A FRAMEWORK FOR RHEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF NICKEL

LATERITE PAL FEEDS

By

F Sofrà*, DT Fisher, AR Kilcullen and PJ Scales

* Rheological Consulting Services Pty Ltd Australia

Particulate Fluids Processing Centre, Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Australia

Presented by

Fiona Sofrà
fhend@unimelb.edu.au

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................2
2. DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF ORE VARIABILITY .........................................3
3. DEFINITION OF BASELINE RHEOLOGY TESTWORK PROGRAM ....................5
4. TESTING METHODS AND ISSUES......................................................................9
5. DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION ...............................................................10
6. SUMMARY ROADMAP .......................................................................................11
7. CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................13
8. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................13
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING PAL FEED RHEOLOGY

A pressure acid leach (PAL) process is used to extract nickel from ore containing predominantly two
mineral types, limonite and saprolite. Typically, ore is blended, screened, crushed, slurried with hot
process water, transported by pipeline and thickened prior to being leached in an autoclave where
processing takes place at low pH and elevated temperature and pressure.
Refining nickel laterites using pressure acid leach technologies requires that the solids
concentration of the feed to the autoclave is maximized whilst favourable rheological, or flow,
characteristics are maintained to ensure adequate heat transfer and efficient reaction rates. The
solids concentration of the autoclave feed should be maximised in order to minimise the size and
cost of the autoclaves and associated unit operations for a given throughput. When designing the
key plant areas upstream of the autoclave, the objective is to balance the desire to maximise the
feed concentration without compromising (a) the efficiency of the autoclave and (b) the pumping
and thickening efficiency of other plant areas. As the autoclave feed concentration is increased, the
heat transfer efficiency may be compromised due to the formation of slugs, along with an increase
in the pumping energy requirements. The aim for designers and operators is to maximise the feed
concentration whilst maintaining favourable rheological properties.
Although the solids concentration of the autoclave feed is important from a cost and throughput
perspective, it is ultimately the rheological characteristics which are crucial for successful design
and operation of the feed thickening and handling systems and the autoclave. For nickel laterites,
the solids concentration required to achieve the design rheology may vary dramatically depending
on the ore mineralogy and the processing conditions.
Understanding the rheological characteristics of PAL feeds is now a recognised prerequisite to
effective system design, operation and risk management. However, the methods of assessing
these rheological characteristics are many and varied and care must be taken to ensure that the
data are generated in a manner which is relevant to the proposed application. Furthermore,
testwork programmes must be developed in a way that ensures that all pertinent issues will be
identified and, where possible, quantified. Comprehensive and systematic rheological
characterisation provides input to allow the appropriate design and optimisation of the key plant
areas through manipulation of the ore blend ratio, solids concentration, shear history effects and
temperature.
Since mid 2001, Rheological Consulting Services (RCS) have tested and analysed over 50 nickel
laterite ore samples from numerous deposits worldwide and have been engaged to review
rheological data generated by nine other testing facilities. A systematic framework for rheological
assessment has been developed (Sofrà 2006) which is presented along with examples to highlight
the care which must be taken to ensure that data obtained are relevant to the autoclave feed
thickening and handling systems. The paper is designed to guide the reader through a checklist of
rheological questions to ask and issues to address - from sampling to testing protocols, data
analysis and informed data application.

1.2. THE NEED FOR A SYSTEMATIC FRAMEWORK FOR RHEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

The mineralogical composition and physical constitution of nickel laterite ores varies between
deposits within deposits and during ‘life of mine’. Understanding how these variations impact on the
‘processability’ of ores is an essential step in identifying and mitigating project risk and aiding the
ongoing sustainable operation of the processing plant.
In some cases in the past, plants have been designed using minimal rheological data obtained for
limited or ‘representative’ samples. Due to a number of rheology related failures and process
difficulties encountered in these projects, it is now understood that this practice results in excessive
risk. Nickel laterite ores can exhibit significant variations in both the magnitude of rheological
parameters and the actual rheological phenomena observed. Therefore, failure to define and
quantify the range of behaviour evident throughout the ore body, may result in the design of feed
thickening and handling systems which are unable to meet the autoclave concentration, throughput
and/or flow characteristic requirements. Rheological studies are becoming increasingly detailed
and aimed at gaining a comprehensive understanding of the variations in the rheological properties
throughout the ore body and the impact of these variations on the successful operation of the plant.

2
Some nickel laterite slurries possess unique rheological characteristics rarely seen in the minerals
industry relating to shear history effects, whilst others possess characteristics commonly observed
in mineral suspensions. As both unique and common behaviour may be evident in one ore body, it
is essential that the variations in the deposit are identified and appropriate strategies are employed
to ensure that the plant will accommodate the feed presented.

2. DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF ORE VARIABILITY

2.1. MINERALOGY AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Where it is known that the ore body contains significant variations in mineralogy, for example
limonites and saprolites in a nickel laterite deposit, reconciling mineralogy with the resultant
rheological characteristics provides important information for mine planning and ore blending
requirements and for determining the expected range of operating conditions for the concentrating
plant. Design of operations relies on an understanding from the outset of the variability expected in
rheological properties attributable to the ore type, blended or unblended, being processed and
transported.
Due to changes in mineralogy and effects such as weathering, there can be large variations in the
friability and therefore Particle Size Distribution (PSD) throughout the ore body and during the life of
mine. The deviation in PSD must be determined from the outset as particle size dramatically affects
the rheology of slurries and pastes and thus the ease of processing and disposal.
Changes in mineralogy and/or PSD within a deposit can mean an order of magnitude variation in
the tailings yield stress (the stress required to initiate flow) at a given solids concentration and can
be the difference between a successful and unsuccessful tailings disposal operation. Figure 1
illustrates the variations in the yield stress profiles of feed samples from one lateritic nickel deposit
as a result of changes in mineralogy. Note that for a yield stress of 200Pa, the solids concentration
varies from approximately 42wt% to 56wt%, or alternatively, at a solids concentration of 50wt%, the
material properties range from those of a semi-solid i.e. not pumpable with an unmeasurably high
yield stress (>1200 Pa), to a yield stress of about 30Pa i.e. easily pumpable with the consistency of
pouring cream. The role of additives such as flocculants is also highlighted, whereby the presence
of a flocculant is observed to increase the yield stress of a saprolite-limonite blend.
XRF and XRD analysis was performed on the two extreme samples, limonite 1 and saprolite 2 in
Figure 1 to gain a better understanding of the sample mineralogy. The X-ray fluorescence results
highlighted the comparatively high iron content and low silica and magnesium content of the
limonitic samples. In comparison, the saprolitic sample exhibited a far higher magnesium and silica
content which is typical of a siliceous rocky saprolite ore. XRD analysis indicated a major
amorphous phase in the two samples with minor components of crystalline phase. The high iron
content of the limonitic sample was found to be present as goethite crystals while the high silica,
content of the saprolite sample, is present as quartz along with magnesium containing crystals.
The PSDs for the two extreme cases, limonite 1 and saprolite 2 are shown in figure 2. It is evident
that the fine particle peak at approximately 10µm is much greater for the limonite than the saprolite
and that the saprolite contains coarse particles > 100µm.

3
 1,400 Limonite 1
Limonite 2
1,200 Limonite 3
Saprolite 1
Yield Stress (Pa )

1,000 Saprolite 2
Blend 1
Blend 1 flocculated
800

600

400

200

0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
Solids Mass Fraction (x )

Figure 1: Effect of mineralogy on the yield stress profiles of nickel laterites

4.5 100
Limonite 1 90
4.0

Cumulative Volume Percent (%)

Differential Volume Percent (%)

Saprolite 2 80
3.5
70
3.0
60
2.5
50
2.0
40
1.5
30
1.0 20
0.5 10

0.0 0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Particle Diameter ( µ m)

Figure 2: PSD of limonite 1 and saprolite 2

2.2. SAMPLE PREPARATION

The importance of testing a representative sample can not be understated. Those who frequently
conduct rheological testwork understand the critical nature of sample preparation and management
in order to ensure that the results will accurately reflect the processing conditions.
Whether the samples are a result of pilot plant trials or full scale plant operation, at times there may
be a delay between sample generation and testing. In the event of this delay, it is important to
consider the effects of sample aging and transport.

4
Sample aging is particularly important for flocculated samples where the flocculant may degrade
over time, samples generated at elevated temperature where cooling may affect the rheology and
samples containing clays, where clays may delaminate and swell over time. In these cases, on-site
testing is recommended at the time of sample generation and at the process temperature.
During transportation to a testing facility both aging and shear history effects may be significant. As
the sample is transported it is inevitable that the shear history experienced will differ from plant
conditions. Obviously, in the case of shear history dependent materials (where the rheology varies
with time of shear as for many nickel laterites) this will result in variations in the measured rheology
compared with plant conditions. Settling and particle size segregation is also likely, requiring the
sample to be homogenised and resuspended prior to testing.
Although extensive efforts are made to minimise the effects mentioned, they are sometimes
unavoidable and often the only prudent approach is to ensure the data is utilised with awareness of
the limitations imposed by sample preparation.

3. DEFINITION OF BASELINE RHEOLOGY TESTWORK PROGRAM

3.1. SHEAR HISTORY SENSITIVITY ASSESSMENT

The simplest method of assessing the effect of shear history is to measure the yield stress (or
torque) as a function of shearing time at a fixed shear rate. Many concentrated suspensions
posses a networked structure which may be broken down as it is subjected to shear. Figure 3,
shows the difference in the shear history sensitivity between the limonite 1 and saprolite 2 samples.
The yield stress of the limonite 1 decreases by a factor of 6 before reaching a constant fully
sheared, or equilibrium yield stress whereas the saprolite 2 yield stress remains essentially
unchanged as shear is applied.

800

700

600
Yield Stress (Pa)

500

400 Limonite 1
300 Saprolite 2

200

100

0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (min)

Figure 3: The effect of shear history on limonite 1 and saprolite 2.

It is important to understand the rate and extent of the structural breakdown process to ensure
rheological testing is conducted at the appropriate shear history condition for which the data are to
be applied. In the case of the pre autoclave thickener rake drive torque requirements and underflow
pump sizing for example, testing should be conducted in the unsheared state as this represents the
state of the material that the rake will encounter. For pipeline calculations and prediction of the flow
characteristics into the autoclave for slurry that has been sheared by centrifugal pumps, testing may
need to be conducted in a fully sheared state to avoid over design of the pumping system.
Centrifugal pumps impart a particularly high shear intensity which may reduce the pumping energy
requirements through breakdown of the slurry structure, thereby reducing the yield stress and
viscosity. In rare cases, shearing may actually cause an increase in the yield stress and viscosity
and subsequently the pumping energy requirements.

5
There are times when it is not possible to replicate the shear history conditions anticipated in reality
(they are generally not known a priori) so understanding the rate and extent of variation in the
rheology is important for informed use of data for design or optimisation.
Although the behaviour shown in Figure 3 is common, there are instances where the effect of shear
history varies as a function of the rate of applied shear. The presence of high aspect ratio particles
in some nickel laterites results in the observed yield stress either increasing or decreasing
depending on the shear history imparted. An example is shown in Figure 4. The apparent
reversibility and range of potential structural states suggests that definition of an equilibrium
condition is purely subjective and shear history dependent. In cases where this type of behaviour is
evident, it is important to ensure that the shear conditions that will be experienced in the plant are
well understood and reproduced as closely as possible during sampling and testing.

500
Vane yield stress (Pa)

450 400rpm
400
Hand
350
mixing 450rpm
300
250
200
150
100
50 1400rpm
1400rpm
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time of shear (min)

Figure 4. Yield stress progression with varying intensity of applied shear

3.2. YIELD STRESS PROFILE

Following determination of the effect of shear history, the yield stress as a function of solids
concentration should be determined for the appropriate shear history condition to define the
operating window. Figure 5 illustrates the variation in yield stress behaviour due to shearing for the
limonite 1 and saprolite 2 samples. As also evident in Figure 3, the limonite 1 sample shows
significant sensitivity to shear whereas the yield stress profile for the saprolite 2 sample did not
change with shearing.

6
 1,000
Limonite 1
900 unsheared
800
Limonite 1
700 sheared
Yield Stress (Pa)

600
Saprolite 2
500 unsheared and
sheared
400

300

200

100

0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Solids Mass Fraction (x)

Figure 5: Yield stress profiles - unsheared and sheared limonite 1 and saprolite 2.
As shown in Figure 5, yield stress profiles generally display exponential behaviour. The yield stress
profile should be determined over a wide range of solids concentrations extending beyond the
anticipated operating concentration to indicate where on the curve the operational point lies. A
design operating point near the ‘elbow’ of the curve, where the yield stress increases dramatically
with minor variations in solids concentration, could be problematic because of the narrow operable
window and difficulty controlling the paste concentration to the required precision.
Contrary to the behaviour shown in Figure 5, the application of shear may result in an increase in
the yield stress at a given solids concentration. In the case of particularly friable ores, the
application of shear may cause particle degradation and an increase in the proportion of fine
particles. An increase in the fine fraction will shift the yield stress curve to the left i.e. a higher yield
stress for a given solids concentration as shown for a laterite ore in Figure 6. Conversely, a coarse
PSD will shift the curve to the right, but with a more abrupt transition from liquid to solid-like
behaviour i.e. a sharper ‘elbow’ in the curve.

200
180 laterite ore -53 micron
laterite ore -212 micron
160
laterite ore -500 micron
Yield Stress (Pa )

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Solids Mass Fraction (x )

Figure 6: Effect of PSD on the yield stress profiles of a laterite feed

7
3.3. SHEAR STRESS VS SHEAR RATE
A flow curve, or rheogram shows the shear stress as a function of shear rate and therefore the
viscosity as a function of shear rate. Flow curves need to be measured over the anticipated
operating range indicated by yield stress profiles and may also need to encompass a range of shear
histories (from unsheared to fully sheared). Figure 7 demonstrates the importance of testing under
the appropriate conditions by showing the effect of shear and mineralogy on the flow behaviour of
three samples. All three materials in Figure 5 are at the same yield stress of 100 Pa, however the
solids concentration required to achieve this yield stress ranges from 39wt% to 52wt% and is a
function of shear history and ore type. Although these three materials possess the same yield
stress, the rheograms clearly show how different the flow characteristics are. The saprolite is best
described as a Bingham plastic and is insensitive to shear history whereas the limonite is highly
shear thinning and shear history sensitive.
The ramifications of insufficient investigation into the flow behaviour could be dramatic. If for
example, the design yield stress for autoclave feed was 100 Pa and only the saprolite rheology was
known, the pre-autoclave thickener would be operated to produce an underflow at 52wt% solids.
Clearly, the autoclave feed preparation system would fail if it was attempted to thicken the limonite
to 52wt% solids concentration as the unsheared material would behave as a paste with a yield
stress >1200 Pa (solid like and un-pumpable). The unsheared limonite has a yield stress of 100 Pa
at only 39wt% solids. However, with an understanding of the shear sensitive nature of the limonite,
it would be possible to process a sheared limonite at concentrations up to 49wt%.

250

200
Shear Stress (Pa)

150

100

Limonite 1 unsheared 39wt%

50
Limonite 1 sheared 49wt%
Saprolite 2 52wt%
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-1
Shear Rate (s )

Figure 7. Flow curves for sheared and unsheared laterite 1 and saprolite 2.

3.4. FEED BLENDING

Given the range of rheological characteristics which may be encountered within one nickel laterite
ore body, the various ore types are often blended in an attempt to provide an optimal and uniform
feed. It is important to understand the effect of blending on the rheology of the mixed feed, as the
relationship between the component rheology and the blend rheology is often non-linear.
Figure 8 shows the relationship between the proportions of limonite (blended with saprolite) as a
function of the total solids concentration required to produce blends with yield stresses of 50, 100
and 200 Pa. For a 50/50 blend to be produced at 100 Pa, the total solids concentration required
would be predicted to be 45.6wt% if a linear relationship between the component rheology and
blend rheology was assumed. In reality, the solids concentration required to produce a 50/50 blend
at 100Pa is 43.8wt%, and the error of 1.8wt% would result in a yield stress of 133Pa, which may be
beyond the operational limit.

8
 1.00 0.387
50Pa
Fraction of Lim 1 blended with Sap 2 100Pa
200Pa
0.75 0.408 0.421
Linear 100Pa Blend

0.50 0.438 0.456

0.25 0.473 0.490

0.00 0.524

0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60

Total Blend Solids Mass Fraction (x)

Figure 8: Relationship between the proportions of limonite (blended with saprolite) as a

function of the total solids concentration required to produce blends with yield stresses of
50, 100 and 200 Pa.

4. TESTING METHODS AND ISSUES

Some testing methods are more appropriate for a particular application than others. However, what
is more important is that those conducting measurements and those applying the data generated
have an understanding of the issues associated with various testing methods. Rather than describe
particular test methods in detail, this section aims to comparatively discuss critical issues for each
method.

4.1. SLUMP TESTING

Table 1: Yield stress and pipeline pressure drop for a fixed slump height (Clayton, 2003)
Coal Tails Au Tails Pb/Zn Tails
Solids SG (kg/m3) 1450 2800 4100 *dP Prediction assumes
Solids conc. %w/w 36 75 75 Bingham viscosity=1Pa.s
Slump Height (mm) 203 (8”) 203 (8”) 203 (8”) Pipe ID = 200mm
Yield Stress (Pa) 160 275 330 Pipeline Velocity = 1m/s
Predicted Pressure 5.07 8.13 9.6 Horizontal pipeline
Drop (kPa/m)*

4.2. ROTATIONAL METHODS

Rotational rheology testing using methods including vane and couette (cup and bob) are
convenient, the apparatus being highly portable and requiring small sample volumes. These
methods also provide a low cost alternative to pipeloop tests (section 4.3). If used prudently,
rotational methods are accurate, however, there are a number of factors to be considered when
applying data obtained using rotational devices.
Many testing facilities employ ramped measurements, where the shear stress is measured as the
shear rate is progressively increased (or decreased) from one value to the successive value. There
are a number of issues associated with this testing approach which need to be considered when
testing nickel laterites:

9
 Each measurement is dependent on the shear rate and duration of shear of preceding
measurements in the sweep. As many nickel laterites are sensitive to shear history, this
approach results in the material being in a different structural state for each measurement –
essentially the same material is not being tested at each shear rate.
Particle migration away from the shearing surface may take place over the duration of the test
resulting in measurement of a low concentration region not representative of the bulk sample.
For smooth bobs rotating in a cup, slip may occur at the bob surface, again resulting in
measurement of a low concentration region not representative of the bulk sample.
For shear thinning or thixotropic slurries, the reduction in the viscosity over the duration of the
test may result in particle settling and the formation of a concentration gradient along the length
of the shearing surface.
Evaporation at high temperature may be significant, thereby increasing the concentration of the
sample being tested over the duration of a test. As most nickel laterites are processed at
elevated temperature and the yield stress and viscosity are temperature dependent, it is
important that rheology testing is conducted at the process temperature.
For the majority of slurries and pastes, ramped measurements are inappropriate and a superior
approach is to conduct individual measurements at successive shear rates with minimal, gentle
homogenisation of the sample between measurements.
A good way to check the validity of flow data from rotational testing (or any testing for that matter) is
to compare the low shear rate data with an independently measured vane yield stress. If the low
shear rate data do not coincide with the yield stress this indicates that one or more of the above
factors may be prevalent.

4.3. ‘PIPE’ METHODS

A tubular geometry is often preferred given the similarity with pipeline flow. Examples include
capillary (small tube) rheometry and pipeloop tests. For capillary testing care must be taken to
eliminate wall and end effects by ensuring that the tube length and diameter are appropriate for the
PSD of the sample. In order to minimise the possibility of wall and end effects, both L/D (tube
length/ diameter) and D/d50 should be greater than about 60 where the d50 is the median particle
size of the suspended particles.
Pipeloop testing is often performed to verify simpler rheological testing e.g. rotational methods, and
to indicate the parameters such as settling velocities in the presence of shear. One of the
disadvantages with pipeloop tests is that the sample is continually recirculated, making
determination of shear history effects difficult. Pipeloop tests are rarely conducted as part of an
initial rheological characterisation programme as they are time consuming, expensive and large
sample sizes are required.

5. DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION

No matter how ‘good’ the rheological data, it is imperative that the end-user ensure that rheological
information is applied appropriately. One of the first things to consider is whether the data are
relative or absolute. Relative data, for example slump heights for a particular material or flow data
obtained for a different shear history condition to that of the process, can be useful in it’s own right,
but the user must be aware that the information may be best for ranking, comparative or ‘indication
of change’ purposes rather than direct design input.

5.1. AUTOMATED INSTRUMENT ANALYSES

Many commercial rheometer software packages use models which are unsuitable for yield stress
fluids and employ a Newtonian analysis for materials which are clearly non-Newtonian. A
competent testing facility will be aware of this and analyse the raw instrument readings
appropriately rather than relying on inappropriate automated analyses.

5.2. RHEOLOGICAL MODELS

.
Flow data, or shear stress (τ) as a function of shear rate ( γ ) are often presented in the form of a
rheological model. The most commonly used models are the Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley
models, shown in Equations 1 and 2 respectively.

10
Bingham Model; τ = τ yB + η B γ& (1)

Herschel-Bulkley Model; τ = τ yHB + Kγ& n (2)

The Bingham Model has historically been used for prediction of pipeline transport requirements,
where the shear rates of interest are of the order of 10 to 100s-1. For pipeline start-up conditions,
rake drive requirements and vessel agitation, the shear rates of interest are much lower (zero for
pipeline start-up conditions and rake drive requirements and 5 to 15s-1 for agitation), so the
Bingham parameters are largely unsuitable.
Although fluid models are convenient the constants τyB, τyHB, ηB,, K and n are fitting parameters only,
and may not be representative of the true flow characteristics of the material. This is particularly
relevant in the case where a highly shear thinning material is described using a Bingham model. At
high solids loadings, few slurries/pastes display true Bingham behaviour, yet Bingham parameters
are often quoted. The Bingham model extrapolates high shear rate data to zero shear rate and may
result in a significant overestimation of the true yield stress (the stress required for flow to occur)
while the constant Bingham viscosity (ηB) does not indicate the variation in the true viscosity,
defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate at a particular shear rate, especially at low
shear rates. Figure 9 shows the discrepancy between the true, vane yield stress (shown in the
legend) and the extrapolated Bingham yield stress (τyB) for three samples. Clearly, designing based
on the Bingham yield stress would result in excessive conservatism, especially at high solids
concentrations, where the Bingham yield stress may indicate unfeasible or uneconomic operation.
The Herschel-Bulkley model generally provides a far better representation of the actual material
behaviour.

800

700 τyB = 640Pa

600
Shear Stress (Pa)

500
τyB = 352Pa
400

300 τyB = 213Pa

200
Sample A. Vane yield stress 350 Pa
100 Sample B. Vane yield stress 250 Pa
Sample C. Vane yield stress 150 Pa
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-1
Shear Rate (s )

Figure 9: Flow curves for a cemented lead/zinc tailings paste

6. SUMMARY ROADMAP

A roadmap has been developed to assist designers and operators to navigate through the
rheological questions to ask and issues to address - from sampling to testing protocols, data
analysis and informed data application. Figure 10 simplifies the complex process of rheological
characterisation by considering the effect of ore mineralogy, sample preparation and management,
baseline tests required and test methods and data analysis and application.

11
 Mineralogy assessment – XRD and PSD
No

Sufficient mineralogical assessment to

commence rheologcial testing?

Yes

Define limitations of testing programme

Select testing methodology, rotational or pipe
Sample generation

Are samples shear history

sensitive?

Yes

Redefine test sampling programme

On-site yield stress measurement to anchor initial conditions

Develop shear
No Is shear history important for particular application? Yes
history test matrix

No

Shear material at given concentration to equilibrium

Yield Stress vs solids concentration to define

feasible operating window (non-optimised)

Define operating window based on yield

stress and shear history

For further
Does rheology need to be modified by altering Yes discussion
chemistry elsewhere

No

Shear stress vs shear rate over operating window concentration range

(may or may not be function of shear history

Review data and select appropriate model

Utilise model for plant design/equipment/optimisation

Figure 10: ‘Rheology Roadmap’ (Sofrà, 2006).

12
 7. CONCLUSION

For maximisation of the feed to a PAL process and subsequent minimisation of equipment costs for
a given throughput, a thorough understanding of the range of rheological behaviour that will be
encountered is required. A comprehensive ore characterisation and rheology testwork programme
will highlight opportunities for feed optimisation and highlight problematic issues which may be
alleviated through prudent ore blending and / or physical treatment.
It is important that nickel laterite PAL plant designers and operators are cognisant of the range of
rheological phenomena that may be encountered and the testwork required to quantify these
phenomena. The effect of concentration, temperature, shear history, shear rate, flocculation
conditions and blending must all be well understood and incorporated into the testwork programme.
A systematic framework for rheological assessment has been developed which is presented in this
paper to ensure that data obtained is relevant to the autoclave feed thickening and handling
systems and to guide the reader through a checklist of rheological questions to ask and issues to
address.

8. REFERENCES

1. Clayton, 2003 "The Importance of Rheology in Paste Fill Operations", S. Clayton (PhD) 2003.
The Univeristy of Melbourne
2. Sofrà, 2006. Rheological Assessment – A roadmap for plant designers and operators. Paste
2006. F. Sofra. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings 3-7
April 2006, Limerick Ireland.

13