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Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are composed of C, H, O
Carbohydrates carbo - hydr - ate
CH2O
(CH22O)
(CH O)xx C66H12 O
12 66
 Function:
 fast energy u energy storage
AICE Biology
 raw materials u structural materials
Jones & Fosbery Chapter 2
 Monomer: sugars
 ex: sugars, starches, cellulose
sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar

CH2OH

Sugars Simple & complex sugars H O

H
H
 Most names for sugars end in -ose  Monosaccharides HO
OH H
OH

 Classified by number of carbons  simple 1 monomer sugars H OH

 6C = hexose (glucose)  glucose Glucose
 5C = pentose (ribose)  Disaccharides
 3C = triose (glyceraldehyde) H O  2 monomers
CH2OH CH2OH C  sucrose
H
H
O
H O H H C OH  Polysaccharides
OH 6H H 5 HO 3OH  large polymers
HO OH HO H H C
 starch
H OH OH H H

Glucose Ribose Glyceraldehyde

Monosaccharides
3-carbon 5-carbon sugars
 Single Sugars sugar
 Dissolve easily in water H O
 Sweet taste 1C 5 CH2OH 5 CH2OH
 3 forms: Sugars all end in “ose” H 2 C OH O OH O OH
4 1 4 1
 Triose (3C) C3H6O3 H H H H H
H C OH H H H
 (Gylceraldehyde) 3 3 2 2
3
H
 Pentose (5 C) C5H10O5 OH OH OH H
 (Ribose, Deoxyribose = components of Glyceraldehyde Ribose Deoxyribose
nucleic acids)
 Hexose (6 C) C6H12O6
 (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)

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Fig. 3.23b(TE Art) Functional groups determine function

6-carbon sugars
carbonyl
6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH
5
H5 O
H O H OH O OH aldehyde
H H
1 5 4
4 OH H H HO 2 OH H H 1
HO OH HO CH2 OH H
3 2 4 3 1 3 2
H OH OH H H OH
Glucose Fructose Galactose carbonyl
ketone

Chemical Formulae Structural Forms

 Molecular Formula (empirical formula)  Chain Form: Carbon backbone with
ie. C6H12O6 oxygen & hydrogen forming side bonds.
 Structural Formula  Ring Form: In aqueous solution, the
molecule closes upon itself to form a more
 Diagram showing the arrangement of
stable ring form.
atoms.
 Glucose, fructose & galactose all have
the same empirical formula, but have
different structural formulae.

Numbered carbons
Sugar structure
5C & 6C sugars form rings in solution These will become C6'
important!

5'C O

4'C C 1'
energy stored in C-C bonds
harvested in cellular respiration
C 3' C 2'
Carbons are numbered

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Isomers of Sugars Fig. 3.26(TE Art)

 Structural Isomers: different arrangement Fructose Glucose Galactose
of bonds. H H H
 eg glucose & fructose (See O=C Bonds) H C OH C O C O
 Your taste buds can tell the difference fructose C O Structural H C OH Stereo- H C OH
isomer isomer
much sweeter HO C H HO C H HO C H
 Form different polymers (repeating subunits) H C OH H C OH HO C H
 Stereoisomers: Same bond structure but H C OH H C OH H C OH

different orientations of molecule groups. H C OH H C OH H C OH

H H H
 eg. Glucose & galactose: Hydroxyl groups are
mirror images of one another
 ∂ glucose (OH below the plane)
 ß glucose (OH above the plane)

Roles of Monosaccharides
 Source of energy in respiration.
 C-H bonds release lots of energy when
broken—used to convert ADP to ATP.
 Glucose is the most important,

metabolically.
 Building blocks of larger molecules.
 glucose  starch, glycogen, cellulose
 ribose  RNA (ribonucleic acid) & ATP
 deoxyribose  DNA (deoxyribonucleic

acid)

Building sugars Dehydration synthesis

 Dehydration synthesis  2 hydroxyl (-OH) groups line up with one
another
monosaccharides disaccharide
 One combines with a hydrogen from the
other to form a water molecule: HENCE,
DEHYDRATION/ CONDENSATION
 Forms an oxygen bridge “glycosidic bond”
H2O
| | |  Any two hydroxyl groups can line up &
glucose glucose maltose bond
glycosidic linkage  Large variety of possible disaccharides

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Building sugars Disaccharides

 Dehydration synthesis • Two monosaccharides joined by
monosaccharides disaccharide a covalent bond
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O O H H O O
H H H H H H
OH H H HO OH H O H HO
HO OH HO CH2OH HO CH2OH
H2O
H OH OH H H OH OH H
H2O Glucose Fructose Sucrose
| | |
glucose fructose sucrose
(table sugar) CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O O O O
H H H H H H H H H H H
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH HO OH
H2O
H OH H OH H OH H OH
Glucose Glucose Maltose

Breaking Bonds: Hydrolysis

 Hydrolysis: When polysaccharides
break apart to form smaller molecules.
 Hydro = water
 Lysis = breaking apart
 Breaking a molecule apart by adding
water
 Both Condensation & hydrolysis are
controlled by enzymes.

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Fig. 3.27a(TE Art)

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

H O O H H O H O
H H H H
OH H H HO OH H O H HO
HO OH HO CH2OH HO CH2OH
H2O
H OH OH H H OH OH H
Glucose Fructose Sucrose

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Transport Disaccharides Fig. 3.25a(TE Art)

CH2OH CH2OH
 In humans, glucose can circulate in the blood
 In plants & many other organisms, glucose O O
H H H H H H
must be converted for transport to keep
glucose from being “used up” while in OH H OH H
transport
O
HO OH
 The bond breaking enzymes are only located
in tissue where glucose is meant to be used.
 ∂ Glucose + fructose = sucrose H OH H OH
 Glucose + galactose = lactose Glucose Glucose
 Glucose + glucose = maltose Maltose

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Fig. 3.25b(TE Art) Fig. 3.25c(TE Art) CH2OH

CH2OH CH2OH O
O O CH2OH H H
H H H H
H OH O OH H
OH H O H HO H O OH
HO CH2OH OH H
H H H OH
H OH OH H
Glucose Fructose Glucose
H OH
Sucrose Galactose
Lactose

Polysaccharides Storage Polysaccharides

 Polymers of sugars (NOT sugars)  Transport disaccharides may be linked
 costs little energy to build together as polysaccharides for storage
 easily reversible = release energy within cells.
 Function:  Plant polysaccharides = starches.
 energy storage  Animal polysaccharides = glycogen
 starch (plants)
 glycogen (animals)
 in liver & muscles
 structure
 cellulose (plants)
 chitin (arthropods & fungi)

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Linear vs. branched polysaccharides Starches: Amylose

slow release  Amylose = simplest starch, hundreds /
thousands of linked, unbranched alpha
starch glucose molecules.
(plant)  #1 carbon links to #4 of next molecule =
long chains of maltose.
energy  Long chains coil up in water making it

storage insoluable in water

 Potato starch ~ 20% amylose

glycogen
(animal)

fast release

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Fig. 3.28a(TE Art) Starch: Amylopectin

 Most plant starch is amylopectin.
 Also made of many 1,4 linked glucose, but
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H H O H H O H H O H H O H H O H also have 1,6 branching linkages Only 20-
H 14 H H H
4 OH H 1
OH H O OH H O OH H O OH H 30 glucose subunits.
HO OH
 Mixtures of amylose & amylopectin build
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
a form of glucose Starch: chain of a-glucose subunits up as starch grains in chloroplasts &
storage vacuoles.

Glycogen
 “Animal version of
starch.”
 Insoluble
polysaccharide of
branched amylose
chains
 Average chain much
longer and greater #
of branches than plant
starch.
 Animal form of energy
storage.

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Structural Carbohydrates: Cellulose

 Most abundant organic

compound on Earth
 herbivores have evolved a mechanism to
digest cellulose
 most carnivores have not
 that’s why they
eat meat to get
their energy &
nutrients
 cellulose = undigestible
roughage

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Cellulose Fig. 3.28b(TE Art)

 Unbranched chains of beta glucose
 Several chains are cross-linked by H-
bonding to form fibrils
 Several fibrils crosslink to form fibres O

 Forms cell walls of plants OH H O

Plant
cell wall H H
CH2OH OH O
CH2OH H OH O O H
O OH CH2OH H H OH H H H CH2OH
H
H O
4 OH H 1 H OH H O H
H O OH
HO H OH H 1 4H H O H
H
H OH CH2OH
H OH
b form of glucose Cellulose: chain of b-glucose subunits

Fig. 3.29