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Introduction G. C. Stone
Partial discharges (PD) are small electrical sparks that can
occur in liquid or solid insulation systems in high-voltage equip-
Iris Power-Qualitrol, Mississauga, Ontario,
ment, and can eventually cause failure of the equipment [1]–[3]. L4V 1T2 Canada
Partial discharge testing has been used for more than 80 years
as a factory quality control tool to find manufacturing defects
that could eventually lead to equipment failure. We believe that
Johnson was the first to measure PD on operating high-voltage Online partial discharge testing,
equipment, in the 1940s [4]. His aim was to find an online meth-
od to determine whether stator winding coils or bars were vibrat-
after a rocky start 60 years ago, has
ing excessively in the stator magnetic core. These vibrating coils become a widely used method of as-
lead to abrasion of the high-voltage electrical insulation and to sessing the condition of high-voltage
eventual failure. A symptom of the insulation abrasion process
was that PD (or what he referred to as slot discharge) occurred stator winding insulation.
between the surface of the coil and the stator core. By measuring
the PD online, he could indirectly detect the movement of coils,
which indicated that failure was likely. The measurement had
to be made online because, if the generator were not operating, system inspired other machine manufacturers and even a few
no magnetic forces would be acting on the coils; thus, the air utilities to develop their own methods [5], [6].
gaps that are a necessary precursor of PD would not be as large. The main reason Johnson needed online PD measurement
Johnson was successful in identifying those generators that were was that loose windings do not produce as much PD when the
suffering the most from this problem, which was caused by the motor or generator is not operating. Thus one of the important
introduction of the first thermoset insulation systems and by reasons for performing online PD tests is to monitor the condi-
workmanship variations that were magnified by an inadequate tion of the equipment under normal operating electrical, thermal,
method of securing the coils in the stator slots for the novel insu- and mechanical stresses. However, with the current emphasis on
lation system. The success of the Johnson online PD measuring extending times between maintenance outages, and the push to
reduce testing costs in general, the main reason now given for
online PD measurement is to avoid shutdown of the equipment,
which would be necessary for an off-line PD test or other diag-
nostic test. Although we believe online PD monitoring was first
Published to mark the presentation of the 2012 applied to rotating machines, the same reasons are valid for oth-
T. W. Dakin Award to Dr. Stone at the 2012 IEEE er electrical equipment, such as oil paper cable joints or termi-
International Symposium on Electrical Insulation. nations, distribution class switchgear, gas-insulated switchgear,
and power transformers [2], [3].
Overclaiming
Another cause of poor credibility was the ambitious claims of
effectiveness that many researchers and vendors made for their
online PD monitors. It is human nature to claim that a technol-
ogy is successful when only a few correct diagnoses have been
made. However, such diagnoses may have been made under lim-
ited circumstances; e.g., the noise in the tested machines may
have been relatively benign. The only way to overcome this Figure 1. Typical trend in partial discharge (PD) over time for
problem is to ensure that any monitoring system is evaluated stator windings.
on many machines in widely different plants. Blind testing, as
mandated for new pharmaceuticals, would also be helpful.
Another cause of overclaiming is that researchers and ven-
now very clear that PD does not continue to increase until failure
dors sometimes give the impression that online PD monitoring
occurs in stator windings. Rather, it seems that it increases to
can detect all insulation problems. Thus when equipment fail-
a certain point and then levels off (Figure 1). Presumably this
ure occurs without warning from the PD monitor, users believe
leveling off occurs because
that the PD monitoring system is not useful simply because of
this false negative. Researchers need to know a) which failure
mechanisms are due to PD, b) of which failure mechanisms PD • space charge can influence the PD intensity,
is a symptom, and c) of which failure mechanisms PD is neither • voids do not grow indefinitely in a taped insulation
a cause nor a symptom. Thus end-winding vibration is an impor- structure,
tant stator winding failure process that does not produce PD. If • mica is very PD resistant, and
a generator fails because of end-winding vibration but the plant • PD is often a symptom of a thermal or mechanical
manager believes his or her stator is in good condition because problem with the insulation, not the actual cause of
the PD level is low, then he may become disillusioned by the failure.
online PD monitor unless the vendor has clearly indicated that
certain problems will not be detected by the monitor. The result is that even though the PD intensity may be high,
it is stable with time. If the plant manager begins monitoring the
stator PD once it is in this high but stable mode, he or she may
Unreliable “High-PD” Indicators feel the winding is not at risk. If failure then occurs, there is a
Most online PD monitoring systems rely on trends in the perception that the monitoring yielded a false negative.
PD level over time or on tables of what constitutes a high PD Although high PD levels are not mentioned in any of the
level, or both, to determine which stator windings need main- IEEE and IEC stator winding PD standards, at least one orga-
tenance. If the interpretation rules are incorrect, false positives nization has published them, and many machine manufacturers
or false negatives can result. Note that stator winding insulation providing PD test services will indicate when a measurement
is a composite organic and inorganic system. The mica used in is high for the relevant insulation system [11], [12]. These high
most modern stator winding insulation systems provides a high levels are established by comparison and are valid only when the
degree of PD resistance. In fact, some PD occurs in almost all same measuring system is used. Experience has shown that ma-
stators rated 6 kV or more, but they can endure low-level PD chines of different voltage ratings and different hydrogen pres-
for many decades before failure. This is in contrast to almost all sures will have different high PD level indicators [13]; i.e., one
other electrical equipment in which purely organic insulation is level is not suitable for all stators. The high PD levels also need
used, e.g., oil, paper, epoxy, polyethylene, which is much less re- to be validated by comparison with the actual condition of the
sistant to PD. Thus interpretation of PD levels and trends may be winding as determined by a visual examination.
completely different for stator windings than for all other types
of equipment.
Typically, the trend in PD over time has been the most pow- Sensor Reliability
erful method of identifying windings with insulation problems Online PD is performed to prevent stator winding insulation
[10], [11]. The rule of thumb used for decades was that if the failure. If a PD sensor causes a machine fault, this will certain-
PD magnitude or some other PD quantity [such as integrated ly lower the credibility of the test. The sensors most likely to
charge, quadratic rate, normalized quantity number (NQN), etc.] cause a machine failure are capacitive couplers, because they
doubled every year or so, then the winding was at great risk of are normally connected to the high-voltage machine terminals.
failure. Regrettably, this simple rule can yield false positives and Capacitors are, by a very large margin, the most widely applied
false negatives. If the PD activity is very low, the doubling rule PD sensors. Vendors have worked hard to produce sensors that
may yield false positives because a visual examination of the are very unlikely to fail in service. The recently published IEC
winding may not show any problem or, more correctly, the PD is 60034-27-2 standard requires the sensors to be PD free at twice
so low that the cause of the PD cannot be found. Conversely, it is the working voltage, have temperature-stable capacitances and