Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Syllabus
This module extends various concepts from analysis to more general spaces.
Appropriate books
W.A. Sutherland Introduction to Metric and Topological Spaces. Clarendon.
A. Hatcher Algebraic Topology. CUP.
2 Topological Spaces 20
2.1 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Hausdorff Spaces 29
4 Connected Spaces 31
4.1 Path Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Compactness 34
6 Sequential Compactness 38
6.1 Convergence of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1 Metric Spaces
Reminder: Given f : R → R, what does it mean for f to be cts at a? Lecture 1
4 inequality in R2 : z
d(x, z)
d(y, z)
x y
d(x, y)
Claim: d is a metric.
3
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
ri = xi − yi , si = yi − zi
i.e. v v v
u n u n u n
uX uX uX
t (xi − zi )2 ≤ t (xi − yi )2 + t (yi − zi )2
i=1 i=1 i=1
i.e. v v v
u n u n u n
uX uX uX
t (ri + si )2 ≤ t ri2 + t s2i
i=1 i=1 i=1
4
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Example 1.3. Take X = {all continuous functions f : [a, b] → R}, and Lecture 2
Z b
d(f, g) = |f (t) − g(t)| dt
t=a
sup
f
= d(f, g) + d(g, h)
is also a metric.
5
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Lots more examples in textbook (on your reading.) Some examples can be
very strange looking, e.g. the discrete metric: X = any non-empty set,
(
0 if x = y
d(x, y) =
1 if x 6= y
1.1 Continuity
Reminder: f : R → R is continuous at a ∈ R iff given > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
if |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − f (a)| < . We can generalise this:
Definition (Continuity). Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces and let
f : X → Y be a function. We say f is continuous at a ∈ X if and only if
∀, ∃δ > 0 such that whenever dX (x, a) < δ we have dY (f (x), f (a)) < .
We say that f is continuous iff f is continuous at a ∈ X for all a ∈ X.
For (X, dX ) = (Rn , d) and (Y, dY ) = (Rm , d) with d = Euclidean metric, then
this is the same definition as in M1P1. So you already know many continuous
functions.
Thus g ◦ f : X → Z Is continuous at x = a.
6
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Corollary 1.6. Suppose that (X, d) is a metric space and f, g : X → R are Lecture 3
continuous functions1 . Then
(a) |f | : X → R where x 7→ |f (x)|
(b) f + g : X → R where x 7→ f (x) + g(x)
(c) f × g : X → R, with x 7→ f (x)g(x)
are all continuous.
or p
d2 ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = dX (x, x0 )2 + dY (y, y 0 )2
or p
dp ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = p
dX (x, x0 )p + dY (y, y 0 )p
for 1 ≤ p < ∞.
Showing that dp is a metric comes down to Hölder’s inequality:
n
X n
X n
1/p X 1/q
|ak bk | ≤ |ak |p |bk |p
k=1 k=1 k=1
7
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
f × g : X × Y → X0 × Y 0
and similarly
=⇒ dX (x, a) < δ ≤ δ1 and dY (y, b) < δ ≤ δ2 . Thus (1) and (2) holds, and so
So f × g is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y .
Proposition 1.8. Let (X, dX ), (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Then the projection
maps
pX : X × Y → X, (x, y) → 7 x
and
py : X × Y → Y, (x, y) 7→ y
are both continuous.
Proof. Omitted.
Proposition 1.9. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the diagonal map ∆ :
X → X × X is continuous.
8
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
X −→ X × X −→ X 0 × Y 0
Subspaces
Recall the 3 properties that define a metric: Lecture 4
1.3 Boundedness
Definition (Bounded). A subset S of a metric space (X, d) is called
bounded if and only if S = ∅ or there exists points x0 ∈ S and K ∈ R
such that d(x, x0 ) ≤ K for all x ∈ S.
Note that if this holds for some x0 ∈ S, then it holds for any choice of x0 ∈ S
(but for a different K):
Proof. Let x1 ∈ S be arbitrary. Then, for all x ∈ S, by the 4 inequality
d(x, x1 ) ≤ K 0 ∀x ∈ S
Note also that if S is a bounded subset of (X, d) then d(x, y) is bounded for
any x, y ∈ S, because S is bounded =⇒ ∃x0 ∈ S, K ∈ R such that
d(x, x0 ) ≤ K ∀x ∈ S
9
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
sup{d(x, y) : x, y ∈ S}
10
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
r (a, b)
√
Example 1.13. Take X = R and x0 = 5, r = 1. Then
√ √
B1 ( 5) = {x ∈ R : |x − 5| < 1}
is
√ √
5−1 5+1
√
0 5
11
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
What’s B (f )? It’s all the functions that lie within the dashed region:
f
i.e. B (f ) = {g : [a, b] → R continuous s.t.|f (t) − g(t)| < ∀t ∈ [a, b]} Lecture 5
Proposition 1.16. Given an open ball Br (x) in any metric space (X, d) and
any y ∈ Br (x), there exists > 0 such that B (y) ⊆ Br (x).
Proof. Idea in R2 :
r
x
y
12
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Hence z ∈ Br (x).
Remark. The containment cannot be strict (since the discrete metric would
not satisfy this).
a b
x
1
For any x ∈ (a, b), take = 2 min(b − x, b − a). Then (x − , x + ) ⊆ (a, b).
a b
x
13
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Example 1.20. (X, d) is any non-empty set with the discrete metric.
Any subset of X is open.
Proposition 1.22.
(i) Let UT
1 , . . . , Un be open sets in a metric space (X, d). Then the intersec-
n
tion i=1 Ui is also open.
S
(ii) Let Ui , i ∈ I be open sets in a metric space (X, d). Then i∈I Ui is open
in (X, d).
Tn
Proof. (i) LetTx ∈ i=1 Ui be arbitrary. We need to show that ∃ > 0 such
n
that B (x) ⊆ i=1 Ui . Now x ∈ Ui for each i and Ui is open, so ∃i > 0 such
that B (x) ⊆ Ui . So set = min(1 , . . . , n ) > 0. Then B (x) ⊆ Ui for each i,
and so
\n
B (x) ⊆ Ui
i=1
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1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Examples 1.23.
V = ⊂ R2
V = ⊂ R2
Proposition 1.26.
Sn
(i) Let V1 , . . . , Vn be closed subsets of a metric space (X, d). Then i=1 Vi
is closed.
T
(ii) Let Vi , i ∈ I be closed subsets of X. Then i∈I Vi is closed.
and \ [
X\ Xi = (X\Xi )
i∈I i∈I
So this follows from the previous proposition about open sets.
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1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Example 1.27. Take X = R and A = (0, 1] ∪ {2}. Then the limit points
are [0, 1].
(i) B is closed.
(ii) Any closed subset V of X such that A ⊆ V also contains all limit points
of A.
(i) Let U = X\B. We need to show that U is open. Let x ∈ U be arbitrary.
1
We need to show that ∃ > 0 such that B (x) ⊆ U. Suppose not. ( = 2n ).
1
Then ∃an ∈ B such that d(x, an ) < 2n . Either an ∈ A, in which case set
xn = an , or an is a limit point of A, in which case we can find a point xn of
1 1 1
A with d(xn , an ) < 2n =⇒ d(xn , x) < 2n + 2n = n1 .
So I’ve found a sequence {xn }n≥1 of points of A such that d(xn , x) < 1/n, so
x is a limit point of A, XX since x ∈ X\B and B contains all the limit points
of A. So ∃ > 0 such that B (x) ⊆ U =⇒ U is open =⇒ B is closed.
(ii) Let Z ⊆ X be closed and suppose that A ⊆ Z. We need to show that
Z contains all the limit points of A. Let x ∈ X be a limit point of A. We
need to show x ∈ Z. Suppose not. Then x ∈ X\Z, which is open. So ∃ > 0
such that B (x) ⊆ X\Z. But x is a limit point of A, so ∃y ∈ B (x) such that
y ∈ A and y 6= x, XX since B (x) ⊆ X\Z and A ⊆ Z, so y can’t be in B (x).
Therefore x ∈ Z, as required.
A= ⊂ R2
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1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
I claim that
A= ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b.
(iv) A = A.
(v) A is closed in X.
(vi) A is the smallest closed subset of X that contains A.
Interior
The opposite notion; the interior is the biggest open set contained in A.
Definition (Interior).
S Let A be a subset of a metric space (X, d). The
interior of A is Å = U ⊆A U. Equivalently
U open
Examples 1.32.
• A = [a, b] ⊂ R. Then Å = (a, b).
• Interior of (a, b] is also (a, b).
• Q ⊂ R, then Q̊ = ∅.
Proposition 1.33. Let A and B be subsets of a metric space (X, d). Then:
(i) Å ⊆ A.
(ii) A ⊆ B =⇒ Å ⊆ B̊.
(iii) A is open in X ⇐⇒ A = Å.
˚
(iv) Å = Å.
17
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
(v) A is open in X.
(vi) A is the largest open subset of A [i.e. if U ⊆ A and U is open, then
U ⊆ Å.]
Boundary
Definition (Boundary). The boundary of a subset A of a metric space
(X, d) is ∂ Å = A\Å.
Example 1.35.
A= ⊂ R2
Then
∂A = ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b.
18
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Picture:
x
19
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
2 Topological Spaces
Motivation:
These only feel the open sets in (X, d), not d itself.
Example 2.1 (Metric Topology). Let (X, d) be any metric space. Let
T = {U ⊆ X : U is open w.r.t. d}
Then T satisfies (T1),(T2) & (T3), i.e. T is a topology. This is called the
metric topology on X.
Proposition 2.6. Let X be a topological space. Then U ⊆ X is open iff for Lecture 9
all x ∈ U, there exists an open set Nx with x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U.
20
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Proof. Suppose that U is open. Then take Nx = U for all x ∈ U. This works.
Suppose, on the other hand, that for all x ∈ U, ∃ open set Nx such that
x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U. Then [
U= Nx
x∈U
So if X and Y are metric spaces, and TX and TY are the metric topologies,
this is the same notion of continuous functions as before.
But this turns out to not be so important for us. We are more concerned with
global properties of shape.
Examples 2.8.
(i) Let X be any topological space. Then id: X → X is continuous.
(ii) Any constant map is continuous. In other words, Let X, Y be any
topological spaces and let f : X → Y be the map sending x 7→ y0
for some fixed y0 ∈ Y . Then f is continuous.
21
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
So f −1 (U) is open.
(iii) Let X be equipped with the discrete topology, and let Y be any
topological space, and let f : X → Y be any map. Then f is
continuous.
(iv) Let X be any topological space. Let Y be equipped with the indis-
crete topology. Let f : X → Y be any map. Then f is continuous.
Homeomorphisms
What does it mean for two topological spaces to be “the same” or “equivalent”?
2.1 Bases
In metric spaces, open sets were unions of open balls. What’s the analogue of
this statement for topological spaces?
is a basis. Also
is a basis.
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2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Proof. Take compliments: Set Ui = X\Vi , then (C1), (C2), (C3) become (T1),
(T2), (T3).
A= ⊂ R2
A= ⊂ R2
2.3 Closure
The closure of a subset A of a topological space X is the smallest closed subset
of X that contains A. Precisely:
Example 2.13. Take X = any non-empty set with the indiscrete topol-
ogy. If A ⊆ X is any non-empty set, then A = X.
23
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
(i) A ⊆ A.
(ii) A ⊆ B =⇒ A ⊆ B.
(iii) A is closed in X ⇐⇒ A = A.
(iv) A = A.
(v) A is closed in X.
(vi) A is the smallest closed subset containing A.
Interior
Definition. Let X be a topological space and A be a subset of X. Then
a ∈ X is called an interior point of A iff ∃ an open set N such that x ∈ Nx
and Nx ⊆ A. The interior of A is
Å = {a ∈ X : a is an interior point of A}
Equivalently [
Å = U
U ⊆A
U open
24
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Examples 2.16.
• R2 with the Euclidean topology, if B = {x ∈ R2 : |x| ≤ 1}, then
B̊ = {x ∈ R2 : |x| < 1}.
• X = any non-empty set with the indiscrete topology, A ⊆ X any
non-empty subset of X. Then Å = ∅ and A = X. (cf. Q ⊂ R with
the Euclidean topology)
A
X
Proof.
So X\A = X\Å.
Corollary 2.18. Let A, B be subsets of a topological space X. Then
(i) Å ⊆ A.
(ii) If A ⊆ B then Å ⊆ B̊.
(iii) A is open in X ⇐⇒ Å = A.
˚
(iv) Å = Å.
(v) Å is open in X.
(vi) Å is the largest open set contained in A.
Proof. Apply the previous proposition. This turns (i) - (vi) into the corre-
sponding statements about closures.
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2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
2.4 Subspaces
Definition. Let (X, T ) be a topological space and let A be a subset of X.
The subspace topology on A is TA = {A ∩ U : U ∈ T }. A equipped with
this topology is called a subspace of X.
Claim. TA is a topology on A.
Proof. We need to show (T1) – (T3):
– ∅ ∈ TA because ∅ ∈ TA =⇒ A ∩ ∅ ∈ TA .
– A ∈ TA because X ∈ TX =⇒ A ∩ X ∈ TA .
– Suppose that U, V ∈ TA . Then U = U 0 ∩ A for some U 0 ∈ TA and
V = V 0 ∩ A for some V 0 ∈ T , so U ∩ V = U 0 ∩ A ∩ V 0 ∩ A = (U 0 ∩ V 0 ) ∩ A.
Proof. We want for any U ∈ T , for i−1 (U) ∈ TA . But for any U ∈ T ,
i−1 (U) = U ∩ A ∈ TA by definition.
f
Y X
i
f ◦i
A
26
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
X
i◦g
i
g
Z A
Theorem 2.24
Given (X, T ), A ⊂ X, TA is the only topology such that for any (Z, TZ )
and function g : Z → A, g continuous iff (i ◦ g) is continuous.
Proof. Take a topology T 0 on A such that for any (Z, TZ ) and function g :
Z → A, g continuous iff (i ◦ g) is continuous.
(i) TA ⊆ T 0 : Choose (Z, TZ ) = (A, T 0 ) and g = id.
(X, T )
i◦g
i
(A, T 0 ) g=id
(A, T 0 )
(X, T )
i◦g
i
(A, TA ) g=id
(A, T 0 )
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2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Hence [ [ [
U =V ∩A= Vi ∩ A = (Vi ∩ A) = Ui ∈ BA
i∈I i∈i i∈I
Products
Definition (Product topology). Let X and Y be topological spaces. Let Lecture 13
T be the collection of all unions of subsets of X × Y of the form U × V
where U is open in X and V is open in Y . This topology on X × Y is called
the product topology.
Note: In R2 , the black squares alone are not in the product topology; we also
require the red squares for X × Y :
Not every open set in the product topology is of the form U × V with U open
in X and V open in Y . But
B = {U × V : U open in X, V open in Y }
is a basis for the product topology. We will explore this on example sheets.
Exercise: The Euclidean topology on R2 (a) coincides with the product topol-
ogy on R × R (b).
(a) is made up of unions of B (x, y). Why is this open in the product topology?
For each point in B (x, y), we can surround it by another disk, but we can
always inscribe a rectangle in this disk – this is the U × V we use.
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3 Hausdorff Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
3 Hausdorff Spaces
Definition (Convergence). A sequence (xn )n≥1 of points in a topological
space X converges to x ∈ X written xn → x if and only if for every open
set U such that x ∈ U, ∃N such that whenever n ≥ N we have xn ∈ U.
Examples 3.1.
• For metric topologies this is the usual notion of convergence.
• X with the discrete topology, xN → x if and only if xn = x for all
n ≥ N (for some N ).
• X with the indiscrete topology, xn → x for all sequences (xn )n≥1
and all x.
Why don’t sequences have unique limits here? Because open sets
don’t separate points.
Example 3.2. Let X be an infinite set with the cofinite topology. Then
X is not Hausdorff.
Open sets are all of the form X\{ finitely many points }. So if x, y ∈ X and
U, V are open sets with x ∈ U, y ∈ V we have U ∩ V 6= ∅. So U ∩ V = X\{
finitely many points } and X is infinite, so U ∩ V 6= ∅.
Proposition 3.3.
(i) A subspace of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff. Lecture 14
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3 Hausdorff Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Proof.
(i) Let a, b ∈ A be such that a 6= b. Then a, b ∈ X and X is Hausdorff, so
∃ open subsets U, V of X such that a ∈ U, b ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Set
U 0 = U ∩ A and V 0 = V ∩ A. Then U 0 , V 0 are open in A (because A has
the subspace topology) and a ∈ U 0 and b ∈ V 0 and U 0 ∩ V 0 = ∅. So A is
Hausdorff.
(ii) Suppose X, Y are both Hausdorff. Let (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) be distinct
points of X × Y . Then either x0 6= x1 or y0 6= y1 . wlog exchanging X
and Y if necessary, we may assume that x0 6= x1 . Then X is Hausdorff,
so ∃ open sets U, V in X with x0 ∈ U, x1 ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Set
Ũ = U × Y and Ṽ = V × Y . Then Ũ, Ṽ are open in X × Y (because
X × Y has the product topology) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ Ũ and (x1 , y1 ) ∈ Ṽ and
Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅ //
Suppose X × Y is Hausdorff. We will show that X is Hausdorff. Take
x0 , x1 ∈ X with x0 6= x1 . Fix y0 ∈ Y and consider (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y0 ) ∈
X × Y . These points are distinct and X × Y is Hausdorff =⇒ ∃ open
sets Ũ, Ṽ in X × Y such that (x0 , y0 ) ∈ Ũ, (x1 , y0 ) ∈ Ṽ and Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅.
Because {U × V : U ⊂ X open, V ⊂ Y open} is a basis for the product
topology, ∃U1 × V1 ⊆ Ũ with (x0 , y0 ) ∈ U1 × V1 and U2 × V2 ⊆ Ṽ with
(x1 , y0 ) ∈ U2 × V2 , and U1 , U2 ⊆ X are open, and V1 , V2 ⊆ Y are open.
We have (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ) = ∅. I claim U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Suppose not.
Then ∃x0 ∈ U1 ∩ U2 and y0 ∈ V1 ∩ V2 (because y0 ∈ V1 and y0 ∈ V2 ). So
(x0 , y0 ) ∈ (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ), XX, so U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. But x0 ∈ U1 and
x1 ∈ U2 , with U1 , U2 ⊆ X open and U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. So X is Hausdorff.
(iii) Let x0 , x1 be distinct points of X. Then f (x0 ) and f (x1 ) distinct points
of Y (because f is injective), so ∃ disjoint open sets U, V in Y with
f (x0 ) ∈ U and f (x1 ) ∈ V (because Y is Hausdorff). Set Ũ = f −1 (U)
and Ṽ = f −1 (V ). Then Ũ, Ṽ are open in X (because f is continuous)
and also x0 ∈ Ũ and x1 ∈ Ṽ and Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅ (as if ∃x0 ∈ Ũ × Ṽ 0 then
f (x0 ) ∈ U ∩ V = ∅, XX). Therefore X is Hausdorff.
(iv) Follows immediately from (iii)
6
Metric spaces are regular. Hausdorff =⇒ regularity.
30
4 Connected Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
4 Connected Spaces
Definition. A topological space X is connected iff 6 ∃ a continuous surjec- Lecture 15
tive map f : X → {0, 1} where {0, 1} is given the discrete topology.
Examples 4.1.
(i) Take X = {5, 7} a subspace of R. This is not connected; A =
{5}, B = {7}. (5 is open since {5, 7} ∩ (4, 6) = {5})
(ii) Q as a subspace of R. Connected or disconnected? Disconnected:
Take A = (−∞, π) ∩ Q, B = (π, ∞) ∩ Q.
(iii) X with the discrete topology is disconnected if |X| > 1. If |X| > 1,
then take A = {x}, B = X\{x}.
(iv) X with the indiscrete topology is always connected: we can’t choose
non-empty open sets A, B with A ∩ B = ∅.
Proof. Suppose not. Then choose non-empty A, B open subsets of f (X) [with
the subspace topology] such that A ∩ B = ∅ and A ∪ B = f (X).
Y
f
X
A
B
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4 Connected Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
For a similar argument you can show that if B S and Ai , i ∈ I are connected
subsets of X and B ∩ Ai 6= ∅ for all i, then B = i∈I Ai is connected.
A B
Theorem 4.7
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4 Connected Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Examples 4.8.
x2
γ
x1 X
6
So path-connected =⇒ connected, but connected =⇒ path connected.
Exercise: Say that a topological space X is locally path connected iff every
x ∈ X has an open neighbourhood U such that U is path-connected.
(i) Show that Rn is locally path-connected.
(ii) If X is locally path connected, then X connected =⇒ X path-connected.
In particular, for open subsets of Rn , path-connected ⇐⇒ connected.
Claim: R2 ∼
6 R
=
Exercise: S 0 = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1} ∼
6 R.
=
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5 Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
5 Compactness
What does it mean for a topological space to be “small”?
Reasonable notion: X is small ⇐⇒ for every continuous function f : X → R,
f (X) is bounded. Motive: [0, 1] is “small” in this sense. (0, 1) is not small.
U2 ⊆ U3 ⊆ U4 ⊆ . . .
Note: (0, 1) is not compact, but {(−1, 3)} is an open cover of (0, 1).
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5 Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
U ∩ (Vc1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vck ) = ∅
35
5 Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
C X
Note the closed condition is necessary, e.g. [0, 1] is compact, (0, 1) is not com-
pact.
Theorem 5.8
(i) Step 1: Show that the ‘slice’ {x} × Y is covered by finitely many of the
Wi . The slice is homeomorphic to Y , hence is compact and {Wi : i ∈ I}
is an open cover of the slice =⇒ ∃Wi1 . . . , Win such that
36
5 Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
and each rectangle is contained within one of the Wi ’s. Thus Wi1 ∪ Win
contains
(Zy1 ∩ · · · ∩ Zyk ) ×Y
| {z }
Ux
(iii) Step 3: Do this for every x ∈ X. Then {Ux : x ∈ X} are an open cover
of X. So ∃ finite subcover Ux1 , . . . , Uxl . So
(1) Ux1 × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wi1,1 , . . . , Wi1,m1
(2) Ux2 × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wi2,1 , . . . , Wi2,m2
..
.
(l) Uxl × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wil,1 , . . . , Wil,ml
So
{Wia,b : 1 ≤ a ≤ l, 1 ≤ b ≤ na }
covers all of X × Y .
37
6 Sequential Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
6 Sequential Compactness
Definition (Sequentially Compact). A metric space (X, d) is called sequen-
tially compact iff every sequence (xn )n≥1 of points of X has a convergent
subsequence. A subset A of a metric space (X, d) is called sequentially
compact iff it is sequentially compact as a metric space with the subspace
metric.
i.e. iff any sequence (an )n≥1 of points of A has a subsequence which converges
(in X) to a point of A.
Theorem 6.2
Proof. =⇒ : If (xnk )k≥1 converges to x, then for all > 0, xnk ∈ B (x)
whenever k ≥ K for some K. So B (x) contains infinitely many of the xn ’s.
⇐= : Construct a sequence xn1 , xn2 , . . . as follows. Take xnk ∈ B1/k (x) such
that nk > nk−1 .
Proof of first half of theorem. ⇐= : Suppose not. Then ∃ a sequence (xn )n≥1
of points of X with no convergent subsequence. In particular, for any x ∈
X, there is no subsequence of (xn )n≥1 that converges to x. So ∃x > 0
such that Bx (x) contains only finitely many of the xn ’s. Now {Bx (x) :
x ∈ X} is an open cover of X. But X is compact, so ∃ finite subcover
Bx1 (x1 ), . . . , Bxk (xk ). So X = Bx1 (x1 )∪· · ·∪Bxk (xk ). So X is sequentially
compact, XX
A new and useful concept before we prove =⇒ direction of the theorem: Lecture 20
38
6 Sequential Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
Claim: Any open cover of a sequentially compact metric space has a Lebesgue
number.
Proof. Let X be a sequentially compact metric space. Suppose for contradic-
tion that {Ui : i ∈ I} is an open cover of X with no Lebesgue number > 0.
Then 1/n is not a Lebesgue number, so ∃xn ∈ X such that B1/n (xn ) 6⊆ Ui
for any i ∈ I. The sequence (xn )n≥1 has a convergent subsequence (xnk )k≥1
where xnk → x as k → ∞.
But {Ui : i ∈ I} is an open cover of X, so x ∈ Ui for some i ∈ I. So ∃ > 0
such that B (x) ⊆ Ui . For k sufficiently large, we have d(xnk , x) < /2 and
1/nk < /2, so B1/nk (xnk ) ⊆ B (x) ⊆ Ui , XX. So our assumption that the
cover has no Lebesgue number must be false.
Lets finish the proof of Theorem 6.2: Sequentially compact metric spaces are
compact.
39
6 Sequential Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
Remark. The Theorem is not true for topological spaces in general, though
the examples of spaces that are compact but not sequentially compact are
very complicated. But it’s true for metric spaces.
Another application of Lebesgue number:
This is stronger that f being continuous because the δ does not depend on x
or x0 ; it holds uniformly across to whole space X. So f uniformly continuous
=⇒ f continuous. Recall from M1P1: f [a, b] → R is uniformly continuous
⇐⇒ f is continuous.
Proof. Fix > 0. We need to show that ∃δ > 0 such that whenever dX (x, x0 ) <
δ we have dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < . For a fixed x, ∃δx > 0 such that whenever
dX (x, x0 ) < δx , we have dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < /2. But {Bδx (x) : x ∈ X} is an
open cover of X. So it has a Lebesgue number, δ > 0. So whenever z, z 0 ∈ X
are such that d(z, z 0 ) < δ, we have z, z 0 ∈ Bδ (x) and Bδ (z) ⊆ Bδx (x) for some
x ∈ X. So
( (
dX (z, x) < δx dY (f (z), f (x)) < /2
0
=⇒
dX (z , x) < δx dY (f (z 0 ), f (x)) < /2
x
− n1 0 1
n
40
6 Sequential Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) ≤ dY (f (x), fN (x)) + dY (fN (x), fN (x0 )) + dY (fN (x0 ), f (x0 ))
< /3 + /3 + /3
=
B(X, Y ) := {f : X → Y : f is bounded.}
fn → f ⇐⇒ d(fn , f ) → 0 as n → ∞
⇐⇒ sup dY (fn (x), f (x)) → 0 as n → ∞
x∈X
⇐⇒ ∀ > 0, ∃N : n ≥ N =⇒ sup dY (fn (x), f (x)) <
x∈X
⇐⇒ ∀ > 0, ∃N : n ≥ N =⇒ dY (fn (x), f (x)) < ∀x ∈ X
⇐⇒ fn → f uniformly
Then C bdd (X, Y ) ⊂ B(X, Y ). What we just showed is that C bbd (X, Y ) is
closed in B(X, Y ) [because if f ∈ B(X, Y ) is a point of closure of C bdd (X, Y ),
then ∃(fn )n≥1 in C bdd (X, Y ) with fn → f . So f is the uniform limit of
continuous functions, so f ∈ C bdd (X, Y ).]
41
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Recap: A Cauchy sequence (xn )n≥1 in a metric space (X, d) satisfies: for all Lecture 22
> 0, ∃N such that d(xn , xm ) < whenever n, m ≥ N .
A sequence (xn )n≥1 converges in X always =⇒ the sequence (xn )n≥1 is
Cauchy ( ⇐= in complete metric spaces.)
Proof. Suppose that (xn )n≥1 converges to x ∈ X. Given > 0, ∃N such that
d(xn , x) < /2 whenever n ≥ N . So if n, m ≥ N , we have
for all x, y ∈ X.
Lipschitz-equivalent metrics define the same topology on X.
Proof. The identity map (X, d1 ) → (X, d2 ) is uniformly continuous and has
uniformly continuous inverse.
42
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Similarly:
Proof. Let X be a compact metric space and let (xn )n≥1 be a Cauchy sequence
in X. We need to show that (xn )n≥1 converges. X is sequentially compact, so
∃ subsequence (xnk )k≥1 such that xnk → x as k → ∞. So it suffices to prove:
Claim: Let (xn )n≥1 be a Cauchy sequence in a metric space X and suppose
that a subsequence (xnk )k≥1 converges to x as k → ∞. Then xn → x as
n → ∞.
Proof of Claim. Fix > 0. We need to show ∃N such that d(xn , x) <
whenever n ≥ N . Now xnk → x as k → ∞, so ∃K such that d(xnk , x) < /2
whenever k ≥ K. And (xn )n≥1 is Cauchy, so ∃N 0 sucht that d(xn , xm ) < /2
whenever n, m ≥ N 0 . Set N = max(nK , N 0 ). Then for n ≥ N we have
d(xn , x) ≤ d(xn , xnK ) + d(xnK , x)
< /2 + /2 =
So xn → x as claimed. This completes the proof that compact metric spaces
are complete.
43
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Theorem 7.7
Proof. Intuition:
X
x
f (f (X))
f (X)
d(x0 , x1 ) = something
d(x1 , x2 ) = d(f (x0 ), f (x1 )) ≤ Kd(x0 , x1 )
d(x2 , x3 ) = d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) ≤ Kd(x1 , x2 ) ≤ K 2 d(x0 , x1 )
..
.
d(xn , xn+1 ≤ K n d(x0 , x1 )
Suppose m ≥ n, then
44
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Claim: f (x) = x.
Proof of claim: xn → x, so f (xn ) → f (x) [because f is continuous) and
xn+1 → x, so f (x) = x.
Uniqueness: Suppose x ∈ X and y ∈ X are fixed point for f . We need to
show that x = y. But
Completeness is essential; the same f but over X = (0, 21 ) does not have
a fixed point even though f is a contraction.
D = [xn − a, xn + a] × [yn − b, yn + b]
for all (x, y1 ) and (x, y2 ) ∈ D, for some K > 0. Let M be any upper
bound for |f (x, y)| on D and fix c > 0 such that c < min(a, b/M, 1/K).
Then on I = [x0 − c, x0 + c], there exists a unique solution y(x) to
dy
= f (x, y); y(x0 ) = y0 (∗)
dx
dy
If dx = f (x, y) and y(x0 ) = y0 , then
Z t=x Z t=x
dy
f (t, y(t)) dt = dt = y(x) − y(x0 )
t=x0 t=x0 dt
dy
then dx = f (x, y(x)) by the fundamental theorem of calculus.
45
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
|f (x) − y0 | ≤ b, ∀x ∈ I
(so F : X → X).
Claim: F is a contraction.
Proof. Let y0 , y1 ∈ X. Then
≤ cKd(y0 , y1 )
Final Remarks
Aside: Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X a subset. When is A compact Lecture 24
as a subset of X?
Consider A with the subspace topology. When is A is compact? I claim these
two questions are the same. For
A is compact as a subset of X
⇐⇒ every open cover of A has finite subcover
S Sn
⇐⇒ whenever {Ui , i ∈ I} open in X with A ⊆ i Ui , ∃Ui1 , . . . , Uin with A ⊆ j=1 U ij
46
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
Aside:
Examples 7.10.
(i) Q is dense in R. R\Q is also dense in R.
(ii) Let X be a non-empty set with the discrete topology. Then A ⊆ X
is dense ⇐⇒ A = X, since all sets are closed.
(iii) Let X be a non-empty set with the indiscrete topology. Then A ⊆ X
is dense ⇐⇒ A 6= ∅.
47
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
X Y
f0
x0 x1
f1
48
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Lemma 8.1 (Pasting). Let X be a topological space and let A, B be closed Lecture 25
subsets of X such that X = A ∪ B. Suppose that f : A → Y and g : B → Y
are continuous functions such that f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A ∩ B. Then
h : X → Y mapping (
f (x) x ∈ A
x 7→
g(x) x ∈ B
is continuous.
We could take A, B to be open instead and the result would still hold (exer-
cise.) but we need some condition on A, B for the statement to hold, e.g.
s
X
F
f0
t
x0 x1
x0 x1 f1
49
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
s
f
F
t
x0 x1
g x0
f
X
g
g x1
h
G
x0 x1
We seek:
s
f X
H f
t F
x0 x1
g
x0 G x1
h
h
i.e. H : I × I → X mapping
(
F (s, 2t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
(s, t) 7→ 1
G(s, 2t − 1) 2 ≤t≤1
f
x0 x1
g x2
50
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Then f ∗ g : I → X with
(
f (2t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 21
t 7→ 1
g(2t − 1) 2 ≤t≤1
s
f
F
t
x0 x0 f
f0
f0 X
x0
g g0
g
G
x0 x0
g0
So consider (
F (2s, t) 0 ≤ s ≤ 21
H(s, t) =
G(2s − 1, t) 12 ≤ s ≤ 1
51
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Proof. We need
(i) Identity: Set ex0 ∈ π1 (X, x0 ) to be the constant loop at x0 , i.e.
ex0 (t) = x0 for all t ∈ [0, 1]. I claim that for all [γ] ∈ π1 (X, x0 ), we
have [ex0 ] ∗ [γ] = [γ] and [γ] ∗ [ex0 ] = [γ]. Indeed,
(
x0 0 ≤ t ≤ 21
ex0 ∗ γ(t) =
γ(2t − 1) 12 ≤ t ≤ 1
s
ex0 γ
t
stretch out gamma
x0
1+t
length = 2
1−t
s= 2
γ γ −1
do gamma
do gamma
backwards
for a while
for a while
Stay where I am
1−t 1+t
s= 2 s= 2
ex0
52
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
So define
γ(2s)
0 ≤ s ≤ 21 − 12 t
1 1 1 1
F (s, t) = γ(1 − t) 2 − 2t ≤ s ≤ 2 + 2t
γ −1 (2s − 1) 1 1
2 + 2t ≤ s ≤ 1
(f ∗ g) ∗ h ∼ f ∗ (g ∗ h)
stretch f stretch h
g at 1/4
f g h
53
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
D D
f (s)
f x1
x0
g g(s)
The straight line from f (s) to g(s) is always in D, so it makes sense to define
F : I × I → D mapping (s, t) 7→ (1 − t)f (s) + tg(s). F is continuous (as it is
the sum of products of continuous functions). and
x0 x1
54
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
π1 (D, x0 ) = {1}
Recall from the problem sheet, a domain is star shaped if we have a line from
x to x0 which lies in D, and star-shaped domains are simply-connected.
Dependence on Basepoint
How is π1 (X, x0 ) related to π1 (X, x1 )? See problem sheet.
γ
f
x0 x1
Mγ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (X, x1 )
Mγ ([f ] ∗ [g]) = [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ g ∗ γ]
and
Mγ ([f ]) ∗ Mγ ([g]) = [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ γ] ∗ [γ −1 ∗ g ∗ γ]
= [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ γ ∗ γ −1 ∗ g ∗ γ]
55
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Motivating Question
Is S 2 homeomorphic to the 2-dimensional torus, T 2 ? Lecture 28
S2 T2
Why does the fundamental group help here? Given topological spaces X, Y
and f : X → Y continuous,
f
f (x0 )
x0 γ Y
X f ◦γ
(g◦f )∗
56
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Indeed
g∗ (f∗ [γ]) = g∗ ([f ◦ γ]) = [g ◦ f ◦ γ] = (g ◦ f )∗ [γ]
So (g ◦ f )∗ = g∗ ◦ f∗ .
Theorem 8.5
57
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
f
y0
g◦γ
x0 γ
X f ◦γ Y
g
and √
Y = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 3}, y0 = ( 3, 0)
X
Y
58
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
Then certainly
i π
Y ,→ X −→ Y
√
where in polar coordinates π maps (r, θ) 7→ ( 3, θ).
Then π ◦ i : (Y, y0 ) → (Y, y√0 ) is the identity map. But i ◦ π : (X, x0 ) →
(X, x0 ) mapping (r, θ) 7→ ( 3, θ).
Claim: i ◦ π ∼ idX .
F is continuous, and
√
F ((r, θ), 0) = ( 3, θ) = i ◦ π((r, θ))
F ((r, θ), 1) = (r, θ) = idX ((r, θ))]
Thus π1 (X, x0 ) ∼
= π1 (Y, y0 ) because whenever f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) is a
homotopy equivalence, f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 ) is an isomorphism.
π1 (S 1 , x0 ) ∼
= Z.
S1 x0
59
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
R
γ̃
x̃0
p
I
γ x0 S1
How to apply this: Given a loop γ : I → S 1 based at x0 = (1, 0). Take Lecture 30
x̃0 = 0 ∈ R and let γ̃ : I → R be the lift of γ. Then γ̃(1) ∈ Z. (because
p ◦ γ̃ = γ, so p(γ̃(1)) = γ(1) = (1, 0), and p−1 (1, 0) = Z ⊂ R.)
Theorem 8.12
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8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
π1 (X × Y, (a, b)) ∼
= π1 (X, a) × π1 (Y, b)
X
pX
F
Z X ×Y
pY
Y
F
The universal property says Z −→ X × Y is continuous if and only if pX ◦ F
and pY ◦ F are both continuous. More concretely, to give F : Z → X × Y
sending z 7→ (F1 (z), F2 (z)) is the same as giving F1 : Z → X and F2 : Z → Y
and F is continuous iff both F1 and F2 are continuous.
A path γ : I → X × Y sending s 7→ (γ1 (s), γ2 (s)) is the same thing as to give
γ1 : I → X, γ2 : I → Y paths in X and Y . Take the map
Claim: π1 (S 2 , x0 ) ∼
= {1}. S 2 is simply-connected.
61
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
S2
S
S
P
P0
R2
Corollary 8.14. S 2 ∼
6= S 1 × S 1 .
Proof. It suffices to prove that if deg p > 0 then p has a root in C¿ [division
algorithm: p(z) = (z − a)q(z) + r, r ∈ C, r = p(a).]
62
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
p(re2πis ) |p(r)|
s 7→ ·
p(r) |p(re2πis )|
63