Manufactursugar PDF

PROJECT REPORT
on
MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR FROM

SUGAR CANE
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
by
RAJASEKAR .V (10704014)
SATHIYA NARAYANAN .S (10704017)
under the guidance of
Mr. M. MAGESH KUMAR, M.Tech.,

(Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemical Engineering)
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SRM UNIVERSITY
(under section 3 of UGC Act,1956)
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203
Kancheepuram Dist.
May 2008
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report on “MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR
FROM SUGAR CANE ” is the bonafide work of “RAJASEKAR .V
(10704014) and SATHIYA NARAYANAN .S (10704017)” who carried
out the project work under my supervision.
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT INTERNAL GUIDE
Date:
EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER
DATE :
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are extremely thankful to Dr.R.KARTHIKEYAN, B.E., PhD, Professor
and Head, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for permitting us to
venture on this project and providing us with good support and guidance.
We would like to thank Mr. M.MAGESH KUMAR, B.Tech, .M.Tech,
Faculty, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for his encouragement
and guidance at all stages of this project.
We extend our sincere thanks to all the staff members of the School of
Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for their support and assistance.

ABSTRACT
This project deals with the manufacture of sugar from sugarcane.
Since the demand for sugar has been increasing day by day. A detailed
process Flow sheet, Material Balance, Energy Balance have been done. A
detailed Design of equipments, Cost Estimation of plants, Plant layout
and Safety aspects have been discussed.

CONTENTS
S. NO CONTENTS PG NO
1 Introduction 1
2 Properties 5
3 Process description 8
4 Material balance 16
5 Energy balance 25
6 Equipment design 37
7 Process control 46
8 Pollution control 49
9 Cost estimation 56
10 Plant location and site selection 67
5
1.INTRODUCTION
6
INTRODUCTION
Sugar industry is one of the most important agro-based industries in India and
is highly responsible for creating significant impact on rural economy in particular
and country’s economy in general. Sugar industry ranks second amongst major agro-
based industries in India. As per the Government of India’s recent liberalised policy
announced on 12th December, 1986 for licensing of additional capacity for sugar
industries during 7th five-year plan, there will be only one sugar mill in a circular area
of 40 sq km. Also the new sugar mill is allowed with an installation capacity of 2500
TCD (Tonne Sugar Cane crushed per day) as against the earlier capacity norms of
1250 TCD. Similarly, the existing sugar mills with sugar cane capacity of about 3500
TCD can crush sugar cane to the tune of 5000 TCD with a condition imposed that
additional requirement of sugar cane be acquired through increased productivity and
not by expansion of area for growing sugar cane.
Cane sugar is the name given to sucrose, a disaccharide produced from the
sugarcane plant and from the sugar beet. The refined sugars from the two sources are
practically indistinguishable and command the same price in competitive
markets.However, since they come from different plants, the trace constituents are
different and can be used to distinguish the two sugars. One effect of the difference is
the odor in the package head space, from which experienced sugar workers can
identify the source.
In the production scheme for cane sugar, the cane cannot be stored for more
than a few hours after it is cut because microbiological action immediately begins to
degrade the sucrose. This means that the sugar mills must be located in the cane
fields. The raw sugar produced in the mills is item of international commerce. Able to
be stored for years, it is handled as raw material – shipped at the lowest rates directly
in the holds of ships or in dump trucks or railroad cars and pushed around by
bulldozers. Because it is not intended to be eaten directly, it is not handled as food.
The raw sugar is shipped to the sugar refineries, which are located in population
centers. There it is refined to a food product, packaged, and shipped a short distance
7
to the market. In a few places, there is a refinery near or even within a raw-sugar mill.
However, the sugar still goes through raw stage.
The principle by-product of cane sugar production is molasses. About 10 –

15% of the sugar in the cane ends up in molasses. Molasses is produced both in the
raw-sugar manufacture and also in refining. The blackstrap or final molasses is about
35 – 40% sucrose and slightly more than 50% total sugars. In the United States,
blackstrap is used almost entirely for cattle feed. In some areas, it is fermented and
distilled to rum or industrial alcohol. The molasses used for human consumption is of
a much higher grade, and contains much more sucrose.
Sugarcane characteristics:
Sugarcane contains not only sucrose but also numerous other dissolved
substances, as well as cellulose or woody fibre. The percentage of sugar in the cane
varies from 8 to 16% and depends to a great extent on the variety of the cane, its
maturity, condition of the soil, climate and agricultural practices followed. The
constituents of ripe cane vary widely in different countries and regions but fall
generally within the following limits:
Constituent Percentage range
Water 69.0 – 75.0
Sucrose 8.0 – 16.0
Reducing sugars 0.5 – 2.0
Organic matter other than sugar 0.5 – 1.0
Inorganic compounds 0.2 – 0.6
Nitrogenous bodies 0.5 – 1.0
Ash 0.3 – 0.8
Fibre 10.0 – 16.0
8
Organic matters other than sugar include proteins, organic acids,
pentosan,colouring matter and wax. Organic acids present in cane are glycolic acid,
malic acid, succinic acid and small quantity of tannic acid, butyric acid and aconitic
acid. These vary from 0.5 to 1.0% of the cane by weight. The organic compounds are
made up of phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and silicates of sodium,
potassium, calcium,magnesium and iron chiefly. These are present from 0.2 to
0.6%.The nitrogenous bodies are albuminoid, amides, amino acids, ammonia,
xanthine bases, etc. These are present to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0%. Fibre is the
insoluble substance in the cane. Dry fibre contains about 18.0% lignin, 15% water-
soluble substances, 45% cellulose and the rest hemicellulose.The juice expressed from
the cane is an opaque liquid covered with froth due to air bubbles entangled in it. The
colour of the juice varies from light grey to dark green. Colouring matter is so
complex that very little is known about them and there is a great need for research in
this direction. ‘Colouring matters’ consist of chlorophyll, anthocyanin, saccharatin
and tannins. Canes which have been injured or which are over-ripe contain ordinarily
invert sugar as well. When severe frost damages sugarcane, all buds are killed and the
stalk split. Then the juice produced has low purity, less sucrose, high titrable acidity,
and abnormal amounts of gum, which make processing difficult and at times
impossible. Frost is generally not a very common phenomenon in Indian crops.
Insects and pests cause a greater damage. Cane juice has an acidic reaction. It has a
pH of about 5.0. The cane juice is viscous owing to the presence of colloids. The
colloids are particles existing in a permanent state of fine dispersion and they impart
turbidity to the juice. These colloids do not settle ordinarily unless conditions are
altered. The application of heat or addition of chemicals brings about flocculation or
coagulation. They may be coagulated by the action of electric current and adsorption
by sucrose attractions using porous or flocculent material. Some colloids are
flocculated easily while others do so with great difficulty. Each colloid has a
characteristic ‘pH’ at which flocculation occurs most easily. It is known as the
isoelectric point of the colloid. The cane juice is turbid owing to the presence of such
colloidal substances as waxes, proteins, pentosans, gums, starch and silica.
9
2.PROPERTIES
10
PROPERTIES
Physical properties
Molecular weight 342
Specific heat capacity 0.28 kcal/kg
Density 1.63 g/cm^3
Melting point 184 centigrade
Specific gravity 1.58056
Solubility
Temperature sucrose g/100 water
0 180.9
10 188.4
20 199.4
30 214.3
40 233.4
50 257.6
60 324.6
11
Chemical properties
Hydrolysis
Sucrose is easily hydrolyed in the presence of hydrogen ion,ammonium ion

and certain enzymes all acting as catalysts to a mixture of d-glucose and d-fructose
called”invert suger”because of a reversal in direction of optical rotation.
Oxidation
Vigorous oxidation of sucrose with strong nitric acid produes equimolar

quantities of oxalic acid and tartanic acid.when the oxidation with nitric acid is carried
out in the presence of sodium metavanadate.
Hydrogenation
In the presence of raney-nickel catalyst inverted sucroses is hydrogenated to a

mixture to a sorbitol and d-mannitol.
Hydrogenolysis
Under more drastic conditions the sugar chain are severed and good yields of
glycerol and propylene glycol are formed.
Alkaline degradation
Sucroses autoclaved with aqueous calcium hydroxide yields up to 70%of

lactic acid.
Acid degradation
Hot mineral convert sucrose to 5-hydroxy methyl-furfural.by variation ,the

reaction can yield equimolar amounts of levulic and formic acids.
12
3.PROCESS DESCRIPTION
13
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
At the sugar factory, the cane is piled as reserve supply in the cane yard so that
the factory, which runs, 24 hr/day will always have cane to grind. The delivery of the
cane to the factory depends upon the time of day, weather, and some other factors.
Very closely controlled operations never have more than a few hours worth of cane in
the cane yard, but more generally, the cane yard is fairly full toward evening and
nearly empty the next morning. The cane is moved from the cane yard or directly
from the transport to one of the cane table. Feed chains on the tables move the cane
across the tables to the main cane carrier, which runs at constant speed carrying the
cane into the factory.
The operator manipulates the speed of the various tables to keep the main
carrier evenly filled.In order to remove as much dirt and trash as possible, the cane
washed on the main carrier with as much water as is available. This includes
decirculated wash water and all of the condenser water. Of the order of 1 –2 % of the
sugar in the cane is washed out and lost in the washing, but it is considered
advantageous to wash. In areas where there are rocks in the cane, it is floated through
the so- called mud bath to help separate the rocks. The sugar recovered is normally
10-wt % of the cane, with some variation from region to region. Sugar cane has the
distinction of producing the heaviest yield of all crops, both in weight of biomass and
in weight of useful product per unit area of land.
Extraction of juice:
The juice is extracted from the cane either by milling, in which the cane is
pressed between the heavy rolls, or by diffusion, in which the sugar is leached out
with water. In either case, the cane is prepared by breaking into pieces measuring a
few centimeters. In the usual system, the magnets first remove the tramp iron, and the
cane then passes through two sets of rotating knives. The first set, called cane knives
turns at about 700 rpm, cuts the cane into pieces of 1 – 2 dm length, splits it up a bit,
and also act as a leveler to distribute the cane more evenly on the carrier. The second
set, called shredder knives turn faster and combine a cutting and a hammer action by
having a closer clearance with the housing. These quite thoroughly cutter and shred
the cane into a fluffy mat of pieces a few centimeters in the largest dimensions. In
14
preparing cane for diffusion, it is desirable to break every plant cell. Therefore the
cane for diffusion is put through an even finer shredder called a buster or fiberizer. No
juice is extracted in the shredders. In milling, the cane then goes to the crusher rolls,
which are similar to the mills, but have only two rolls, which have large teeth and are
widely spaced. These complete the breaking up of the cane to pieces of the order of 1
– 3 cm. The large amount of juice is removed here.
Milling:
The prepared cane passes through a series of mills called a tandem or milling
train. These mills are composed of massive horizontal cylinders or rolls in groups of
three, one on the top and two on the bottom in the triangle formation. The rolls are 50
–100 cm diameter and 1 –3 m long and have grooves that are 2 –5 cm wide and deep
around them. There may be anywhere from 3 – 7 of these 3 roll mills in tandem,
hence the name. These mills, together with their associated drive and gearing, are
among the most massive machinery used by industry. The bottom two rolls are fixed,
and the top is free to move up and down. The top roll is hydraulically loaded with a
force equivalent about 500 t. The rolls turn at 2 – 5 rpm, and the velocity of the cane
through them is 10- 25cm/s.
After passing through the mill, the fibrous residue, from the cane, called
bagassae, is carried to the next mill by bagassae carriers and is directed from the first
squeeze in a mill to the second by turn plate. In order to, achieve a good extraction, a
system of imbibition is used, bagassae going to the final mill is sprayed with water to
extract whatever sucrose remains; the resultant juice from the last mill is then sprayed
on the bagasse mat going to the next to last mill, and so on. The combination of all
these juices is collected from the first mill and is mixed with the juice from the
crusher. The result is called the mixed juice and is the material that goes forward to
make the sugar. The mills are powered with individual steam turbines. The exhaust
steam from the turbines is used to evaporate water from the cane juice. The capacity
of the sugarcane mills is 30 – 300 t of cane per hour.
15
Bagasse:
The bagasse from the last mill is about 50-wt% water and will burn
directly.Diffusion bagasse is dripping wet and must be dried in a mill or some sort of
bagasse press. Most bagasse is burned in the boilers that run the factories.
Clarification:
The juice from either milling or diffusion is about 12 – 18% solids, 10 – 15

pol (polarization) (percent sucrose), and 70 – 85% purity. These figures depend upon
geographical location, age of cane, variety, climate, cultivation, condition of juice
extraction system, and other factors. As dissolved material, it contains in addition to
sucrose some invert sugar, salts, silicates, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and organic
acids; the pH is 5.5 – 6.5. It carries suspension cane fibre, field soil, silica,
bacteria,yeasts, molds, spores, insect parts, chlorophyll, starch, gums, waxes, and fats.
It looks brown and muddy with a trace of green from the chlorophyll. In the juice
from the mill, the sucrose is inverting (hydrolyzing to glucose and fructose) under the
influence of native invertase enzyme or an acid pH. The first step of processing is to
stop the inversion by raising the pH to 7.5 and heating to nearly 100oC to inactivate
the enzyme and stop microbiological action. At the same time, a large fraction of the
suspended material is removed by settling. The cheapest source of hydroxide is lime,
and this has the added advantage that calcium makes many insoluble
salts.Clarification by heat and lime, a process called defecation, was practiced in
Egypt many centuries ago and remains in many ways the most effective means of
purifying the juice. When the mud settles poorly, polyelectrolyte flocculants such as
polyacrylamides are sometimes used.The heat and high Ph serve to coagulate
proteins, which are largely removed in clarification. The equipment used for
clarification is of the Dorr clarifier type. It consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel
composed of a number of trays with conical bottoms stacked one over the other. The
limed raw juice enters the centre of each tray and flows toward the circumference. A
sweep arm in each tray turns quite slowly and sweeps the settled mud toward a central
mud outlet. The clear juice from the top circumference overflows into a header.
Diffusion juice contains less suspended solids than mill juice. In many diffusion
operations, some or all of the clarification is carried out in the diffuser by adding lime.
The mud from clarification is removed. The mud mostly consists of field soil and very
16
fined divided fibre. It also contains nearly all the protein (0.5 wt% of the juice solids)
and cane wax. The mud is returned to the fields. Although the clarification removes
most of the mud, the resulting juice is not necessarily clear. The equipment is often
run at beyond its capacity and control slips a little so that the clarity of the clarified
juice is not optimum. Suspended solids that slip past the clarifiers will be in the sugar.
Clarified juice is dark brown. The colour is darker than raw juice because the initial
heating causes significant darkening.
Evaporation:
Cane juice has sucrose concentration of normally 15%. The solubility of

sucrose in water is about 72%. The concentration of sucrose must reach the solubility
point before crystals can start growing. This involves the removal by evaporation of
93% of the water in the cane juice. Since water has the largest of all latent heats of
vaporization, this involves a very large amount of energy. In the energy crunch of the
late 1970s, the DOE found that the sugar industry was one of the largest users of
energy. The sugar industry already knew this very well and had been using multiple-
effect evaporators for saving energy for more than a century. The working of
multiple-effect evaporator can be seen in fig. In each succeeding effect, the vapours
from the previous effect are condensed to supply heat. This works only because each
succeeding effect is operating at a lower pressure and hence boils at lower
temperature.The result is that 1 kg of steam is used to evaporate 4 kg of water. The
steam used is exhaust steam from the turbines in the mill or turbines driving electrical
generators. The steam has therefore already been used once and here in the second use
it is made to give fourfold duty. The usual evaporator equipment is a vertical body
juice-in-tube unit. Several variations are in use, but the result is the same. The only
auxiliary equipment is the vacuum pump. Today, steam-jet-ejectors are general,
although mechanical pumps were formerly used. Since the cane juice contains
significant amounts of inorganic ions, including calcium and sulfate, the heating
surfaces are quick to scale and require frequent cleaning. In difficult cases, the heating
surfaces must be cleaned every few days. This requires shutting down the whole mill
or at least one heat-exchanger unit while the cleaning is done. Inhibited hydrochloric
acid or mechanical cleaners are usually employed.
17
Magnesium oxide is sometimes used instead of lime as a source of hydroxide.
Magnesium costs more, but it makes less boiler scale on the heaters. It is also easier to
remove because it is more soluble; however, for the same reason, more gets into the
sugar. Whether it is used or not depends upon the influence, standing, and
persuasiveness of the chief engineer who must keep the plant running and the chief
chemist who must make good sugar.The evaporation is carried on to a final brix of 65
– 68. The juice, after evaporation, is called syrup and is very dark brown, almost
black, and a little turbid.
Vacuum pans:
Vacuum pans have a small heating element in comparison to the very large
liquor and vapour space above it. The heating element was formerly steam coils but is
now usually a chest of vertical tubes called calandria. The sugar is inside the tubes.
There is a large center opening (downcomer) for circulation. The vacuum pan has a
very large discharge opening: typically 1 m dia. At the end of a strike, the massecuite
contains more crystals than syrup and is therefore very viscous.This large opening is
required to empty the pan in a reasonable time. At the top or down of the pan, there
are viscous entrainment separators. The pan may also be equipped with a
mechanicalstirrer. This is usually an impeller in or below the central downcomer,
driven by shaft coming down all the way from the top. The strike is started with liquor
just above the top of the calandria. The strike level cannot be very near the top
because of vapour space must be allowed for separation of entrainment. In operation,
the boiling is very vigorous with much splashing of liquid. The vacuum is maintained
mostly by condensing the vapours in a barometric condenser. In some cases, a surface
condenser is used. This serves as a source of distilled water and recovers heat. More
often, however, a jet condenser is used in which the cold condensing water is sprayed
into the hot vapour and both condensate and condenser water are mixed. A
supplementary vacuum pump is required to remove non condensable gases.
Centrifuging:
The massecuites from the vacuum pans enter a holding tank called a mixer
that has a very solely turning paddle to prevent the crystals from settling. The mixer is
18
a feed for the centrifuges. In a batch-type centrifuge, the mother liquor is separated
from the crystals in batches of about 1 t at a time.
Boiling systems:
In raw-sugar manufacture, the first strike of sugar is called the A strike, and
the mother liquor obtained from this strike from the centrifuges is called A molasses.
The pan yield in sugar boiling is about 50%. Because crystallization is an efficient
purification process, the product sugar is much purer than the cane juice and the
molasses much less pure. As an approximation, crystallization reduces the impurities
by factor of 10 or more in the product sugar. Therefore, almost all of the impurities
remain in the molasses. Enough molasses accumulates from boiling two first strikes to
boil a second strike. The B sugar from the second strike is only half as pure as that
from the first strike,but the B molasses is twice as impure. This can go on to a third
strike. At this point, 7/8 of the sugar from the cane juice is in the form of crystals and
1/8 in the C molasses. In practice, three strikes is about all that can be gotten from
cane juice. The trick is to maneuver to obtain good sugar, but at the same time have
the C or final molasses as impure as possible. The purity of the feed to the final strike
is adjusted to obtain the lowest possible purity of final molasses. Some of the C sugar
is redissolved and started over, some is used as footing for A and B strikes. The C
sugar is of very small crystal size so it is taken into the A or B pans as seed and grown
to an acceptable size. This practice is actually a step backward because it hides
impure C sugar in the center of better A and B sugars. The product raw sugar is a
mixture of A and B sugars. There are many variations in the boiling scheme, such as
two and four billings, blending molasses, and returning molasses to the same strike
from which it came. All of these tricks are used, depending on cane purity and
capabilities of the equipment available.
Coolers:
When the steam is turned off at the end of a sugar boiling, evaporation ceases
immediately and the mixture of crystals and supersaturated syrup in the pan starts
toward equilibrium, which is the point of saturation. In relatively pure sugar solutions,
this equilibrium is reached in few minutes well before the syrup crystallization is
slower and reaching equilibrium can take a significant amount of time. In the final
19
strike, the time an amount to days, so final strikes are not sent directly to the
centrifuges, but instead to crystallize, holding tank is in which the crystals grow as
much as possible and the super saturation in the molasses is reduced to 1.0. Since the
intention in handling the final molasses is to remove as much sugar as possible,
advantage is taken of the small temperature coefficient of solubility and the
massecuite is also cooled. The crystallizers are large tanks, some open-top, with a
slow-moving stirrer that is sometimes also a cooling coil. At the end of the holding
time, the massecuite is warmed slightly as it enters the centrifuge to lower the
viscosity and achieve better separation. The limiting factor in exhaustion of masses is
the viscosity. A little more water can always be boiled out, but the molasses must
remain fluid enough to run out of the pan, into the centrifuge and to flow between the
sugar crystals on the centrifuge screens.
Packing, storing and shipping:
Sugar is sometimes stored in bulk and then packaged as needed. Others

package the sugar and then warehouse the packages. The present trend is away from
consumer sized packages and toward bulk shipments.
20
4. MATERIAL BALANCE
21
MATERIAL BALANCE
BASIS – 100 TONS/DAY OF SUGAR CANE
MILLING
Cane – 100 tons Juice – 105 tons
Water – 70 tons MILLING solid – 15 tons
Solid – 16 tons water – 90 tons
Fibre – 14 tons Bagasse – 30 tons
Solid – 1 ton
Water – 15 tons
Fibre – 14 tons
Cane + water = Juice + bagasse
100 35 105 30
Total inlet – 135 tons Total outlet – 135 tons
RAW JUICE HEATER
Juice – 105 tons Raw Juice – 105 tons

Juice Heater
Solid- 15 tons Solid- 15 tons
Water – 90 tons Water – 90 tons
Total inlet – 105 tons Total outlet- 105 tons
22
JUICE SULPHITOR
Juice – 105 tons Juice Juice – 105 tons

Sulphitor
Water – 90 tons water- 90 tons
Lime – 0.05 ton lime – 0.05 ton
So2 – 0.02 ton so2 – 0.02 ton
Lime – (0.05 x(100/100))= 0.05 ton
So 2 - (0.02 x(100/100))= 0.02 tons
Total inlet – 105.07 tons Total outlet – 105.07 tons
JUICE HEATER
Juice – 105.07 tons juice – 105.07 tons
Solid- 15 tons Juice Heater Solid- 15 tons
So2 – 0.02 ton so2 – 0.02 ton
23
JUICE CLARIFIER
Juice – 105.07 tons Juice – 101.57 tons

Juice clarifier
Solid- 15 tons Solid- 14.195 tons
Water – 90 tons Water- 87.375 tons
Lime – 0.05 ton
So2 – 0.02 ton Cake – 3.5 tons
Solid – 0.815 ton
Water - 2.625 tons
Lime & So2 – 0.06 ton
EVAPORATOR 1
Vapour – 21.355 tons(82.50-63.09)
86 % water 65 % water

Evap
1
Solid- 14.195tons Solid- 14.195 tons
Water – 87.375 tons water-66.02 tons
Water –(0.65 x101.57= 66.02 tons)
Total inlet – 101.57 tons Total outlet – 80.21(101.57- 21.355)
24
EVAPORATOR 2
Vapour – 10.1tons(87.375-55.86)
65%water 55 % water

Evap
2
Water – 66.02 tons water-55.86tons
Water – (0.55 x101.57= 55.86 tons)
Total inlet – 80.21tons Total outlet – 67.94tons(80.21- 10.16)
EVAPORATOR 3
Vapour – 10.16tons(55.86-45.70)

Evap
Solid- 14.195tons 3 Solid- 14.195 tons
Water – 55.86 tons Water-45.70 tons
Water –(0.45 x101.57= 45.70 tons)
Total inlet – 67.94 tons Total outlet – 59.89 tons(67.94-10.16)
25
EVAPORATOR 4
Vapour – 5.08 tons(45.70-40.62)

Evap
4
Water – 45.70 tons Water – 40.62tons
Water – (0.40 x101.57= 40.63tons)
VACUUM PAN A
Vapour – 30.47tons(45.70-40.62)

Vac
pan A
Water – 40.62 tons water – 10.15tons
Water –(0.15 x101.57= 10.15tons)
26
VACUUM PAN B
Vapour – 8.07 tons(14.533-6.7914)
2% water

Vac
pan B
Water –(0.02 x101.57= 2.06tons)
Total inlet – 15.01tons Total outlet – 6.945 tons(15.01-8.07)
VACUUM PAN C
Vapour – 1.28 tons(2- 0.72)
Solid- 3.642ons Vac Solid- 3.642 tons

pan C
27
CENTRIFUGAL A
Solid – 14.195 tons Centrifugal Molasses – 15.02 tons

A
Water – 10.15 tons Water – 10.10 tons
Solid – 4.915 tons
Crystal sugar – 9.25 tons
Sugar loss – 0.03 ton
Outlet – 9.3tons(9.25+0.05)
Outlet – 15.025tons(10.10+4.915)
Inlet – 24.34tons(10.15 + 14.195 ) Total –24.34tons(15.02+9.3+0.03)
CENTRIFUGAL B
Solid – 4.195 tons Molasses – 10.662 tons

Centrifugal
B
Water – 2.030 tons Water – 2.000 tons
Solid – 3.642 tons
Crystal sugar – 1.253 tons
Sugar loss – 0.02 ton
Outlet – 3.15tons(3.1+0.05)
Outlet – 10.662tons(6.7414+3.921)
Inlet – 6.945tons(4.915+2.030 ) Total – 6.945(1.283+5.642+0.02)
28
CENTRIFUGAL C
Solid – 3.642tons Molasses – 3.5 tons

Centrifugal
Water – 0.72 tons C Water – 0.7 tons
Solid – 2.8 tons
Crystal sugar – 0.832tons
` Sugar loss – 0.01 ton
Inlet – 4.362tons(0.72 + 3.642 ) Total – 4.362tons(0.852+3.5+0.01 )
CONVEYOR
Sugar 1 – 9.3 tons

Conveyor
Sugar 2 - 1.283 tons SUGAR – 11.435tons
Sugar 3 - 0.852 tons
(9.3 + 1.283 + 0.852 )= 11.435
DRYER
Moisture – 0.04 ton
Sugar – 11.435 SUGAR – 11.395 tons

Dryer
Moisture – 0.1 tons Moisture – 0.06 tons
Hot air – 0 %moisture content
29
5. ENERGY BALANCE
30
ENERGY BALANCE
RAW JUICE HEATER
Juice – 105 tons Raw Juice – 105 tons

Juice Heater
Water – 90 tons Water – 90 tons
Total inlet – 105 tons Total outlet- 105 tons
Cp of sucrose (solid) 0.299 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of solid in 15 x 0.299(32-25) x103 = 31395kcal
Enthalpy of water in 90 x 0.999(32-25) x 103 = 629370kcal
Enthalpy of solid out 15 x 0.299(71-25) x 103 = 206310kcal
Enthalpy of water out 90 x 0.999(71-25) x 103 = 4156560kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out 0
Total enthalpy in 660765(31395+629370)kcal
Total enthalpy out 4362870(206310+4156560)kcal
Mass total steam required 8071.9149(3702105/540.5)kcal
Total heat required 3702105(total E out-total E in)kcal
31
JUICE SULPHITOR
Juice – 105 tons Juice – 105 tons

JUICE
Solid- 15 tons SULPHITOR Solid- 15 tons
So2 – 0.02 ton so2 – 0.02 ton
Enthalpy of solid in 15 x 0.299(71-25) x 103 = 206310kcal
Cp of Ca(oH)2 21.4cal/mol – 21.4/74 = 0.289kcal/kg
Enthalpy of Ca(oH)2 in 0.05 x0.289(71-25) x 103 = 664.7kcal
Cp of So2 7.7+0.0053T-0.00000083T-2
=8.072 cal/mol
= 8.072/64 kcal/kg
=0.126 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of So2 in 0.02 x 0.126(71-25) x 103 = 115.92kcal/kg
Enthalpy of solid out 15.07 x0.299(70-25) x 103 = 202766.85kcal
Total enthalpy in 4363650.62 kcal
Total enthalpy out 4268966.85kcal
Total heat required 94683.77kcal(total E out-total E in)
32
JUICE HEATER
Solid- 15 tons Juice Heater Solid- 15 tons
So2 – 0.02 ton so2 – 0.02 ton
Enthalpy of solid in 15.07 x0.299(70-25) x103 = 202766.85kcal
Enthalpy of water in 90 x1.004(70-25) x103 = 4066200kcal
Enthalpy of solid out 15.07 x 0.299(103-25) x103 = 351462.54kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out 0
Total enthalpy in 4268966.85kcal
Total enthalpy out 7455702.54kcal
Mass total steam required 5895.9032kg
Total heat required 3186735.69kcaltotal E out-total E in)
33
JUICE CLARIFIER

JUICE
Solid- 15 tons CLARIFIER Solid- 14.195 tons
Water – 90 tons Water- 87.375 tons
Lime – 0.05 ton
So2 – 0.02 ton Cake – 3.5 tons
Solid – 0.815 ton
Water - 2.625 tons
Lime & so2 – 0.06 ton
Enthalpy of solid in 15.07 x 0.299(103-25) x 103 = 349830kcal
Enthalpy of solid out 14.195 x 0.299(102-25) x 103 = 326696.37kcal
Enthalpy of water out 87.375 x1.012(102-25) x 103 = 6808609.5kcal
Enthalpy of mud juice out 3.44 x0.126 x(102-25) x 103 = 33.3748 x103 kcal
Enthalpy of Lime out 0.045x 0.289(102-25)x103 = 1.0013 x103 kcal
Enthalpy of so2 out 1.3987 x 102 kcal
Total Enthalpy in 7397.91 x103 kcal
Total Enthalpy out 7171.0803 x103 kcal
Total heat released 226.8297 x103 kcal
34
EVAPORATOR 1
Vapour – 21.355 tons(82.50-63.09)

Evap
Solid- 14.195tons 1 Solid- 14.195 tons
Water – 87.375 tons Water-66.02 tons
Clear juice in –
Hf = mCp∆t
∆T = 102-102 = 0
Cp = 0.96 kcal/kg
M = 101.57 ton
Hf = 0
Similarly Hp = 0
Enthalpy of steam in Sλs
Latent heat at 126 C 540. 5 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of vapor out mλ
Enthalpy at 102 536.45 kcal/kg = 21.355 x 536.45

= 11455.88 x 103 kcal
Balance equation
Hf + Sλ = Hp + mλ
0 + S x540.5 = 0 + 11455.88
S = 21.9498 x 103 kg
35
EVAPORATOR 2
Vapour – 10.16 tons(87.375-55.86)

Evap
2
Water – 66.02 tons Water-55.86tons
Hf = mcp∆t
Cp = 0.96 kcal /kg
∆T = 107-78 = 24
Hf = 80.21 x 0.96 x24 = 1848.03 x 10 3 kcal
Enthalpy of vapor in V1 λv
Λv = 536.45 V1 x 536.45
Hp = mcp∆t ---∆t=0
Enthalpy of vapor out m λv
10.16 x531.11 = 5396.07 x 103 kcal
Balance equation :-
Hf + mλ = Hp + vapor out enthalpy
1848.03 x 10 + V1 x 536.45 = 0 + 5396.07 x 103
V1 = 6.613 x 103 kg
36
EVAPORATOR 3
Vapour – 10.16tons(55.86-45.70)
Evap
3
Water – 55.86 tons water-45.70 tons
Hf = mcp∆t
Cp = 0.96 kcal /kg
∆T = 66-55 = 11
Hf = 59.89x 0.96 x11 = 632.43 x 10 3 kcal
Λv = 531.11
V1 x 531.11
Hp = mcp∆t ---∆t=0
= 10.16 x529.18 = 5376.46x 103 kcal
Balance equation :-
806.976 x 103 + V1 x 531.11 = 0 + 5376.46 x 103
V1 = 8.603 x 103 kg
37
EVAPORATOR 4
Vapour – 5.08 tons(45.70-40.62)

Evap
4
Water – 45.70 tons Water – 40.62tons
Hf = mcp∆t
Cp = 0.96 kcal /kg
T = 78-66 = 12
Hf = 70.05 x 0.96 x12 = 806.97 x 10 3 kcal
Λv = 534.211
=V1 x 534.211
Hp = mcpt ---t=0
= 5.08 x529.18 = 2683.51x 103 kcal
Balance equation :-
632.43 x 103 + V1 x 534.211 = 0 + 2683.51 x 103
V1 = 3.8394 x 103 kg
38
VACUUM PAN A
Vapour – 30.47tons(45.70-40.62)
Water – 40.62 tons Vac water – 10.15tons

pan A
Enthalpy of juice in = mcpΔt
= 54.81 x0.96 x(55-25)
= 1578.528 x 10 kcal
Vapor in = Sλ = S(540.5)
Enthalpy of juice out = enthalpy of crystallization + sensible heat
= (9.3 x 526) + (14.995 x0.96x(60-25)
= 5395.632 x 10 3 kcal
Vapor out = 30.46 x 540.5
= 16463.63 x 10 3 kcal
Heat balance
1578.528 x 103 + 540.5 S = 5395.632 x 103 + 16463.63
S = 37.5221 x 10 3 kg
39
VACUUM PAN B
Vapour – 8.07 tons(14.533-6.7914)
2% water

Vac
pan B
= 15.015 x0.96 x(60-25)
= 1578.528 x 10 kcal
= (1.283 x 526) + (5.632 x0.96x(65-25))
= 891.1268 x 10 3 kcal
Vapor out = 30.46 x 540.5
= 4071.315 x 10 3 kcal
Heat balance
504.504 x 103 +540.5 S = 891.1268 x 103 +4071.315
S = 8.8363 x 10 3 kg
40
VACUUM PAN C
Vapour – 1.28 tons(2- 0.72)
Solid- 3.642ons Solid- 3.642 tons

Vac
pan C
Water – 2.000 tons water – 0.72ton
= 5.642 x0.96 x(70-25)
= 243.734 x 10 kcal
= (0.832x 526) + (3.51 x0.96x(70-25)
= 589.264 x 10 3 kcal
Vapor out = 1.28 x 540.5
= 645.76 x 10 3 kcal
Heat balance
243.734 x 103 + 540.5 S = 589.264 x 103 + 645.76
S = 37.5221 x 10 3 kg
41
6. EQUIPMENT DESIGN
42
EVAPORATOR DESIGN
Feed to the first effect F = 101.57 tons/day
= 1.1756 kg/s
Liquid out from last effect = 54.81 tons/day
= 0.6261 kg/s
Evaporator load = 1.1756 – 0.6261
= 0.5495 kg/s
EFFECT Liquid out (Kg/s) Vapour out (Kg/s)
1 L1 = 0.9283 V1 = 0.2471
2 L2 = 0.7863 V2 = 0.1175
3 L3 = 0.6932 V3 = 0.1175
4 L4 = 0.6343 V4 = 0.0588
To calculate ∆T :-
Steam at 1st effect
Ps = 1.634 bar
T1s = 126 C
Pr in fourth effect = 660mmHg->0.1356 bar
T5s = 55 C
Therefore ∆T = T1s – T5s->126 – 55 = 71 C
Calculate ∆t in each effect :-
q1 = q2 =q3 =q4
u1A1∆T1 = u2A2∆T2= u3A3∆T3= u4A4∆T4
Usually the areas in all the effects are equal
Therefore
u1∆T1 = u2∆lT2= u3∆T3= u4∆T4
43
According to Hugot the overall heat transfer coefficent in each effects are given as
Effect 1 2 3 4
U(Btu/hr ft F) 400-500 275-375 200-275 125-150
Assuming overall heat transfer coefficient in each effect as follows
Effect 1 2 3 4
U(Btu/hr ft F) 450 325 250 140
U(W/m2 K) 2555 1845 1420 795
∆T2 /∆ T1 = U1/U2
∆T2 / ∆T1 = (2555/1845) = 1.385
∆T2 = 1.385 ∆T1
∆T3 / ∆T2 = U2/U3
∆T3 / ∆T2 =(1845/1420) = 1.299
∆T3 = 1.299 ∆T2
∆T4 / ∆T3 = U3/U4
∆T4 / ∆T3 =(1420/795) = 1.7862
∆T4 = 1.7862 Del T3
t1 + t2 +t3 +t4 = 71 C
t1 (1+1.385+1.299x1.385+1.299x1.385x1.7862) = 71
t1 = 71/7.58 = 9.37 C
t2 = 1.385 x t1 = 12.98 C
t2 = 1.299 x t2 = 16.87 C
t4 = 1.786 x t3 = 30.13 C
Steam S = 21.9498 tons/day = 0.2540 kg/s
To calculate area in each effect :-
44
Enthalpy 1s = 2218.2 KJ/kg
q1 = S x Enthalpy 1s
=0.2540 x2218.2
=563.4228 Kw
q2 = V1 x Enthalpy 2s
=0.2471 x 2246.02
=554.9915 Kw
=0.1175 x 2272.21
=266.9846 Kw
=0.1175 x 2315.66
=272.09 Kw
A1 = (q1/u1t1)
= 563.4228 x (103 /2555 x 282.37)
= 0.7809 m2
A2 = (q2/U2t2)
= 554.9915 x (103 /1845 x 285.98)
= 1.0518 m2
A3 = (q3/u3t3) t3--16.87 C = 289.87 K
= 266.9846 x (103 /1420 x 289.87)
= 0.6486 m2
A4 = ( q4/u4t4)
45
= 272.09 x (103 /795 x 303.13)
= 1.1290 m2
Detailed design :- Evaporators are designed
On the basis of the highest heating area
Hence area of each effect = 1.1290 m2
Let us select 50 mm O.D(40mm I.D) tubes each of 2m arranged on 65mm sq.pitch.
N =No of tubes in the chest
3.14 xDo x L x N = 1.1290
3.14(0.05) 2 N = 1.1290
N= 3.6 = 4
Down take area(Ad)
Ad = (3.14/4) D2i N x 0.17
= (3.14/4)(0.04)2 x 4 x 0.75
= 0.004 m2
Diameter of downtake
= sq root of( Ad x 4/3.14)
= sq root of (0.004 x 4/3.14)
=0.071 m
Annular area = Np2t
=4 x (0.065)2
= 0.02 m2
Height of evaporator = 3 x tube length
= 3 x 2 = 6m
Surface area of each tube a = 3.14 x d0 x L
= 3.14 x 0.05 x 2
=0.314 m2
46
Area occupied by tubes = N x (1/2) x P2t x sin α
α = 60
=4 x (1/2) x 90.065)2 x 0.866
=0.0073 m2
But actual area is more than this.
Hence this area is to be divided by factor which varies from 0.8 to 1.0.
Let this factor be 0.9
Therfore actual area required = (0.0073/0.9) Æ0.0081m2
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downtake area +area occupied by tubes
= 0.004 + 0.0081
= 0.0121 m2
Thus tube sheet diameter = sq root of (4 x area of tube sheet) /3.14
Evaporator diameter = 0.1241m
Design specification :-
Evaprator height = 6m
Evaporatr diameter = 0.1241m
47
CENTRIFUGAL DESIGN
Gravity factor = centrifugal force/gravitational force
G = mw2r/mg
M – is the mass
W – is the angular velocity
r- is the radius of the basket of the centrifugal machine
g- is the gravitational force = 9.81 m/s2
Angular velocity (w) = (2x3.14 x r.p.m of the machine)/60
Centrifugal force mw2r = (m x (2 x 3.14 x r.p.m) 2x r)/602
Therefore Gravity factor (G) = (m x (2x3.14 x r.p.m)2x r)/(m x 9.81 x 602)
G = (r.p.m) 2 x r / 900
=(r.p.m)2 x d /1800
D= diameter of the basket centrifugal machine.
D iameter will be in the range of (1.05-12.22m)
Assume D= 1.22m, r.p.m = 1500
G= (1500)2 x 1.22/1800 = 1525
Capacity
1.The capacity to handle the quantity of syrup per hour or per cycle
2. capacity of sugar produced/hr or per cycle
The capacity depends on the following screen
a. Surface area of the basket screen

b. Thickness of the massecuite layer over the screen
48
The layer of massecuite is generally 14 to 15% of the diameter of the basket.but
considered for safe working as 10 to 14 %
Hence it is suggested to take the
1. Maximum layer thickness as 0.14D

2. Minimum layer thickness as 0.12D
D = diameter of the basket
Capacity then can be calculated by the formula on volume basis
V = 3.14 x e x H x (D-e) for flat bottom machines
Where
V = volume of massecuite in (dm3) or litres
E = Thickness of massecite in dm3
H = Interior height of the basket in dm
D = Inside diameter of the basket in dm
So e =(0.14 x 1.22)=0.1708m
Assume H = 0.76m ( range from 0.61-0.76m)
V = 3.14 x 0.1708 x 0.76 x (1.22-0.1708)
V = 0.4278 m3 = 428 dm3
Formula may be verified the values given by Hugot very closely to the following
formula
1. Theoretical V = 390 x (1.22)2 x 0.76

= 428m3
2. Practical V = 340 x (1.22)2 x 0.76
= 441 m3
D = diameter of meters
H = Height in meters
49
As per hugot it is assumed that sugar obtained/m3 of massecuite is 800 kg on this
basis and the value given as per Hugot the capacity can be calculated in the formula as
Weight of sugar(kg)/m3 volume of massecuite = 800 x m3 of massecuite as given by
Hugot
So Weight of sugar = 800 x 0.4278
=342.29 kg
Capacity of machine at different size/cycle are in weight of sugar/cycle.
Power requirement
Power required (hp) = D4 x H x (r.p.m)2 x (1+4 x r.p.m) x (105/75)
=(1.22)4 x 0.76 x (1500)2 x (1+4 x 1500)(105/75)
hp = 37.1
1hp = 0.74kw
So power required = 27.8kw
50
7. PROCESS CONTROL
51
PROCESS CONTROL
The even operation of a process is dependent upon the control of the process
variables. when the flowsheet is laid out for the processs, the temperature, pressure
and fluid flow quantites are theoretically fixed in accordance with the heat, pressure
and material balance.The translation of flowsheet into an operable plan requires that
special provision be made to assure the relative constancy of the various quantites and
qualities. Automatic control is employed to measure suppress and correct and modify
changes of four principal types of process variation.
1. Temperature control
2. Pressure control
3. Flow control
4. Level control
It is the objective of all controllers to regulate process variables, and to do so

they must be capable of first measuring the variables. Some instruments are equipped
to indicate the variable in a continuously readable from and others recorders are
equipped with pen and ink on a traveling chart calibrated for time. In modern process
industries,digital control systems(DCS) is used for effective control of process
variables.
Flow metering
The measurement of flow rate is done for the purpose of determining the
properties of the materials introduced, the amount of material evolve by the process.
Secondly flow measurement are made for the purpose of cost accounting usually for
steam and water services. Instruments like ventriument, orificement, rotameter are
used to measure the flow rate.
52
VARIABLE MODE OF CONTROL
Temperature P,PI,PID
Pressure P,PI,PID
Flow P,PI,PID
Control station
Well engineered display is important in individual indicating and recording

instruments becomes crucial in control room design when data on large and often
critical process operations must be used by a human operator. Indicator and recorders
must be coordinated with controls, switches, alarms and auxillary equipments so as to
present a clear easily grasped display of the process condition. There are four essential
parts of every control station. They are
1. Process variable indicator
2. A set point mechanism
3. An adjustment device called manual ,that directly manipulates signal to contol

valves.
4. An output signal indicator.
53
8. POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY
54
POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY
Sugar industry is basically seasonal in nature and operates only for 120 to
200days in a year (early November to April). A significantly large volume of waste is
generated during the manufacture of sugar and contains a high amount of pollutional
load particularly in terms of suspended solids, organic matter, and press mud, bagasse
and air pollutants. Therefore an attempt has been made to present an overview of
waste management in sugar industry in India.
WASTE GENERATION:
(A) WASTEWATER
Mill house: Mill house wastewater is derived from continuous gland cooling
and intermittent floor washing and contains high amounts of oils and grease and sugar
from pills and leaks. Boiler Blow-down: Boiler blow-down is fairly clean water
except that it contains high dissolved solids and phosphates.
Rotary filter: Filter cloth is periodically washed and constituents a source of

waste water.
Condensates: The vapours from the last effect evaporator and pan boiling are
Separately cooled in barometric condensers and the condensate goes to the pond. A
part of the cooled water from the pond is recycled into the sugar mill, but a large
portion is discharged as wastewater. If the mill operates without overloading, the
evaporator and vacuum pan condensate is quite clean and the entire quantity can be
reused. But many a times, overloading and poor operating conditions can lead to
significant sugar losses in the condensates through entrainment and thus polluting the
water.
Occasional Spills and Leaks: Leaks from pumps and pipes in the evaporators
and centrifuge house, along with periodical floor washings, constitute another source
of waste water. Although the flow is intermittent and volume discharged is not large,
it represents the most polluting fraction of sugar mill wastewater.
55
Condensate Washings: Evaporators, juice heaters, pans, etc are cleaned once
in 20 Days for removal of deposited scales. Caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate and
hydrochloric acid are used for scale removal. Normally the caustic soda washings are
stored and reused for cleaning operations. However, in India, most of the sugar mills
discharge these chemicals into the drains. After the equipment is boiled with caustic
soda and rinsed with fresh water, it is cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid using an
inhibitor. The wastewater is discharged into the drains, as the recovery of the
chemicals may not prove to be economical. It is seen that the wastewater has small
organic load but inorganic content may be high to pose a shock-load to wastewater
treatment facility (occasional discharge, once in fortnight). It is suggested to have a
holding tank and mix this wastewater gradually to the final effluent to avoid shock
loading on the treatment plant.
Sulphur and Lime Houses: The washings of sulphur and lime house would
contain a considerable amount of inorganic solids, which include carbonates and
sulphates. The effluents from these two units when combined would give neutral pH
value of waste.This wastewater does not contribute to organic pollution but can be
characterized as inorganic wastewater.
WASTEWATER PARAMETERS
BOD: - This is the measure of the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic

matter.During decomposition, organic effluents exert a BOD that can deplete oxygen
supply BOD is generally measured and expressed in parts per million or milligrams
per litre.The effluents from a raw sugar factory can vary between hundred to several
thousands mg/l.
Dissolved Oxygen: - This is water quality constituent. It is measured and

expressed as parts per million or mg/l.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS): - Suspended solids when they settle form
sludge on the stream, lakebed and they are most damaging to the life in water.The
different modes of disposal of wastes are:
56
1. Disposal into water bodies
2. Evaporation in open pits
3. Disposal into ocean
4. Press mud for fertilizer
5. Bagasse for paper and pulp and fibre
(B) SOLID WASTES
Bagasse: It is estimated that bagasse contributes to 33.3% residue of the total

cane crushed. It has a calorific value of about 1920 kcal/kg and is mainly used as fuel
in boilers for steam generation.
Press Mud: It contains all non-sucrose impurities along with CaCO3

precipitate and sulphate. Press mud from double sulphitation process contains
valuable nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc, and therefore used as
fertilizer. The press mud from double carbonation process is used for land filling and
is not used as manure .
(C) AIR POLLUTANTS
The bagasse, on burning, produces particulates, viz., unburnt fibres, carbon

particles and gaseous pollutants like oxides of nitrogen, water vapour and other
organic compounds. Of the particulate waste, the heavier particles slowly settle down
in the surrounding area. Such dust fall leads to the problems of cleaning, reduction in
property value, effect on vegetation, etc. The main gaseous pollutants are CO, which
is altogether not measured by any unit, and CO2 is reported to be in the range of 12 –
14%.
57
WASTEWATER REDUCTION AND BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY:
The following areas are important to economize the usage of water.
(A) COOLING WATER
1. Mainly used for condenser, bearing cooling, sulphur/lime houses and crystallizer
for formation of crystal
2. In condenser, water gets mixed with vapour. However, adjusting pH along with
make-up water to keep dissolved solids in check can recycle it.
3. Evaporator cooling water contains entrained sugar and acid because of excess of
SO2 and can be recycled. Improvement in the designs of evaporator/pan boiler
can Reduce the loss. Losses will also be due to evaporation, splashing and
percolations.
4. Keeping the temperature of incoming water between 30o and 35oC can reduce
losses due to evaporation. Splashing and percolation can be checked by proper
maintenance.
5. Cooling water for bearings, power generation, etc., can be reused safely.
(B) PROCESS WATER
Sugar mill employs both hot and cold water for its various processes such
asFilter cake washing, lime preparation, dilution for lowering brix, Dilution in
evaporators and pans, Massecuite, Magma making and Crystal washing in
centrifugals.
1. Water requirement before evaporator storage is about 1/5 to ¼ of steam used

whilethat used after evaporator requires approximately equal amounts, as for
steam.Careful attention is required after evaporator stage to control water usage.
2. Hot water can be used in place of cold water to reduce the quantity of steam
required.
3. It is preferable to use 18 – 20% maceration by equally adjusting it from the top

andthe bottom of bagasse bed feeding to the last mill at a pressure of 7 – 14
58
kg/cm2 rather than merely pouring the same at 25 to 30% of cane (about 5 – 7%
water can be saved).
4. If maceration is high enough, there will not be any need of dilution water for
juice.
5. To reduce water quantity, light molasses can be used for magma making.
Washing Water: Wash water may contain sugar and therefore requires
treatment and should not be recycled. Periodic cleaning results in high BOD and it
also contain caustic soda and weak acids. Returning it to the service water tank can
reuse water.
Testing Water: This water is safe for returning it to the service water tank.Oil
and Grease providing suitable oil and grease traps can eliminate this.
Chemical Reuse: The stored and settled supernatant can be reused with a little
addition of fresh caustic soda for next cleaning operation.
Molasses Handling: It is necessary to store molasses in RCC tanks or steel

tanks above ground level. Otherwise, there is a possibility of ground water
contamination.
The high BOD of molasses may cause pollution problems due to mishandling.
(C) PRODUCT RECOVERY
The by-products available from sugar mills are bagasse, furnace ash,
molassesand filter mud. The uses of these by products are given below. If all the by
products are used for transformation into value added products, (resource recovery), it
will minimize the pollution to large extent.
Bagasse: These are used for steam, power, charcoal, briquettes and methane &
producer gas.
Molasses: These are used for fertilizer and cattle feed.
Filter mud: For fertilizer.
Boiler ash: For foundry material.
59
SAFETY:
Sugar in boiler feed water causes water to foam, which will lead accidents. If
notpresent in large quantity. It is decomposed by heat into products that are
detrimental to the tubes and shells of boilers causing pitting and overheating.If sugar
is present in small amounts their traces will be eventually accumulated on the boiler
tubes as a harmful and dangerous carbonaceous deposit. the break down of sugar also
forms harmful organic acids. To prevent this lime is added to feed water to maintain
pH = 8.0. A pronounced odour develops in the steam if boiler water contains sugar.
Under such conditions the contaminated feed water is turned to sewer and the boilers
are blown off. To prevent these hazards tests are conducted to determine amount of
sugar traces in water. The most commonly used tests are Naphthol test and
Aresenomolybdate test.
60
9. COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
61
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
Given in the literature is the cost versus size Nomograph, from which the cost
of cane sugar plant within the crushing capacity between 100 – 500 TPD can be
calculated.
The cost for 5000 TPD crushing capacity plant with Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index (CE) =130 (Basis = 1957 -59; CE = 100) is as follows:
Cost for 100 TPD crushing capacity = Rs. 2.05 x 106
To find present cost:
A cost index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the
cost at that time relative to a certain base time. If the cost at some time in past is
known, the equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the
original cost by the ratio of the present index value to the index value applicable when
the original cost was obtained.
Obtained from the Internet that Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index is
given as:
Cost index in 2002 = 402
Original cost value is obtained when cost index was 130.
Thus,
Present cost of Plant = (original cost) x {(present cost index)/(past cost index)}
= (2.05 x 106) (402/130) = Rs. 6.34 x106
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Rs. 6.34 x106
Generally fixed capital investment cost is 85% of total capital investment.
Therefore Total Capital Investment = (FCI)/0.85 = Rs 7.457 x 106
62
Estimation of Total Capital Investment Cost:
(I) Direct Costs:
(A) Material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-85% of
fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +

painting
(50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)
a. Purchased equipment cost (PEC):
RANGE = 15-40% of Fixed-capital investment
Let Purchased Equipment Cost = 30% of Fixed-capital investment
PEC = 30% of Rs. 6.34 x106
= Rs. 1.902 x106
b. Installation, including insulation and painting:
RANGE = 25-55% of purchased equipment cost.
Let Installation Cost = 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.6657 x106
c. Instrumentation and controls, installed:
RANGE = 6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.
Let Instrumentation Cost = 10% of Purchased equipment cost
= 10% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.1902 x106
63
d. Piping Installed:
RANGE = 10-80% of Purchased equipment cost
Let Piping Cost = 40% of Purchased equipment cost
= 40% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.7608 x106
e. Electrical, installed:
Let Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost
= 25% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.4755 x106
Therefore Total cost for (A) = Rs. 4 x106
(B) Buildings, process and Auxiliary:
Let Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 30% of PEC
= 30% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.5706 x106
(C) Service facilities and yard improvements:
Let Facilities and yard improvement cost = 50% of PEC
= 50% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.951 x106
64
(D) Land:
Let the cost of land = 6% of PEC
= 6% of Rs. 1.902 x106
= Rs. 0.1141 x106
Therefore Total Direct Cost = 5.635 x106
(II) Indirect costs:
Expenses, which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual
installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)
(A) Engineering and Supervision:
RANGE = 5-30% of Direct costs
Let the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
= 10% of Rs. 5.535 x106
= Rs. 0.5635 x106
(B) Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee:
RANGE = 6-30% of Direct costs
Let construction expense & contractor’s fee = 15% of Direct costs
= 15% of Rs. 5.635 x106
= Rs. 0. 8452 x106
(C) Contingency:
RANGE = 5-15% of Fixed-capital investment
Let the contingency cost = 8% of Fixed-capital investment
= 8% of 6.34 x106
= Rs. 0.5072 x106
Thus, Total Indirect Costs = Rs. 1.916 x106
65
(III) Fixed Capital Investment:
Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= Rs 7.5509 x106
(IV) Working Capital:
RANGE = (10-20% of Total-capital investment)
Let the Working Capital = 15% of Total-capital investment
= 15% of 7.457 x106
= 0.15 X 7.457106
= Rs. 1.1181 x106
(V) Total Capital Investment (TCI):
Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= 8.6694 x106
Estimation of Total Product cost:
(I) Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead
cost.
(A) Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)
i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of calculation-

about 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building Value for
Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2.5% for
Building Value for Buildings)
i.e. Depreciation = (0.10 x 7.5509 x 107) + (0.025 x0.025 x 107)
= Rs. 0.7693 x 106
66
ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the local taxes = 2% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Local Taxes = 0.02 x 7.5509 x 106 = Rs. 0.1510 x 106
iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = Rs. 0.0453 x 106
iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)
Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= Rs. 0.0.05706 x106
Thus, Total Fixed Charges = Rs. 1.0227 x106
(B) Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)
Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges – (given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
Total product cost = Total fixed charges/0.15
Total product cost = 1.02271 x 106/0.15
Total product cost (TPC) = Rs. 6.8181 x106
i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost
Raw material cost = 25% of 6.8181 x106 = Rs. 1.7045 x106
ii. Operating Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of operating labour = 12% of total product cost
Operating labour cost = 12% of 6.8181 x106 = 0.12 x6.8181x106
= Rs. 0.8181 x106
67
iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 12% of 08181 x 106
= 0.12 x 0.8181 x 106
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.096 x106
iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost
Utilities cost = = Rs. 0.8181 x106
v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05 x7.5509x 106 = Rs. 0.37754 x106
vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)
Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of Rs. 0.37754 x106 = 0.15 x Rs. 0.37754 x106
= Rs. 0.05663 x106
vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)
Consider the Laboratory charges = 14% of OL
Laboratory charges = 14% of 0.8181 x 106= 0.1145 x106
viii. Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 2% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties = 2% of 6.8181 x 106 = 0.1363 x 106
Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 4.1236 x106
68
(C) Plant overhead Costs: (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and
maintenance or 5-15% of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant
upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and
protection,restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.
Consider the plant overhead cost = 10% of Total Product Cost
Plant overhead cost = 10% of 6.8181 x106
= Rs. 0.68181 x106
Thus, Manufacturing cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead
costs
Manufacture cost = (4.1236 x106) + (1.022715 x106) + (0.68181 x106)
Manufacture cost = Rs. 5.828125 x106
(II) General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs +

research and development costs
(A) Administrative costs:(2-6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost
Administrative costs = 0.05 x 6.8181x 106
Administrative costs = Rs. 0.3409 x 106
(B) Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 6.8181 x106
= 0.15 x 6.8181 x106
= Rs. 1.02275 x106
69
(C) Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)
Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 34.07 x 106
= 0.05 x6.8181 x106
= Rs. 0.3409 x106
(D) Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)
Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 8.6694 x 106 = 0.05 x8.6694x 106
= Rs. 0.4334.7 x106
Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 2.1379 x 106
(III) Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses
= (5.828125 x 106) + (2.1379 x106)
Therefore Total product cost = Rs. 7.96604 x106
Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of cane sugar per T = Rs. 8000 /-
As we know sugar factory operates only 120 - 200 days in a year and the production
of cane sugar per hour is 26.4818 T per hour (from material balance).
The working hours per day are 20.
Assuming factory operates only 150 days in a year.
Total Income = Selling price per T x Quantity of product manufactured (T/year)
= 8000 x (11.395) T/day x 150 days/year
Total Income = Rs. 13.614 x106
70
Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost
= (Rs. 13.614 x106) – (Rs. 7.96604 x106)
Gross Income = Rs. 5.64796 x106
Let the Tax rate be 40%.
Taxes = 40% of Gross income
= 40% of Rs. 5.64796 x106 = 0.40 x Rs. 5.64796 x106
Taxes = Rs. 2.25184 x106
Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income x (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (Rs. 5.64796 x106 ) x ( Rs. 2.25184 x106 ) = Rs. 3.3887 x106
Rate of Return:
Rate of return = (Net profit x100)/ Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = (Rs. 3.3887 x106 x100)/ (8.6694 x106 )
Rate of Return = 39.088%
Payout period = (FCI)/(Net profit + Depreciation)
= (7.5509 x106)/( 3.3887 x106 +0.7693 x106)
= 2 years
71
10. PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION
72
PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTON
The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success
of the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant
site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be
located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but
other factors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation
as well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant
can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final
site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of
various geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the
available real estate. The various principal factors that must be considered while
selecting a suitable plant site are briefly discussed in this section. The factors to be
considered are:
1. Raw material availability
2. Location (with respect to the marketing area)
3. Availability of suitable land
4. Transport facilities
5. Availability of labors
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity)
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
8. Local community considerations
9. Climate
10. Political strategic considerations
11. Taxations and legal restrictions
Raw Materials Availability:
The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing
the selection of a plant site. This is particularly true for the cane sugar plant because a
large volume of sugar cane is consumed in the process, which will result in the
reduction of the transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the
73
purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and
transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials
and storage requirements.
Location:
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost

ofproduct distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets
is an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer
usually finds advantageous to purchase from near-by sources.
Availability Of Suitable Land:
The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined
carefully. The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since
either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the
land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes
may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be
ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation
should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations
Transport:
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is
close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a
central warehouse.Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If
possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. There is
usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and
the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the
plant personnel are necessary.
Availability Of Labors:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should
74
be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for
training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability and suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.
Availability Of Utilities:
The word “utilities” is generally used for the ancillary services needed in
theoperation of any production process. These services will normally be supplied
from acentral facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly
described as follows:
Water: - The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes,
starting with water for cooling, washing and steam generation. The plant therefore
must be located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers,
wells, seas.If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it’s desirable to construct
a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The temperature, mineral content, slit and
sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment
must also be considered when choosing a water supply. De-mineralized water, from
which all the minerals have been removed, is used where pure water is needed for the
process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used
to provide the cooling water required on site.
Electricity: - Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants
and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are
required forrunning the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant
lightings and general use and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of
plant site.
Environmental Impact And Effluent Disposal:
Facilities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without
any public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for
various effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential
requirements for additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes
produce waste products, full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat
75
of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local
regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site
survey to determine the standards that must be met.
Local Community Considerations:
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community.
Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not
impose a significant additional risk to the community.
Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low

temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for
equipment and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose
serious problems and must be considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger
structures will be needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
Political And Strategic Considerations:
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in
site selection.
Taxation And Legal Restrictions:
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and
similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on
zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major
influence on the final choice of the plant site.
PLANT LAYOUT
After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed
piping,structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant
and the equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an
76
important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be
planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise.
Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will
depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is
laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below:
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs
2. Process requirements
3. Convenience of operation
4. Convenience of maintenance
5. Health and Safety considerations
6. Future plant expansion
7. Modular construction
8. Waste disposal requirements
Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between
equipment, and least amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of
construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation
and maintenance.
Process Requirements:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need
to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump.
Convenience Of Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient

to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at
convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.
77
Convenience Of Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily with
drawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of
catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that
requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should
be places under cover.
Health And Safety Considerations:
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and

confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be
provided from each level in process buildings.
Future Plant Expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any

future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs,
and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.
Modular Construction:
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or
sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control
2. Reduced construction cost
3. Less need for skilled labors on site
The disadvantages of modular construction are:
1. Higher design costs & more structural steel work
2. More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site
78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. M.GOPALA RAO, MARSHALL SITTIG, OUTLINES OF CHEMICAL

TECHNOLOGY, 3RD EDITION, Pg No 314 – 319
2. Dr. G.K. ROY, SOLVED EXAMPLES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

KHANNA PUBLISHERS, Pg No 285 – 297
3. KIRK & OTHMER, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY,

Vol 19, Pg No 151-233
4. ULLMAN, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, Vol .A 25,

Pg No 393-407
5. HUGOTE, HANDBOOK OF CANE SUGAR ENGINEERING
6. SUDHAKAR VASUDEO KARMARKAR, INTRODUCTION TO CANE

SUGAR TECHNOLOGY
7. R.H. PERRY AND DON W. GREEN, PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEER’S

HAND BOOK, Mc GRAW HILL INTERNATIONAL EDITION, VOLUME
–6
8. R. K. SINNOTT, BUTTER WORTH-HEINEMANN, COULSON AND

RICHARDSON’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SERIES, 3RD EDITION,
VOLUME – 6
9. JOSHI M .V, PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, MC-MILLAN INDIA

LTD, 2ND EDITION
79

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PROJECT REPORT

MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR FROM

under the guidance of

Mr. M. MAGESH KUMAR, M.Tech.,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Certified that this project report on “MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR

FROM SUGAR CANE ” is the bonafide work of “RAJASEKAR .V

(10704014) and SATHIYA NARAYANAN .S (10704017)” who carried

out the project work under my supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT INTERNAL GUIDE

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

We are extremely thankful to Dr.R.KARTHIKEYAN, B.E., PhD, Professor

and Head, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for permitting us to

We would like to thank Mr. M.MAGESH KUMAR, B.Tech, .M.Tech,

Faculty, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for his encouragement

and guidance at all stages of this project.

Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for their support and assistance.

This project deals with the manufacture of sugar from sugarcane.

detailed Design of equipments, Cost Estimation of plants, Plant layout

and Safety aspects have been discussed.

10 Plant location and site selection 67

The principle by-product of cane sugar production is molasses. About 10 –

Constituent Percentage range

Water 69.0 – 75.0

Sucrose 8.0 – 16.0

Reducing sugars 0.5 – 2.0

Organic matter other than sugar 0.5 – 1.0

Inorganic compounds 0.2 – 0.6

Nitrogenous bodies 0.5 – 1.0

Ash 0.3 – 0.8

Fibre 10.0 – 16.0

Molecular weight 342

Specific heat capacity 0.28 kcal/kg

Density 1.63 g/cm^3

Melting point 184 centigrade

Specific gravity 1.58056

Temperature sucrose g/100 water

Sucrose is easily hydrolyed in the presence of hydrogen ion,ammonium ion

Vigorous oxidation of sucrose with strong nitric acid produes equimolar

In the presence of raney-nickel catalyst inverted sucroses is hydrogenated to a

Sucroses autoclaved with aqueous calcium hydroxide yields up to 70%of

Hot mineral convert sucrose to 5-hydroxy methyl-furfural.by variation ,the

The juice from either milling or diffusion is about 12 – 18% solids, 10 – 15

Cane juice has sucrose concentration of normally 15%. The solubility of

Packing, storing and shipping:

Sugar is sometimes stored in bulk and then packaged as needed. Others

BASIS – 100 TONS/DAY OF SUGAR CANE

Cane – 100 tons Juice – 105 tons

Water – 70 tons MILLING solid – 15 tons

Solid – 16 tons water – 90 tons

Fibre – 14 tons Bagasse – 30 tons

Cane + water = Juice + bagasse

Total inlet – 135 tons Total outlet – 135 tons

RAW JUICE HEATER

Juice – 105 tons Raw Juice – 105 tons

Water – 90 tons Water – 90 tons

Total inlet – 105 tons Total outlet- 105 tons

Juice – 105 tons Juice Juice – 105 tons

Water – 90 tons water- 90 tons

Lime – 0.05 ton lime – 0.05 ton

So2 – 0.02 ton so2 – 0.02 ton

Lime – (0.05 x(100/100))= 0.05 ton

So 2 - (0.02 x(100/100))= 0.02 tons