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SINGLE CRYSTALS
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, U.S..-\.
Abstract-The high temperature creep properties of single crystals of Ni-20Cr-ZThO, have been investi-
gated in the temperature range 6%13OO’C. Single crystal tensile specimens were cut from plates
having a large elongated grain structure and constant stress vacuum creep tests were conducted at
various stresses and temperatures.
By including the temperature dependence of the elastic modulus in the analysis of the data. the
creep activation energy was found to be very nearly equal to that for self diffusion of Ni-2OCr. The
stress dependence of the creep rate was observed to be large and variable, with power law exponents
ranging from 9 to 75 over the temperature range studied. The ductility of these crystals as measured
by percentage reduction of area was very high, typically ranging from 40 to 605,. The percentage
elongation varied inversely with the stress exponent and ranged from 1 to 28”,.
The creep properties of these dispersion strengthened crystals can be described accurately by consider-
ing the creep strength to be given by a simple sum of the creep strength of unthoriated polycrystalline
Ni-2OCr and the Orowan strength, as calculated from the measured ThOz particle distribution. This
simple model describes the measured creep rates to within a factor of three at all stresses and tempera-
t ures.
Resume--On a etudie pour les temperatures comprises entre 650 et 13OO’C.les proprietes de tluage
a haute temperature de monocristaux de Ni-2OCr-ZThO,. On a d&coupe des echantillons de traction
monocristallins dans des plaques presentant de grands grains allonges et on a effectue des essais de
Ruage sous vide a contrainte constante pour diverses contraintes et temperatures.
En introduisant dans l’analyse des resultats la variation du module elastique en fonction de la
temperature, on a trouve que l’energie d’activation de Auage est pratiquement igale a I’inergie d’activa-
tion de l’auto diffusion de Ni-2OCr. La vitesse de Ruage depend fortement et de maniere variable
de la contrainte, les exposants de la loi en puissance allant de 9 a 75 dans le domaine de temperatures
etudiees. La ductiliti de ces cristaux mesuree par le pourcentage de diminution de la section est tres
grande allant typiquement de 40 a 6Oy;. Le pourcentage d’allongement varie comme l’inverse de I’espo-
sant de la contrainte, et il reste compris entre I et 2g”&
Les proprietes au fluage de ces cristaux a durcissement par precipites disperses peuvent etre exacte-
ment d&rites en considtrant que la resistance au fiuage est don&e simplement par la somme de
la resistance au fluage de polycristaux de l’alliage Ni-2OCr (sans thorine) et de la resistance d’Orowan
calculee a partir de la repartition mesuree des particules de ThOl. Le modtle dtcrit les vitesses de
Ruage mesurees a un facteur 3 prts. pour toutes les contraintes et les temperatures.
Zusammenfassung-Das Hochtemperatur-Kriechverhalten von Ni-ZOCr-2Th0, Einkristallen wurde im
Temperaturbereich von 650 bis 1300°C untersucht. Einkristalline Zugproben wurden aus Platten mit
einer groBkornigen. in die Lange gezogcnen Struktur herausgeschnitten; die Kriechversuche wurden
im Vakuum bei konstanter Last durch gefuhrt.
Unter Beriicksichtigung der Temperaturabhlingigkeit des elastischen Moduls bei der Xnalyse der
Daten ergab sich die Kriech-Aktivierungsenergie zu nahezu gleich der Aktivierungsenergie fur Selbstdif-
fusion von Ni-2OCr. Die Spannungsabhlngigkeit der Kriechrate war groB und variierte tiber den unter-
suchten Temperaturbereich mit Potenzgesetz-Exponenten von 9 bis 75. Die Duktilitlt dieser Kristalie,
ermittelt aus der porzentualen Querschnittsverlnderung, war sehr hoch, typischerweise zwischen -to
und 60:,& Die prozentuale Llngenlnderung variierte umgekehrt mit dem Spannungsexponenten und
lag zwischen 1 und ZS?;.
Das Kriechverhalten dieser dispersionsgehlrteten Kristalle kann genau beschrieben werden. indem
die Kriechspannung als eine Summe angesetzt wird aus der Kriechspannung unthorierten, polykristal-
linen Ni-20Cr und der Orowanspannung, berechnet aus der gemessenen Verteilung der ThO,-Teilchen.
Dies einfache Model) beschreibt die gemessenen Kriechraten bis auf einen Faktor drei bei allen Span-
nungen und Temperaturen.
in others [3-j]. Also, the stress dependence of the in an effort to avoid the confusing and detrimental
creep rate is sometimes anomalously high and vari- effects of grain boundary sliding and failure. It was
able. Again, Wilcox and Ctauer [1,&J found stress anticipated that the properties of single crystals could
exponents ranging from about 6 to 40 for different be compared directly with existing theoretical models
DS metals. In addition. the high temperature duct~ity of dispersion strengthening and that such a compari-
as represented by either the percentage elongation or son would improve our understanding of this impor-
the percentage reduction of area is usually found to tant phenomenon. Additionally, it was expected that
be quite low. often as low as one or two percent [6]. a study of the properties of single crystals would
Finally, the creep properties of DS metals are known establish upper limits of both strength and ductility
to depend very sensitively on grain morphology. Wil- for this material for comparison with polycrystalline
cox and Clauer [6,7] showed that the creep resistance properties.
of these metals is directly related to the grain aspect
ratio (GAR).
The emergence of ex~rimental facts about DS 2. ~XPERI~IE~~ PROCEDURE
metals has stimulated a number of theoretical investi-
gations of dispersion strengthening at high tempera- Four large grained plates of Ni-ZOCr-2ThOzt were
tures. Notable among the many theories that have provided by the General Electric Company of Evan-
been proposed are those of Ansell and Weertman [S], dale, OH. This material was subjected to their ZAP
Wilcox and Clauer [9], Ashby [lo] and Malu and process which results in a highly elongated grain
Tien [ll]. Although there are attractive features in structure. Since our objective was to study single crys-
some of these models, they are not capable of giving tals, we planned to cut thin slices parallel to the long
a satisfactory description of the creep properties of axis of the grains, etch to reveal the grain ~undaries
DS metals. These models typically fail to predict cor- and spark machine very small single crystal tensile
rectly the high stress dependence observed and they samples from large grain areas. Fortunate circum-
predict much faster creep rates than are measured. stances arising from the material characterization
The model proposed recently by Malu and Tien [11] study eventually permitted a simpler procedure to be
based on the motion of interstitial emitting jogged adopted.
screw dislocations is capable of giving creep rates that Thin slices, (0.7-1.0mm thick) were cut from the
are strongly dependent on both stress and tempera- plates and smoothed to a uniform finish by lapping
ture, but its predictions are extremely sensitive to the (0.5-0.6 mm thick). Some of the slices were then mac-
jog spacing that one chooses. roetched (90% HCl, 10YOH,OJ to delineate the grain
When comparing the predictions of existing boundaries. This was followed by a careful process
theories with experimental results it is important to of area selection and spark machining of small tensile
remember that the theories invariably deal with the coupons from single crystalline areas. After several
creep properties of the crystals themselves while single crystal samples were obtained, generally no
the experiments involve polycrystalline aggregates. more than one per slice, it became evident that a
Ordinarily this would not cause a problem since very Iarge number of slices and, tonsequendy, a very
po[ycrystalline aggregates cannot deform extensively large amount of material wouid be required to pro-
without requiring the grains to deform as well. How- vide a reasonable number of tensile sampies for the
ever, the situation may be different for DS metals study. Fortunately, it was revealed by Laue X-ray
because of the very large strength difference between photography that all the grains were aligned in the
the grains and the grain boundaries in these metals same crystallographic orientation. The long axis was
and because of their unusual elongated grain struc- aligned with the [IOO] and the normal to the thin
tures. For these metals it is apparent that the grains slices was aligned with the [llO], all within three
simply put1 apart during creep fracture much Iike degrees. In this way the grain boundaries revealed
fibers do in the faiIure of fiber composites. This is by the macroetch were determined to be low angle
probably why the percentage reduction of area is less boundaries. As such, they were not expected to un-
than the percentage elongation in some cases. Thus dergo any sliding, nor interfere significantly with high
tension creep experiments on polycrystalline DS temperature creep processes. Accordingly, the mac-
metals with elongated grain structures do not provide roetch and area selection procedures were eliminated
unambiguous information about the creep properties and as many samples as possible (usually 7 or 8) were
of the grains themselves and, therefore, cannot be cut from each thin slice. This simpler procedure was
compared directly with the existing theories. used to cut all but three of the test samples for the
The present work on Ni-ZOCr-ZThO, was under- data reported. The sampIes without low angle grain
taken to determine the high temperature creep boundaries are noted in Table 1. All of the test
properties of dispersion strengthened single crystals samples were carefully examined after testing to in-
sure that they had deformed in a relatively homo-
t Throughout this paper the notation Ni-ZOCr-ZThOl geneous manner (no grain boundary shearing or crack-
will refer to the nominal composition of the alloy studied: ing). and many samples were checked for crystallo-
20 wt. X Cr and I! vol. 7; Th02. graphic alignment throughout the study. No evidence
j.,
:+
.‘j
1.1
u-as found in any of the tests to indicate significant The samples were tested in tension under constant
grain boundary involvement or crystallographic mis- stress, vacuum creep conditions. Details of the creep
alignment. machine are reported by Matlock f 123. The tempera-
Following spark machining. the samples were care- ture could be held within a ranpc of about 5-C over
f&y cleaned and electropolished in 30”, nital to a 24 hr period. The vacuum was produced by an oil
remove all traces of surfaee damage. The spark diffusion pump and was generally maintained at
machining tool, one of the thin stices, and a finished 6.7 mPa (5 x 10-j Turrj or better. At the highest test
sampie are shown in Fig. f. temperatures ft2tOUand i3oO‘Ci a thin PI sheet was
Fig. i. From right to left an uncut plate of iar_ge grained Xi-XK’r-ZThO,. a thin slice t&n from
such a piilK% thz electrical discharge machine tool used to cut the tcnsik coupons. and one oC the
samples are shown. The scale shown is in inches.
17_3 LLXD ~X.VD
NIX: CREEP OF Ni-Xx3-Xhf& SINGLE CRk’STALS
Table 2. Chemical analpis of Ni-XlCr-ZThO, myle crys- crystallographic orientation v;ith the long axis parul-
tals by WY chemical anaikris (wt. “,,i lel to the [loo] and the wide Hat face parallel to the
(I IO). both within 3 deg. Consequently. all of the grain
boundaries defmeated by the macroetch were low
angle boundaries.
The ThO? particle size distribution was determined
using transmission electron microscopy. Extraction
replicas were prepared by carbon coating an electro-
polished surface and then electrolytically dissolving
the matrix material in a -‘0’ 0 perchloric acid-W,
ethyl alcohol solution with a 15 V potential. A typical
found to be beneficial as a diffusion barrier between
photomicrograph of one of the extraction replicas is
the sample and the TZM molybdenum alloy grips.
shown in Fig. 3. Selected area diffraction studies con-
OveraH. the samples were 40mm in Iength and
firmed that all the extracted particles were indeed
5.5 mm in width. The gage section was 19 mm long
ThO,.
and 2 mm wide. The effective gage length was deter-
The ThOz particle size ranged from about 3 to
mined empirically to be 20.3 mm. The thickness
110 nm (30-11OOA) and various aspects of the distri-
varied from about 0.25 to 0.40 mm depending on the
bution are shown in Fig. 4. These data were obtained
initial slice thickness.
from extraction replica measurements of approsi-
Creep strain was monitored during testing by
mately 1000 particles. Transmission electron micro-
measuring the displacement of the grip linkage out-
scope studies of thin foils yielded simiiar results but
side the vacuum furnace system as a function of time
the ease of extraction replica sample preparation
with an LVDT (Linear Variable DiKerential Trans-
made that technique preferabfe.
former) finked to a strip chart recorder. This system
Because our interpretation of the creep properties
was determined to be sensitive to a strain of about
of this material depends sensitively on the precise
3 x lo-‘. Creep strain was calculated by assuming
all of the measured displacement was due to homo-
geneous deformation of the effective gage length of
the sample.
Some of the tests were so fast that the LVDT out-
put and strip chart recorder system did not record
the strain accurately. In these tests the strain was
determined by measuring the overall length change
of the fractured sample under a low power micro-
scope to obtain a value for the total displacement.
The strain was then calculated in the same manner
as for the other samples by assuming homogeneous
strain over the gage length.
(0) u
3. MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION 20j.m
Fig. 4. Characteristics of the distribution of sizes of ThOz Fig. 5. .-\ family of typical creep curves of Xi-ZOCr-ZThO,
particles in Xi-ZOCr-?ThO, single crystals. Each labeled single crystals. These represent all tests conducted at
particle size (abscissa) corresponds to a size class. 13OO’C.
47-t LUND .AhD NIX: CREEP OF Ni-XCr-3Th0, SINGLE CRYSTALS
r
describes the measured creep rates to within a factor
IO” i
I of three at all temperatures and stresses.
10’0 i The additive rule represented by equation (2) can
be interpreted in terms of an effective stress as follows.
The Orowan stress can be regarded as a critical stress
that must be exceeded for creep to occur. When the
applied stress exceeds the Orowan stress. the crystal
creeps in response to the ditference between the
applied stress and the Orowan stress (ie, the effective
stress), following the creep law for the Ni-200
matrix. Thus the effective stress that drives the matrix
creep process appears to be simply the difference
between the applied stress and the Orowan back
stress.
i A question may be raised about the validity of
102: 1 ! ,! !
the elastic constants of Ni-2OCr are not available up properties strongly suggests the existence of a critical
to the temperatures of interest. Furthermore, the stress and this in turn lends credence to our calcula-
dynamic Young’s modulus of Xi-ZOCr-2Th0, is tion of the Orowan stress. Furthermore. there is little
available only up to about IOOO’C and had to be fundamental agreement on the exact form term by
extrapolated to 13OO’C.The extrapolation is shown term of the Orowan equation and even less agree-
in Fig. 8. The elastic constants of pure nickel are ment on the numerical values of these terms. In view
known up to 500°C [i 51 and these were used to cal- of this we regard the correlation between the critical
culate the ratio E/p (I 11)[TlO] up to that tempera- stress for creep and the calculated Orowan stress as
ture. This ratio was found to be nearly constant with being quite good.
temperature, indicating that the temperature depen- In addition to uncertainties about the value of the
dence of E and p (111) [ilO] for pure Ni are virtually Orowan stress. there is some disagreement over the
the same between room temperature and 500°C. creep properties of polycrystalline Ni-2OCr. Data
Without other evidence it seems reasonable to assume from three separate studies are shown in Fig. 9. If
that E and g (111) [llO] have a similar temperature the data of Shahinian and Achter [16] is considered.
dependence in Ni-2OCr as well. agreement with the proposed model is good only at
The success of the simple additive rule for describ- high temperatures and low stresses. At low tempera-
ing the creep properties of Ni-ZOCr-2ThOl in terms tures and high stresses the additive rule would predict
of the creep properties of Ni-2OCr and of the Orowan creep rates that are about an order of magnitude too
stress depends very sensitively on the magnitude of slow. Furthermore. the Ni-20Cr-2ThOz single crys-
the calculated Orowan stress. The Orowan equation tals creep faster than the unthoriated Ni-2OCr of Sha-
we have used in this analysis is developed in the hinian and Achter at these high stresses. Since this
Appendix and is expressed in final form as is highly improbable, we have chosen not to use the
- Shahinian and Achter data. The data we have used
0.93 i R b was taken from Monma, Suto and Oikawa [ 173, and
4 V” Sidey a,nd Wilshire [18]. These results are in good
0 z orowln = 4rr(COSocoS~)(1 + v)(l - v)“‘(j. - 67) agreement with each other and can be represented
by a single line as shown in Fig. 9. The extrapolation
. (3)
In fi of their data is unfortunate but is not considered inva-
0 10 lid.
All of the terms in this equation are very well known
With the Orowan stress set by the values defined
except i. and 2, the planar particle spacing and the
above, it is evident that some of the data points at
average particle size, respectively, and R and ro, the
the lowest stresses, as well as the point labeled No.
outer and inner cut-off radius for the dislocation
42 are out of agreement with the rest of the data
energy calculation. Each of these terms is considered
in detail in the Appendix and the resulting range of
possible values of the Orowan stress is discussed. For
the present analysis we have taken
n=:4.,..~.=4band(r_a,=~~-a,,,.).
sented by the lower curve and that the reduced correction term is small and can be neglected. How-
Orowan stress for sample No. 42 is due to particle ever, when the temperature dependence of the elastic
dissolution. modulus is ~rticularly large or when the creep stress
exponent is large, the correction must be made. For
Temperclaire dependence example, in a previous paper we showed that the un-
It is common practice to describe high temperature usually large creep activation energies reported by
creep using the familiar phenomenological equation, Wilcox and Clauer for Ni-2Th02 can be reduced to
i,= ( 1
AC;” exp - 6
0
RI
.
that for self diffusion by making this correction.
Following these previous studies, we have norma-
lized the stress by dividing by the temperature depen-
This kads to the welt known relation for the creep dent elastic modulus. UnfortunateIy no elastic pro-
activation energy. perty data for this material could be found above
about 1000°C. Thus an extrapolation of existing
(3 data [25,26] was required. The extrapolation shown
in Fig, 8 was made by fitting the data to a fourth
order polynomial relation between Young’s modulus
Using these relations Dorn and Sherby and others and temperature.
have shown that the activation energy for creep in The difi’usion coefficient for seff diffusion of
pure metals and alloys is equal to that for self diffu- Ni-200 has been determined by several investiga-
sion [ZZ. 233. In addition, Sherby [24] proposed that tors. The results of these studies, as summarized by
the creep equation be modified to account for the Monma et al. [27], give activation energies that range
effect of the elastic modulus on creep. His modified from about 272 to 305 kJ/mole (65-73 kcal/mol).
creep equation is written as: These are presented in Table 3. Finding no basis for
choosing one set of data over another, we have used
all of the available results to arrive at an activation
energy (285 kJ/moie. 68 kcallmoie) and pre-exponen-
where E represents the temperature dependent Young’s tial constant (1.5cm’/sec) for seif diffusion. It is im-
modulus. Using this equation the activation energy for portant to note that the diffusion coefficient for Cr
creep is expressed as: in Ni-2OCr has very nearly the same activation
energy and pre-exponential constant as Ni [27,28].
,lR T?
dE (7) Consequently, no weighted average or **effective”
E a7
value of D is necessary for this solid solution.
Use of both the self diffusion coefficient and the
where the first term on the right is the apparent creep elastic modulus as normalizing factors results in near
activation energy and the second is a correction term complete convergence of the data (Fig. 7). Such con-
accounting for the temperature dependence of the vergence is evidence that self diffusion is the controll-
elastic modulus. Barrett, Ardell and Sherby 113-J ing creep mechanism, just as for pure metals and solid
showed that the creep activation energy for cadmium solutions. The convergence method is perhaps less
corresponds to that for self diffusion only if the cor- attractive than a direct determination of the acti-
rection term is included in the analysis. For many vation energy using the Arrhenius relation with u,lE
pure metals and solid solutions the elastic modulus held constant, but it is much more convenient in our
Table 3. A summary of activation energies and pre~xponential factors for diffusion of Ni and Cr in Ni,
Ni-2OCr and Ni-2OCr-ZThO,
4% LUND AND NIX: CREEP OF Ni-30Cr-?Th02 SINGLE CRYSTALS
5. DISCUSSION
As expected, the ductility of these single crystals
was observed to be much greater than that for poly- The present experiments provide a basis for under-
crystalline material. The percentage reduction of area standing the unusual creep properties that have long
typically ranges between 40 and 60”4 while the elon- been associated with DS metals. We have shown that
gation varies between 1 and 28% depending on the the activation energy for creep is not anomalously
stress and temperature. The samples evidently fail by large as previously reported. Provided that the tem-
plastic instability. They show very severe local neck- perature dependence of the elastic modulus is taken
ing at the point of failure. into account, the measured creep activ-ation energy
Recent work by Hart [29] and Burke and Nix [30] is near that for self diffusion, just as it is for pure
has shown that steady state creep in tension is for- metals and solid solutions.
mally unstable. Under these circumstances shape per- On the basis of the present work it is suggested
turbations in the gage section are expected to grow that the various and large creep stress esponents that
and to lead to localized necking. Burke and Nix stud- have been reported in the literature arise naturaIly
ied the initial rate of growth of such ~rtur~tions from the effects of the Orowan stress. -4s shown in
and found, as expected, that the necks develop Fig. 7, the observed stress exponent can vary between
quickly in metals with high stress exponents. Frost 9 and 75 depending on how close the applied stress
and Ashby[31] observed that the numerical results is to the Orowan stress. It is evident that virtually
of Burke and Nix could be integrated to give the any stress exponent can be found if the applied stress
percentage elongation to failure as a function of the is judiciously chosen. For polycrystalline DS metals
creep stress exponent. They found that a simple rela- creep appears to occur well below the Growan stress.
tion of the form This is shown in Fig. 12 where the present data for
single crystais are compared with the data for poly-
crystalline samples with elongated grains reported by
Wilcox, Clatter and Hutchinson [6J. It is likely that
the creep properties of the polycrystallinc samples are
where K 2 2 - 3. describes the numerical results the result of inhomogeneous creep deformation.
reasonably well. Since the present experiments involve Given the properties of the single crystals it seems
stress exponents that range from 9 to 75 we have likely that creep in elongated polcrystais occurs by
an opportunity to examine the experimental validity grain boundary sliding and the development of stress
of this relation. The percentage eiongation to failure concentrations at grain boundary junctions. The high
is shown in Fig. II as a function of the normalized stresses in these regions evidently exceed the Orowan
creep rate, (k/O). The prediction of equation (S) is also stress thereby causing creep to occur in some parts
shown in the figure for K = 2. The predicted curve of the sample and not others. Grain boundary separ-
is constructed by referring to Fig. 7 to obtain the ation and ultimate failure probably occur before the
creep stress exponent as a function of (+D). The equa- grains are fully plastic. If creep flow occurs in this
tion evidently describes the data reasonably well. We way it is easy to see how it could occur at stresses
LU4D ASD NIX: CREEP OF Ni-ZOCr-?ThO, SINGLE CRYSTALS 479
i = constant.
13. Barrett C. R.. Ardell A. J. and Sherby 0. D., Trans. way each term in the equation has been evaluated. In its
A1,W.E 230, 200 (1964,. simplest form the Orowan bowing relation [33] is
14. Lund R. W. and Nix W. D., Met. Trans. (A) 6, 1329 expressed as
(1975).
15. Simmons G. and Wang H., Single Crystal Elastic Con-
27-
sfanfs and Calculated Aggregure Properties: A Hcmd- r = -. (A-l)
book. MIT, Cambridge, MA (1971). bi.
16. Shahinian P. and Achter M. R., frans. ASM 51, 244
(1959). where T is the line tension of the dislocation, assumed
17. Monma K., Suto H. and Oikawa H.. J. Japan Inst. to be constant, b is the Burger’s vector and i is the spacing
Metals 28, 253 (1964). between point obstacles in the slip plane. If we wish to
18. Sidey D. and Wilshire B. Metal Sci. J. 3, 56 (1969). account for the fact that the line energy of a dislocation
19. Dalal H. and Grant N. J., Met. Trans. 4, 381 (1973). depends on its character, the bowing problem must be con-
20. Alcock C. B. and Brown P. B. Merat Sci. J. 3, 116 sidered in more detail. Following Ashby [3-t] we take the
(1969). line energy to be
21. Footner P. K. and Alcock C. B., Mer. Fans. 3, 2633
(1972).
22. Bird J. E., Mukherjee A. K. and Dotn J. E., Quantifa- E
d
=K~@lnfl (A-11
rice Relations Between Properties and Microstructures
4n 0 rO’
p. 255. Israel University Press, Haifa (1969).
23. Sherby 0. D. and Burke P. M., Prog. Mat. Sci. 13, where K is l/l+ and 1 for edge and screw dislocations.,
325 (1968). respectively, p is the shear modulus (elastic isotropy is
24. Sherby 0. D., Act& Met. f0, 135 (1962). assumed) and R and r,, represent the outer and inner cut-
25. D.M.I.C. Technical Note, TD nickel-thromium. a off radii of the dislocation energy calculation. We may
report on currently available information and data. 2 write separate critical bowing stresses for edge and screw
November (1967). dislocations as:
26. Benieva T. Ya. and Polotsky 1. G. Fiz. Met. ~et&~f.
12, 584 (1961).
27. Monma K., Suto H. and Oikawa H., J. Japan Inst.
Metals 28, 188 (1944).
28. Seltzer M. S. and Wilcox B. A., Met. Trans. 3, 2357 and
(1972). r.c,uv b R
Hart E. W., Acra Met. IS, 351 (1967). -=-[n -. fA-4)
;z Burke M. A. and Nix W. D., Act& Met. 23, 793 (1975). P (1 - v)hE. 0 ro
31. Frost H. J. and Ashby M. F., private communication As suggested by Ashby 1351 we take the overall passing
with Nix W. D. stress to be the geometric mean of equations (A-3) and
32. Holbrook 3. H., private communication. (A-41, which results in the following relation:
33. Orowan E., Disc. Symp. internal Stresses in Metals and
h R
0
T
Alfoys. Monograph and Rept. Series No. 5, p. 451, In- In -. (A-51
stitute of Metals, London, 1948; Dislocations in Metals, r( = 2n(l - v)’ ‘i. r.
AIME (Edited by Morris Cohen), p. 131 (1954).
34. Ashby M. F., Oxide Dispersion Strengthening (Edited This equation would be expected to apply to certain per-
by Ansell G. S. et al.), p. 143. Gordon & Breach, NY fectly regular distributions of infinitesimally small particles.
(1968). For randomly distributed particles of finite size other fac-
35. Ashby M. F.. Physics o~Srre~g~h and Plasticity, p. 113. tors must be considered.
MIT, Cambridge, MA (1969). In the development of equation (A-5) it is implicitly
36. Kocks U. F., Phil. Mug. 13, 541 (1966). assumed that the shear stress required to cause critical
37. Hirth J. P. and Lothe J. Theory of Dislocations, p. 212. bowing at one point in the slip plane is the same for all
McGraw-Hill, NY (1968). other points. This would be the case. for example, if the
38. Cottrell A. H., Dislocations and Plastic Flow in Crys- particles were in a square array and if the expanding dislo-
tals, p. 38. Oxford University Press, London (1953). cation loops were square also, so that both edge and screw
39. Hoffman R. E.. Perkins F. W. and Ward R. A.. Trans. dislocations would always encounter the obstacle spacing
AIME 206, 483 (1956). l/, N,. For randomly distributed particles the dislocations
40. Reynolds J. E., Averbach B. L. and Cohen M. Acta are confronted by a distribution of spacings with the conse-
Mef. 5, 29 (i957). quence that the focal shear strength and the average shear
4t. Upthegrove W. R. and Sinnott M. J. Trans. ASM 50, strength are not the same. Kocks [36] has shown that an
1031 (1958). additional factor is needed to account for this difference.
42. MacEwan J. R., MacEwan J. U. and Yaffe L., Can. By taking the Orowan stress to be the critical applied shear
3. Chem. 37, 1623 (1959). stress at which dislocations move indefinitely over slip
43. Messner A., Benson R. and Dorn J. E., Funs. ASM planes containing randomly distributed. impenetrable
53, 227 (1961). point obstacles, he found that an additional factor of
44. Hirano K., Cohen M. and Averbach B. L., Trans. AS&f 0.95,.(d4) should be included on the right hand side of
53, 910 (1961). equation (A-5).
45. Pawar A. V. and Tenney D. R., Met. Trans. 5, 2139 The above analysis is for point obstacles. For particles
(19741. of finite size, it would seem that an effective separation
distance of 1 - 8 should be used in place of 2. Here a
APPENDIX is the arithmetic mean particle diameter defined by
Calculation of the Orowun Stress
(A-61
Because the Orowan stress plays such an important part
in our description of the creep properties of
Ni-ZOCr-ZThO,, it is necessary for us to describe the where ni is the number of particles having the diameter
equation we have used in some detail and to indicate the dti
LUND *SD SIX: CREEP OF Ni-2OCr-2Th02 SINGLE CRYSTALS 481
With these corrections the Orowan relation may be the critical passing condition. The segments on either side
expressed a3 of the particle form a kind of dipole in which the stress
- field of each segment falls off rapidly at about half the
particle diameter. We use the mean free particle diameter.
0.95 ; b
a,,,,. instead of the mean particle diameter, a,,.,,,. to prevent
(A-7) the cluster diameters from dominating our estimate of the
-1’ = ‘~(1 - v)‘ ‘(;. - (1)
cut-off. Transmission electron microscopy indicates that
For comparison with our experimental results it is con- the dislocations are held up mainly by the free particles.
venient to write this in terms of the tensile stress and We have taken r,, = 4b. in part because this particluar
choice makes the Orowan stress coincide exactly- with the
Young’s modulus. For this we use*
asymptotic behavior of the creep data. As noted above,
p = E/2(1 i V) previous estimates of r0 range from about b 2 to 56. If
and the smallest estimate of r0 were used the Orowan stress
r = 0 cos 4 cos 0 (Schmid’s Law), would be about twice what we have predicted. If the largest
value were used. the predicted Orowan stress would have
where 4 and 6 are the respective angles between the slip been about 15:; lower. Not having precise knowledge of
direction and slip plane normal and the tensile axis. With this cut-off radius therefore introduces some uncertainty
these conversions we have in the present calculation.
I; For the present calculation we have taken
0.95 ,b b = 0.25 nm (2.5A). case = 11, 3, coso = I, 2.
I7 J (I + v) (1 - \.)i’? = 1.086, i. = 100 nm (looUr\) and
In 5 (A-g)
E=4?r(cos$wos0)(I +I!)(1 -!+“(;.-b 0 ro nfrec = 10.6 nm (106 A). The values lead to