear the optimized geometry will change and the performance will suffer. To design crusher
geometry for optimized performance throughout the lifetime of the liners, it is desirable to predict the worn geometry. This paper
presents a method for this purpose. In a previous study, a wear model was investigated for a laboratory scale crusher. This model
has been implemented in a cone crusher. The controller in a modern cone crusher can, for example, keep the close side setting or the
power draw constant. Such a controller was implemented in the model. Measurements of the worn geometry were conducted in
order to validate the wear model. The worn geometry is well predicted although the wear rate, estimated from experiments presented
in a previous study, was overestimated. The effect of constant power control and wear on various output parameters was studied in
simulations.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Comminution; Crushing; Grinding; Modelling; Simulation

1. Introduction 2. Cone crushers

Cone crushers are used in the mining and aggregates
industries to crush rock. Fig. 1 shows the operating
principle of a cone crusher. Rock is fed at the top.
During operation the geometry of the crushing liners
will change and the performance will suffer.
Previous investigations on cone crusher performance
have been carried out by Evertsson (2000), who devel-
oped a method to model flow of rock material and the
breakage. Evertsson and Lindqvist (2002) has also done
some investigations on the pressure distribution and
power draw in cone crushers. An alternative method for
wear prediction in similar applications was presented by
Cleary, 1998 who has developed the discrete element
method to predict wear and other operating properties
in ball mills.
To optimize the crusher liners for improved perfor-
mance throughout the lifetime, it is desirable to be able
to predict the change of the geometry of a given crusher.
The aim of this study is to develop a model for this
purpose.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46-31-772-13-76.
E-mail address: mats.lindqvist@me.chalmers.se (M. Lindqvist).
0892-6875/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2003.08.011
Fig. 2 shows the operating principle of a cone
crusher. The motor turns the eccentric with a bevel gear.
The mantle is suspended on a spherical thrust bearing at
the bottom, a cylindrical bearing in the eccentric and a
spherical bearing at the top. When the eccentric is
turned, the mantle will exert a nutating and rotating
motion so that the bed of rock material between liners
will be compressed. Rock particles will be squeezed and
crushed several times along their path through the
crusher. The crushing outcome is determined by the
geometry of the crusher liners. The smallest distance
across the crushing chamber at the closed position is
called the close side setting (CSS). This measure is im-
portant for the size distribution of the crushed material.
The close side setting is controlled by a hydraulic system
that can lower or raise the mainshaft with the mantle in
order to compensate for the wear. The CSS cannot be
measured during operation by any simple means. Dif-
ferent control strategies have been developed for the
wear compensation. For example the hydraulic pressure
(i.e. the thrust force supporting the spherical thrust
bearing) or power draw can be kept constant. Another
strategy is to keep the CSS constant. This will require
the operator to stop and calibrate the CSS every now
1356 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361
Fig. 1. Operating principle of a cone crusher.
Fig. 2. Schematic image showing the operating principle of a hydro-
cone type of rock crusher.
and then or else the CSS will increase as the liners are
worn. The CSS is calibrated by stopping the crusher and
raising the mantle until it touches the concave. This
position corresponds to CSS ¼ 0. When the mantle is
lowered, CSS is computed from the cone angle of the
liner, and the mantle position. The liner material used in
this study is manganese steel, with 1.2% C, 12.5% Mn,
0.6% Si and 1.5% Cr. This type of material is well known
for its properties in abrasive wear applications.
3. Jaw crusher wear
In a previous study carried out by the author, wear
was studied in a laboratory jaw crusher, see Fig. 3
Fig. 3. Laboratory jaw crusher with load cells.
(Lindqvist and Evertsson, 2003). The reason for
choosing a jaw crusher in this study was that it is easy to
measure the crushing forces acting on the liners.
The laboratory jaw crusher was equipped with load
cells in order to register crushing forces. Since the re-
sulting force acting on the fixed liner is measured, it is
possible to estimate the average pressure from the bed of
rock material. The pressure here is hence a pseudo-
pressure, and is defined as the crushing force divided by
the active area of the liners. The true pressure distribu-
tion is unknown since the contact area of the rock par-
ticles squeezed against the liner is unknown. Relationship
between this average pressure from the rock material,
motion, and wear was studied. The tests reveal two dif-
ferent wear mechanisms on the fixed and moving liner
respectively. On the fixed liner the bed of rock material
slides against the liner surface whilst on the moving liner
there is no such relative motion between rock and liner. A
simple model was implemented. A modified version of
the wear model suggested by Archard, 1953. The pre-
dicted worn geometry was similar to the measured.
4. Modelling
4.1. Modelling pressure
In the present study the wear model described by
Lindqvist and Evertsson (2003) has been implemented in
a cone crusher. Evertsson (2000) has developed a flow
model and a model to simulate the breakage behaviour
in a cone crusher. In that model three transport mech-
anisms can occur, sliding, free-fall and squeezing. Slid-
ing occurs when a particle is in contact with the mantle
and slides downwards. If the eccentric speed is high
enough the mantle surface will accelerate away from the
particle that will fall freely. Upon contact with the
closing mantle the particle will become squeezed.
Evertsson and Lindqvist (2002) has also done some
work on pressure distribution in a cone crusher.
Laboratory test have been conducted (Evertsson and
Lindqvist, 2002) where rock material is filled in a cy-
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361
lindrical container and crushed (see Fig. 4). The pressure
was registered and a polynomial was fitted to the test
data. The polynomial relates the variational coefficient
(standard deviation/mean) of size distribution and the
compression ratio (s=b) to pressure.
From the crushing chamber geometry, the nominal
compression ratio ðs=bÞnom can be computed. Evertsson
(2000) introduced the effective compression ratio ðs=bÞeff
and the utilized ðs=bÞu to account for dynamic and filling
effects. The utilized compression ratio ðs=bÞu is smaller
than the nominal since the particles are not confined in
the beginning of the stroke: ðs=bÞnom > ðs=bÞeff > ðs=bÞu .
A rearrangement of the particles is necessary before any
crushing can take place. Evertsson (2000) introduced the
volumetric filling ratio gv < 1 to account for this effect
(see Fig. 5 and Eqs. (1) and (2)).

s
seff
¼ ð1Þ
b eff beff

s seff  ð1  gv Þbeff
¼ ð2Þ
b u beff gv
By measuring the hydraulic pressure in the piston sup-
porting the thrust bearing below the mantle it is possible
to estimate gv , which is governed by eccentric speed, and
feeding conditions. So, if ðs=bÞnom and feed size distri-
bution are known it is possible to compute the pressure
in the crushing chamber.
Fig. 4. The can test. A cylindrical container with rock material is
crushed. Different input size distributions yield different pressure re-
sponses (Evertsson, 2000).
Fig. 5. Bed of squeezed rock material. The bed needs to be confined
before any crushing can take place.
1357
4.2. Modelling wear
The wear model presented by Archard suggests that
wear is proportional to sliding distance and pressure. In
the previous experiments carried out by the author
(2003) it was found that wear occurs even if there is no
macroscopic sliding motion between rock material and
liner. In this case Archard’s model would yield no wear.
Therefore the wear model was modified to account for
the non-sliding wear. Eq. (3) shows the model including
separate terms for sliding and squeezing wear and Eq.
(4) shows the wear model used for squeezing wear only.
Pressure is denoted p, v sliding velocity and Dw wear per
stroke.
Z t
1 p
Dw ¼ pv dt þ ð3Þ
W1 0 W2
p
Dw ¼ ð4Þ
W2
W1 ¼ 208 kN/mm2 , W2 ¼ 274 kN/mm3 for material used
in the previous study. W1 and W2 are material parameters
unique for each combination of liner material and
abrasive. The difference in sliding motion between the
bed of rock material and the fixed and the moving liner,
is due to the angle between the liners and the direction of
motion. In a cone crusher the mantle is free to roll
against the bed of rock material. On at least one point
on the concave there is pure rolling between concave
and bed of material. In other points the relative sliding
motion is very small, since the concave is designed
nearly as an ideal cone with the generatrix of the mantle
intersecting the pivot point of the main shaft (see Fig. 2).
It is not possible to identify any ploughing grooves in
any particular direction on a worn crushing mantle or
concave. The small sliding motion that exists may cause
sliding between concave and rock, between mantle and
rock or sliding motion in the bed itself. Therefore it is
assumed that the wear mechanism is pure squeezing
wear on both inner and outer mantle.
5. Wear measurements
In order to verify the wear model, measurements have
been conducted on a SANDVIK H-3000 crusher in
operation. The crusher is stopped and a probe detects
the location of the surfaces of the mantle and concave.
The device is made of a frame that is attached to the
mainshaft of the crusher (see Fig. 6). A step motor
moves a carrier by turning a threaded rod. Small step-
ping motors sends out probes. The number of pulses
sent to the stepping motor corresponds to a certain
position relatively to the measuring frame. When a
probe contacts the liner the controller stops the motor
and the number of pulses is registered. The number of
pulses is then converted into geometric coordinates.
1358 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361
Fig. 6. Device for measuring the geometry of the crusher liners. Top
image: device is attached to the mainshaft of the mantle. Bottom image:
crushing chamber with measuring device seen from lower manhole.
The first measurement was conducted after 73 h of
operating time since the last change of liners. The rock
material was quartzite. The size distribution of the feed
is shown in Fig. 15. The measurements were conducted
once a day during a week. The coordinates are trans-
formed to a global coordinate system. The measured
geometry was entered into a 3D CAD system in order to
visualize the geometry (see Fig. 7). There was some in-
Fig. 7. CAD-model of crusher with measured geometry. Measure-
ments were made on the open side, and then mirrored and extrapolated
to the closed side.
accuracy in the positioning of the measuring frame rel-
ative to the crushing chamber. When evaluating the
measured geometry the transformation of the coordi-
nates was made so that the angle of the measured liner
corresponded to the angle of the original nominal ge-
ometry, and so that the wear on mantle and concave was
roughly equal. It is hence assumed that wear on mantle
and concave is equal.
6. Model versus measurements
In order to verify the long-term validity of the model,
it is necessary to simulate the change in geometry over a
long time. Therefore the simulations discussed in this
study, start from the new set of mantles. The controller
of the crusher is set to keep the power draw constant.
Comparisons between model and real crusher reflects
the change from new liners until 73 h of operation. If the
wear is computed in the direction normal to the liner
surface and plotted against local y-coordinate in the
crusher, we can see the agreement between simulation
and measurements in Fig. 8. Fig. 9 shows measured and
simulated geometry.
Using the wear coefficient obtained in a previous
study by the author (Lindqvist and Evertsson, 2003, jaw
crusher shown in Fig. 3 in this paper) the maximum
measured worn geometry after 73 h of operation was
reached after only 25 h of simulated time. Hence the
wear coefficient obtained in those experiments is over-
estimated by a factor of 2.9. The most probable reason
for this discrepancy is inaccurate prediction of pressure
in that study. The poor prediction of pressure was
caused by the fact that particles at the bottom of the jaw
crusher liners are not confined. For this reason the wear
data at the bottom of the crusher were neglected.
However the simulated pressure distribution was scaled
Fig. 8. Wear normal to liner surface. Y -coordinates differ due to dif-
ferent local coordinate systems. Origin of the local coordinate system
of the mantle is shown in Fig. 9. The origin of the concave’s coordinate
system is at the pivot point, i.e. the intersection of the main shaft and
axis of concave (see Fig. 2).
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361 1359

7. Application of the wear model

Using the crusher model, it is possible to track changes

in crusher performance as liners are worn. Figs. 11–15
shows the change in geometry, capacity, close side setting,
product size. Note! These quantities have not been veri-
fied in the experiments, they are only simulation results.

Fig. 9. Cross-section of mantle. Nominal new geometry, measured

worn, and simulated worn geometry.

so that the measured forces would be in equilibrium with

the simulated pressure. The actual and simulated pres-
sure distribution on the jaw crusher liners are schemat-
ically shown in Fig. 10. This means that the pressure was
systematically underpredicted in the area used for de-
termining the wear coefficient.
Other factors that may contribute to the discrepancy
is non-linear dependency between pressure and wear,
dependency of wear rate and particle size. The wear
coefficient from the previous study was obtained from
crushing a feed material with median particle size
d50  9 mm, in this study d50  19 mm. The choice of the
geometry obtained after 25 h of simulated time was Fig. 11. Cross-section of new (left) and worn crushing chambers at
made for the best agreement between maximum wear on constant power draw. One hundred and forty-five hours of operating
time, which in this case means the liners are used beyond their lifespan.
the mantle. Given this selection of simulation data the
wear is underestimated in the upper section of the
crusher, as can be seen in Fig. 8. The wear profile as a
whole is well predicted. The agreement in locus of
maximum wear is good. The total wear on the concave
was assumed to be equal to the total wear on the mantle
in the normal direction. According to Fig. 8, this is a
valid assumption; maximum wear is roughly 15 mm on
both mantle and concave.

Fig. 10. Difference between predicted (solid) and actual pressure (da-
shed) on jaw crusher liner. Image of jaw crusher can be seen in Fig. 3. Fig. 12. Simulated axial force (N ) and power draw (W ). The axial
Simulated pressure was scaled so that it’s integral equals the measured force is the force from the hydraulic piston supporting the thrust
forces. bearing shown in Fig. 2.
1360 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361
Fig. 13. Simulated capacity as a function of operating time.
Fig. 14. Close side setting vs. operating time.
8. Discussion
The crusher used in this study shared its output
conveyor with another crusher that was running simul-
taneously. Therefore it was not possible to verify the
computed capacity and size distribution. Readings off
the control unit provides information about close side
setting, power draw and hydraulic pressure. When
running the simulations the volumetric filling ratio gv
was selected to achieve the correct power draw, thrust
force and CSS as read off the control unit and when the
liners were new.
In the simulation power draw and axial thrust force
fluctuates. During simulation the mantle is moved up or
Fig. 15. Simulation results of size distribution. Feed, product from
new mantles and product from mantles after 73 h of operation.
down until the desired thrust force or power draw is
achieved. Here it is necessary to allow a coarse tolerance
to achieve satisfactory computational speed. The flow
model used here was introduced by Evertsson (2000). It
is a discretized flow model, based on particle dynamics,
where a crushing zone is determined by the distance a
particle can fall until it impinges the closing mantle. The
number of crushing zones equals the number of crushing
actions a particle in the crusher will be subjected to.
Moving the shaft of the mantle up or down to find the
position that yields the desired power draw, the number
of crushing zones may change. In turn the computed
pressure distribution on the mantle may change slightly.
In other words, axial force/power draw are discontinu-
ous functions of CSS in the model. A more accurate
control of the simulated power draw or thrust force is
thus difficult.
As can be seen in Figs. 13 and 14, the capacity and
close side setting decreases over time due to the wear
compensation. The decreasing trend in capacity was
verified by the liner manufacturer and the plant opera-
tor. The liner manufacturer has also changed the design
after the study was made. The plant operator cannot
verify the drop in CSS. In some plants CSS increases
slightly over time, in other plants it decreases. Whether
CSS increases or decreases over time is determined by
the wear rate at the bottom of the crushing chamber
compared to the wear rate further up in the chamber. In
these simulations the wear rate is underpredicted in the
upper part of the crushing chamber, as can be seen in
Fig. 8. Neither the mantle nor the concave are perfectly
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1355–1361
Fig. 16. Formation of ‘‘lip’’ on the lower edge of the liner. This occurs
when a portion of the liner is not utilized.
round. Calibrating the crusher at different eccentric
positions usually give slightly different CSS when the
crusher is started. Variation in the feed material is also a
possible source for error. CSS values read off the control
unit does not show the decreasing trend obtained in the
simulations. The readings of CSS during these mea-
surements varied between 10 and 16 mm. No trend was
observed. When the crusher is started with new liners
CSS is roughly 16 mm according to the plant operators.
The first measurement was conducted after 73 h of op-
eration and the last measurement after 88 h. The wear
sometimes forms a ‘‘lip’’ at the lower end of the crushing
chamber (see Fig. 16).
The reason is, that if CSS, during operation, deviates
considerably from what the set of liners were designed
for, the lower end of either the mantle or the concave
will not be utilized. This effect is not currently imple-
mented in the crusher model. The formation of this lip is
likely to have an even more detrimental effect on the
capacity. Wear is computed on the mantle. The wear on
the concave is assumed to be equal to the wear on the
mantle, on the intersection between the normal of the
mantle and concave.
9. Conclusions
A wear model for cone crushers has been imple-
mented, in order to predict the geometry of a worn
crusher. The model was verified through measurements.
Adjusting the model for good agreement of wear rate in
the lower part of the crushers yields an under-prediction
of wear rate in the upper part. According to plant op-
erators and the crusher manufacturer the trend in ca-
pacity is well predicted for this plant, however it was not
verified through measurements. The capacity drop is
1361
slow at first and then it accelerates. The effect of wear on
CSS is not as well predicted. The reason is, that the
deviation between measurement and simulation in the
upper-middle part of the chamber as compared to
the lower part of the crusher, where CSS is calibrated.
The material used for rock crushers, manganese steel,
also known as Hadfield material, is used because of its
good capability of work hardening. In this study the
crushed material was quartzite, a material known for
being very abrasive. When crushing quartzite or other
strongly abrasive rock materials it is a common con-
ception in the mining and aggregates industry that no or
little work hardening is achieved; as opposed to other
rock materials where significant work hardening is as-
sumed to occur.
The model can predict the worn geometry although
there is some discrepancy between measured and simu-
lated worn geometry. There may be several explanations
for this discrepancy. Work hardening of the liners has
been mentioned. Other possible causes are non-linear
dependency between pressure and wear, inaccuracy in
the flow model, or dependency between particle size and
wear rate.
Future improvements of this wear model will include
the ‘‘lip’’-formation at the lower end of the chamber.
The effect of work hardening of the liners has this far
been neglected. A study is currently (spring–summer
2003) undertaken where this effect is being investigated.
Acknowledgements
The following persons have been helpful in complet-
ing this work: Professor emeritus G€ oran Gerbert,
Magnus Evertsson PhD, Jan M€ oller, Mats Persson at
Chalmers University of Technology, Kristoffer Stasina
at NCC AB, S€ odra Sandby.
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