LASERS: the semiconductor

laser

Angel Valle (IFCA)

 Index

1.- Matter-radiation interaction

2.- Optical resonators
3.- Lasers
4.- Semiconductor lasers
 1.- Matter-radiation interaction
Three types of interaction:
– Spontaneous emission
– Stimulated emission
– Absorption

Consider a two-level atom, with E1 y E2 energies, placed in an

optical resonator that can support a certain number
of electromagnetic modes.
 Spontaneous emission

If the atom is initially in level 2 it can happen that:

atomic transition from 2 to 1 and
energy liberated as a photon

E2 > E1
 Absorption
• If the atom is initially in E1 it can happen that a photon of the mode
is absorbed with an atomic transition from level 1 to 2.
 Stimulated emission
• If the atom is initially in the E2 level and there are photons in the mode it
can happen that
– A photon induces an atomic transition from 2 to 1 level with
– an emission of another photon with the same frequency, direction and
polarization.

EMISSION OF A “CLON” PHOTON

 Laser amplification
Due to stimulated emission:
a photon stimulates an atom E2 to emit another clon photon,
these two stimulates another two atoms in E2 to emit another 2 clon
photons…

Light can be amplified:

LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation
But because these photons also encounter atoms in E1, they can also
be absorbed.

Let Ni the number of atoms in Ei

The number of absorbed photons is proportional to N1
generated photons by stimulated emission is prop. to N2

The number of photons (generated – absorbed) α (N2-N1) = N,

population difference

In a material in thermal equilibrium light is attenuated because there

are more atoms in the lower energy level (N1 > N2, N<0)
There are more absortions that stimulated emissions

If there are more atoms in the upper energy level (N2 > N1, N>0)
There are more stimulated emissions than absortions:
AMPLIFICATION
An external energy source is needed (PUMP) for N2>N1

Optical amplifier
 2.- Optical resonators
Fabry-Perot resonator with no losses

2 flat, very reflective and parallel mirrors

Resonator modes: monochromatic solutions of the wave equation satisfying the

appropriate boundary conditions : U(0)=U(L)=0

The stationary wave U(z)=Aq sen(kz) satisfies the equation and the boundary
conditions if
Aq is constant and kL=qπ (q natural)

U(z)=Aq sen (qπz/L) is a longitudinal mode of the resonator

 k=2πν/c=qπ/L → νq=qc/(2L), frequency of the q longitudinal mode

νF= νq+1 - νq = c/(2L), frequency separation between consecutive longitudinal modes

(free spectral range)

c: speed of light in the internal material of the resonator. c=c0/n, where n is

the refractive index of this material, c0, speed of light at vacuum.

The resonator only supports the νq frequencies

• Fabry-Perot resonator with losses
(mirror reflectivities smaller than 1)

No losses

With losses

Bandwidth of the interferometer:

FWHM of this curve

The resonator supports all the frequencies.

 3.- Lasers
LASER =

Pumped active medium + mirrors

(optical amplifier) (optical resonator)
The resonator only supports certain modes
(frequency selection)

The mirror is partially transparent

(useful laser beam)

• Characteristics of laser light :

quasimonochromaticca
Very large intensities
Very directional
 Applications
• Optical communications
• Information storage
• Computation
• Holography
• Material processing
• Litography
• Metrology
• Medicine, Biology, Geology …
 Characteristics of laser light
There is a pump level (threshold pump) above which laser action
begins (stimulated emission dominates).
Below this level spontaneous emission dominates

N vs. pump

Emitted optical power as a

function of the pump

THRESHOLD PUMP
Typical characteristics of the laser output power vs pump
Spectral characteristics of laser light

OPTICAL
SPECTRUM

There are ways of selecting

one of these modes
to get a very narrow
spectrum,with just one
mode: single mode laser
 4.- Semiconductor lasers
SEMICONDUCTORS
Conduction band

GAP

Valence band

In semiconductors the energy gap gives approx. the emission freq: hν∼Eg
 Radiation-matter interaction in semiconductors
Same processes as before but between energy levels in
the conduction band, E2, and in the valence band, E1.

Absorption Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

• There is emission/absorption between bands only if hν>Eg
• Refractive index in semiconductors~
between 3 y 4.

• n increases if the temperature, T, of the

semiconductor increases.
• Semiconductor lasers are based in junctions of semiconductor crystals (p-n
junctions).
• There are two types: edge emission and vertical emission

EDGE EMITTERS SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

Semiconductor amplifier+ Mirrors

(polished faces)

Pump = Active medium (black zone)

Electrical current Medium where most of stimulated
emissions and absorptions occur

Width, l, of a few nm:

QUANTUM WELL

Active medium parallel to light beam

 VERTICAL-CAVITY SURFACE-EMITTING
LASERS (VCSEL) (Used in the experiment)

Light orthogonal
to active medium

Pump=
Electrical current

Active medium=
Quantum well

They are microlasers: a few microns dimensions in all directions

Amplification of light occurs in quantum wells.
It is characterized by the gain spectrum
~THz

Different currents φν(z) φν(z)+dφν

φνdν photon flux density : photons

(ν,ν+dν)/(cm2 s)

dφν=γ(ν)φνdz
The gain coefficient,
γ(ν), gives an idea of
stimulated – absorbed
photons
VCSEL mirrors: Bragg Reflectors (R~0.995)
Fabry-Perot resonator
Light
L ~2 microns

νF=c/(2L)=20 THz

νF >> frequency width of the gain spectrum:

only a longitudinal mode has gain

The laser emits in a single longitudinal

mode.

QUASIMONOCHROMATIC LIGHT
Power of the light emitted by the laser, P, as a function of
the applied electrical current, I (pump)

hν
P =η ( I − I th ), si I > I th (laser emission)
e
Ith, Threshold current. Above this current there is laser emission
Below, spontaneous emission dominates (LED)

η, differential quantum efficiency: gives an idea of the percentage of electrons

that are injected above threshold and are transformed in
photons in the output laser beam.

hν
P = η ex I, si I < I th (LED emission)
e
ηex, external quantum efficiency, ηex< η
 T=40
0 .7

0 .6

0 .5
Power (mW)

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0 .0
0 2 4 6 8 10
C u rre n t (m A )

Measuring Ith and η

• In VCSELs the current, I, cross the mirrors (Bragg
reflectros). The electrical resistance of these, R, makes
the laser to heat when I increases by Joule’s effect
(Pdis=I2R).
 Bibliography
• Fundamentals of Photonics, B.E.A. Saleh,
Wiley Interscience.