TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 205

(∆T ) s hL
=
( ∆T ) c k
It can be checked that the term hL/k is dimensionless. This dimensionless quantity is
named as Biot number. If this number is small then (∆T)s will be small and so the temperature
difference in the body is small and so it can be taken as the check for the applicability of
lumped parameter model. If Biot number is less than 0.1, it has been proved that this model
can be used without appreciable error. As this model is simpler to apply, it is worthwhile
checking in all cases for the value of Biot number before attempting the solution. If Bi < 0.1,
then the simpler model can be adopted.
6.2.2. Electrical Analogy: Now going back to equation (6.4), the term (hAs/ρVc) can be used
to visualise an electrical analogy in terms of a
capacitance resistance circuit and the process of heating
V C
1
or cooling as charging and discharging the capacitor is or or R or
hAs T cV 1/hAs

the convection resistance, ρVc is the heat capacity of the

system and hence the analogy. In the case of transient
conduction, the heat capacity to the material is taken as Fig. 6.4. Resistance capaci-
equivalent to the capacitance in an electrical circuit. The tance circuit.
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6.4.
6.2.3. The quantity (hAs/ρVc) can also be expressed as a product of two dimensionless numbers
by rearranging the terms as below, taking As/V = 1/L an equivalent length
hAs τ hL kτF I
hL ατ
ρVc
= GH
k ρ cL2
= JK.
k L2
= Bi.Fo. ...(6.5)

The Biot number has already been defined. It should be noted here that L = V/As
= Volume/Surface area. The value of L can be obtained from the shape of the solid. The quantity
(k/ρc) has already been defined as thermal diffusivity. ατ/L2 is defined as Fourier number. This
number signifies the heat penetration depth in time τ, with respect to the body dimension.
Fourier number should be large for quick heating or cooling. Leaving out the time, higher the

Chapter 6
value of thermal diffusivity or smaller the body dimension, quicker will be the heating up or
cooling down.
The response characteristics of a body with respect to heating or cooling is compared by
using the time required for the temperature difference to drop to 1/e times the original value
(e-base of natural logarithm). This time is called the thermal time constant for the condition
specified. This leads to the condition that the time constant
ρVc
τc = ...(6.6)
hA s
For quick response as in the case of probes for temperature mesurements the time
constant should be small.
Example 6.1: A thermocouple is formed by soldering end-to-end wires of 0.5 mm dia. The
thermal diffusivity of the material is 5.3 × 10–6 m2/s. The conductivity of the material is 19.1
W/mK. The probe initially at 30°C is placed in a fluid at 600°C to measure the temperature of
the fluid. If the convective heat transfer coefficient between the wire and the fluid is 85 W/m2K,
determine the time constant for the probe and also the time taken for it to read 598°C.
 206 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Solution: Using equation (6.4)

T − T∞ 2π rl 2
= e − ( hAs / ρVc) τ and noting As /V = =
T0 − T∞ π r2l r
First a check is made to find the applicability of the Lumped parameter model
hL 85 × 0.00025
= = 0.55 × 10–3 << 0.1.
k 19.1 × 2
So the model can be used. Noting ρc = k/α
(i) τ c = Time constant (eqn. 6.6)
k r 1 19.1 0.00025 1
(ρVc/hAs) = . . = −6
. . = 5.355 S
α 2 h 5.3 × 10 2 85

−G
F 85 × 2 × 5.3 × 10 I τ
−6

598 − 600 H 0.00025 × 19.1 JK

(ii) =e = e −0.1887 τ
30 − 600
∴ τ = 30 seconds
This is rather long and attempts should be made to reduce the value, if the instrument
is to be useful. This can be achieved by reducing heat capacity and or increasing the value of h.
Example 6.2: A slab of high thermal conductivity at temperature Ti at zero time receivers on
one side a heat flux of qW/m2. On the other side there is convection at a temperature T∞ with
convection coefficient h W/m2k. The thickness of the slab is Lm. Drive an expression for the
temperature at time τ. Assume that lumped heat capacity model can be used.
Solution: The energy equation is
dTτ
Aq + Ah [T∞ – Tτ] = ρcAL
dτ
dTτ
or q + h (T∞ – Tτ) = ρcL
dτ
Defining θτ = Tτ – T∞, and Q = q/ρcL
dTτ h q
+ θτ = =Q
dτ ρcL ρcL
h
The solution in this equation is defining as m,
ρcL
θτ = ce–mτ + θp
Q
c is the constant of integration and θp = is the particular solution.
m
θτ = θ0 at τ = 0, i.e. θτ = Ti – T∞.
Q
∴ θ0 = c +
m
–mτ Q
∴ θτ = θ0 e + (1 – e–mτ)
m
The final result being
Q
or θτ = Tτ – T∞ = θ0e–mτ + (1 – e–mτ) ...(E.6.2.1)
h
when the time is long, or τ → ∞ ...(E.6.2.2)
 CONVECTION 301

y
In this case the temperature ratio (T – Ts)/(T∞ – Ts) reached a value of 0.99 at Rex1/2
x
Pr1/3 = 5.
Hence the thermal boundary layer was obtained as
δh 5x
δth = 1/3
= 1/ 2 ...(7.19)
Pr Rex Pr 1/3
Also the slope at y = 0 was obtained as 0.332

∂ [(T − Ts )/(T∞ − Ts )]
i.e., = 0.332.
LF y I
∂ MG J . Re 1/ 2 1/ 3 OP
NH x K x Pr
Q y=0

∂T Rex1/ 2 Pr 1/ 3 (T∞ − Ts )
∴ = 0.332
∂y y=0 x

∂T Rex1/ 2 Pr 1/ 3
Heat flux qx = – k = – 0.332 k (T∞ – Ts)
∂y y=0
x

qx k
hx = = 0.332 . Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(7.20)
Ts − T∞ x
hx x
∴ = Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(7.21)
k
The value of Nusselt number at length L is
NuL = 0.334 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 ...(7.22)

NuL = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/2 ...(7.22(b))

The average value of h upto L is

h = 2 h (x = L) ...(7.23)
From experimental results it is found that these equations are applicable if the property
values are used at film temperature (Ts + T∞)/2.
Example 7.9: Air at 20°C and one atmosphere flows over a surface at 100°C with a free stream
Chapter 7

velocity of 6 m/s. Determine the values of Reynolds number, thermal and hydrodynamic
boundary layer thicknesses and the local value and average values of convective heat transfer
coefficients at distances of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 m from the leading edge. Also determine
the length at which the flow turns to turbulent taking critical Reynolds number as 5 × 105.
Solution: The temperature at which properties are to be read is (20 + 100)/2 = 60°C for air at
one atmospheric pressure. The following values are read from tables:
ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.696,
k = 0.02896 W/mK (these being the required ones for the problem)
 302 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

u∞ x
Rex = , δx = 5x/Rex1/2, δth x = δx/Pr1/3
ν
Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 hx = Nux k/x, hL = 2hL
The calculated values are given below

x, m 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5

Rex 31629 79072 1.58 × 105 2.37 × 105 3.16 × 105 3.95 × 105 4.74 × 105
δx, mm 2.81 4.45 6.29 7.7 8.89 9.94 10.89
δth x, mm 3.17 5.02 7.10 8.69 10.03 11.22 12.29
Nux 52.32 82.73 117 143.3 165.5 185 202.7
hL, W/m2K 15.15 9.58 6.78 5.53 4.79 4.29 3.91

hL , W/m2K 30.30 19.16 13.56 11.06 9.58 8.58 7.82

The distance at which Rex = 5 × 105 is determined using

6×x
= 5 × 105, solving x = 1.58 m
18.97 × 10 −6
plotting these tabulated result to scale, (particularly h) will be useful for understanding the
phenomenon. The reason for the reduction in the value of convective heat transfer coefficient
can be roughly explained as due to thicker layer through which diffusion has to take place
along the direction of flow.

7.8 INTEGRAL METHOD

The integral method uses the idea of control volume large enough to contain the boundary
layer and the net flows are summed by integration rather than by using the rates. The details
are shown in Fig. 7.9.

Fig. 7.9. Control volume used in the integral method.

The shear force along surface BC and the conduction across it is zero as it is beyond the
boundary layer.
The mass or energy or momentum flow is obtained by considering a small layer by at y
from the wall and integrating it over the whole face. For example, the energy flowing over face
AB is given by
 10
NATURAL CONVECTION

10.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, we discussed heat transfer under forced flow conditions. Though it is
desirable to use forced convection as higher rates of heat transfer coefficient may be obtained by
this method, leading to compact equipments, it is not possible and sometimes not desirable to use
forced convection in the design of several equipments. In these situations, free or natural convection
has to be adopted in designs. Medium size electrical transformers erected in open space cannot
use forced convection. So also steam radiators used for comfort heating.
When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than that of
the fluid, a layer of fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated up or cooled. A density difference is
created between this layer and the still fluid surrounding it. The density difference introduces a
buoyant force causing flow of the fluid near the surface. Heat transfer under such conditions is
known as natural or free convection. Usually a thin layer of flowing fluid forms over the surface.
The fluid beyond this layer is essentially still, and is at a constant temperature of T∞.
The flow velocities encountered in free convection is lower compared to flow velocities in
forced convection. Consequently the value of convection coefficient is lower, generally by one order
of magnitude. Hence for a given rate of heat transfer larger area will be required. As there is no
need for additional devices to force the fluid, this mode is used for heat transfer in simple devices
as well as for devices which have to be left unattended for long periods.
The heat transfer rate is calculated using the general convection equation given below:
Q = h A(Tw – T∞) ...(10.1)
Q—heat transfer in W, h—convection coefficient – W/m2K.

Chapter 10
A—area in m2, Tw—surface temperature
T∞—fluid temperature at distances well removed from the surface (here the stagnant fluid
temperature).
The basic nature of flow and various correlations available for the calculation of convection
coefficient for different flow situations and geometries are discussed in this chapter.
Boundary layer theory is used for the analysis of natural convection also. The example
10.1 brings out the difference in area requirements between natural and forced convection conditions.
Example 10.1: A transformer of 50 kW capacity dissipates by natural convection 1.20 kW of heat
generated inside it. If the value of convective heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m2K, and if the
temperature of the unit should not exceed 30°C above the ambient level, determine the area
required. In case of forced convection h = 50 W/m2K. Determine the area under this condition.
Solution: Equation 10.1 is suitable for the calculation
Q = h A (Tw – T∞)
or A = Q/h (Tw – T∞)

434
 NATURAL CONVECTION 435

Substituting Q = 1200 W, h = 5 W/m2K, (Tw – T∞) = 30°C

the area is obtained as 8 m2. This is a fairly large area and hence the equipment has to be
bulky. Under forced convection, the area required will be 0.8 m2.
The methods of analysis of the boundary layer and the basic physical laws applied in the
analysis are the same as in forced convection. The exception is that buoyant forces are to be
taken into account in the formulation of momentum equation. The boundary conditions are
also different. The velocity is zero both at the surface and also at the edge of boundary layer,
the bulk fluid remaining still.
Analytical methods using exact differential equations as well as approximate integral
methods can be used to study simple cases. However these methods are useful mainly in the
validation of experimental results. The dimensional analysis method is useful in identifying
dimensionless groups that can be used in interpreting the experimental results. Some of the
derivations are given under solved problems.
For design situations, correlations obtained from experimental results using the identified
dimensionless numbers are used more often. These correlations are constantly reviewed and
improved by researchers.

10.1 BASIC NATURE OF FLOW UNDER NATURAL CONVECTION CONDITIONS

The layer of fluid near the surface gets heated or cooled depending on the temperature of the
solid surface. A density difference is created between the fluid near the surface and the stagnant
fluid. This causes as in a chimney a flow over the surface.
Similar to forced convection a thin boundary layer is thus formed over the surface.
Inertial, viscous and buoyant forces are predominant in this layer. Temperature and velocity
gradients exist only in this layer. The velocity and temperature distributions in the boundary
layer near a hot vertical surface are shown in Fig. 10.1.

Boundary

Chapter 10
TW layer

Stagnant fluid at T ∝
Tw > T ∝ Tw
δx
T
A A
T, u T∝
u
x x
y

δ
y

Fig. 10.1. Velocity and temperature distributions in the boundary layer.

The velocity is zero at the surface and also at the edge of the boundary layer. As in the
case of forced convection the temperature gradient at the surface is used in the determination
of heat flow (heat is transferred at the surface by conduction mode).
 PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES—BOILING, CONDENSATION FREEZING AND MELTING 501

Using (11.2)

q=
LM 909 × ∆T OP 3

3.431 × 10–4 × 161.78 × 103 ×

LM 9.81 (1460 − 9.15) OP 0.5

N 16178 3
. × 10 × 4.4 1.7
× 0.013 Q N 1 × 23 × 10 Q −3

q = 1.84334 × ∆T3
Substituting qcr for q, ∆T = 58.8 °C
When surface temp. is 10°C, ∆T = 30°C i.e., 10 – (– 20)
∴ q = 1.84334 × ∆T3 = 0.05 × 106 W/m2
h = 1659 W/m2 K.
Note : Sources for property values of liquids other than water are scarce.
Problem 11.5: n-Butyl alcohol boils on a copper surface at 1 atm. The saturation temperature
is 117.5°C. Determine the critical heat flux and heat flux for excess temperatures of 10, 20,
200°C. Also determine the excess temperature at the critical flux condition.
Solution: The property values are:
σ = 0.0183 N/m, hfg = 591500 J/kg
ρv = 2.3 kg/m3, µv = 0.143 × 10–3 kg/ms
ρ1 = 737 kg/m3, µ1 = 0.39 × 10–3 kg/ms
c1 = 2876 J/kgK, Pr = 6.9, k1 = 0.163 W/mK
Csf = 0.00305, cρν = 1706 J/kgK, kν = 0.02 W/mK
Using equation (11.3)
qcr = 0.149 hfg [σ ggo(ρ1 – ρv) ρv2]1/4
= 0.149 × 591500 [0.0183 × 9.81 × 1 (737 – 2.3)2.32]1/4 = 0.453 × 106 W/m2

Chapter 11
Assuming nucleate boiling and excess temperature ∆Tcr

0.547 × 106 = µ1 hfg

LM c1 OP 3
LM g bρ 1 − ρv g OP 0.5

∆Tcr3
MN h fg pr 1.7 Csf PQ MN g
o σ PQ
= 0.39 × 10–3
L
× 591500 × M
2876 OP LM 9.81 b737 − 2.3g OP 3 0.5
∆Tcr3
N 591500 × 6.9 × 0.00305 Q N 1 0.0183 Q 1.7

= 30.910 × ∆T3cr ∴ ∆ Tcr = 26.06°C

For other excess temperatures
q10 = 30.914 × 103 = 0.0309 × 106 W/m2
q20 = 30.914 × 203 = 0.2473 × 106 W/m2
At 200°C excess temperature, the condition will be film boiling
Using eqn. (11.6)
L gbρ − ρ g ρ k h + 0.68c ∆T OP
1.5 3
0.25

= 0.425 M
1 v v v fg pv
hc
MN b g σg µ ∆T PQ = 0.425
o
0.5
v

L 9.81 b737 − 2.3g × 2.3 × 0.02 b591500 + 0.68 × 1706 × 200g OP

1.5 3
0.25

×M
MN b1 × 0.0183g × 0.143 × 10 × 200 PQ 0.5 −3

= 72.9 W/m2K
 502 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Let ε = 0.6, Tw = 317.5 + 273

Tsat = 117.5 + 273
hr = ε σ (Tw4 – Tsat4)/(Tw – Tsat) = 16.72 W/m2 K
q = (72.9 + 0.75 × 16.72) 200 = 0.017 × 106 W/m2
lower than at 10°C excess temperature.
Note: The same value of heat flux can occur at more than one excess temperature lying in the
nucleate and film boiling regimes.
Problem 11.6: For water boiling at 1 atm at 100°C determine the value of excess temperature
in the film boiling region for a heat flux equal to the critical heat flux for this condition. The
property values at 100°C are:
ρ1 = 961, ρv = 0.598 kg/m3, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg.
σ = 58.8 × 10–3 N/m
Solution: Using eqn. (11.3), qcr = 0.149 × 2257 × 103
× [58.8 × 10–3 × 9.81(961 – 0.598) × 0.5982]1/4 = 1.262 × 106 W/m2
In the film boiling region eqn. (11.6) and (11.7) are to be used.
The convection coefficient hc is given by

LM gbρ
1 − ρv g
1.5
ρv kv3 hfg + 0.68 × cpv ∆T OP 0.25
LM T4
w
4
− Tsat OP
hr = ε σ
hc = 0.425
MN b gσg 0.5
µ v ∆T PQ MN T
w − Tsat PQ
The property values kv and µv should be taken at (Tw + Tsat)/2.
Only a trial solution is possible.
Assuming 1100°C excess temperature, film temp. = 600°C
ρv = 0.252, kv = 0.08176, µv = 33.15 × 10–6 cpv = 2206 J/kgK
Assuming an emisivity of 0.8 (rough surface)
Tw = 1100 + 100 + 273 = 1473 K, Tsat = 373K
0.8 × 5.67
hr = [14.734 – 3.734] = 193.33 W/m2 K
1100

L 9.81b961 − 0.252g × 0.252 × (0.08176) [2257 × 10 + 0.68 × 1100 × 2206] OP

1.5 3 3
1/4

h = 0.425 × M
c
MN −3 0.5
(1 × 58.8 × 10 ) 33.15 × 10 × 1100 −6
PQ
= 155.18 W/m2 K
∴ h = 300.2 W/m2 K ∴ q = 0.33 × 106
This falls short of the critical flux.
Assuming 1900°C excess Temp., Tf = 1000°C
Property values are:
ρv = 0.172, kv = 0.14072, µv = 52.37 × 10–6,
Cpv = 2483
Tw = 2273 K, Tsat = 373 K
 HEAT EXCHANGERS 529

Example 12.2: Determine the area required in parallel flow heat exchanger to cool oil from
60°C to 30°C using water available at 20°C. The outlet temperature of the water is 26°C. The
rate of flow of oil is 10 kg/s. The specific heat of the oil is 2200 J/kg K. The overall heat transfer
coefficient U = 300 W/m2 K. Compare the area required for a counter flow exchager.
Solution: The temperature variation for parallel flow is shown in Fig. 12.4 (a).

60°C

T
Ti = 40
30°C
To = 4
26°C

20°C

Inlet A Outlet

Fig. 12.4 (a) Parallel flow

Q = mh ch (Thi – Tho) = 10 × 2200 (60 – 30) J/s = 6,60,000 W

Chapter 12
Q = U A (LMTD)
40 − 4
LMTD = = 15.635°C
40
ln
4
6,60,000 = 300 × A × 15.635 ∴ A = 140.71 m2
As can be seen a single tube arrangement is
impractical.
60°C
Counter flow:
The temperature variation is shown in Fig 12.4 (b) Ti = 34
26°C 30°C
34 − 10 To = 10
LMTD = 34 = 19.611°C 20°C
ln T
10
∴ A = 112.18 m2
about 20% less. Inlet A Outlet
The flow rate of water can also be determined as it
Fig. 12.4. (b) Counter flow
will be a necessary data.
Q = mc Cc (Tco – Tci)
6,60,000 = mc × 4180 (26 – 20)
mc = 26.32 kg/s
The counter flow arrangement provides more uniform temperature difference
along the flow and hence a better rate of heat flow. The counter flow type can also be used to
cool or heat over a wider range of temperatures. In the above case by increasing the area or by
reducing flow the hot oil can in the limit be cooled to 20°C. Manipulation in the opposite
direction can get the water heated to 60°C. This is not possible in the parallel flow where the