GEN CHEM FINALS

Gases have three characteristic properties: (1) they are easy to compress, (2) they expand to fill their
containers, and (3) they occupy far more space than the liquids or solids from which they form.

Properties of Gases:

1. A gas has no definite shape or volume of its own. It acquires the shape of the container.
Reason: Intermolecular attraction is the weakest in gases whereas intermolecular separation is the
largest. Hence, molecules in a gas move very fast and the gas expands to fill all the space available.
2. A gas has no surface of its own.
Reason: Molecules escape from an open container.
3. A gas is not rigid and is easily compressed.
Reason: Intermolecular separation is very large in gaseous state which can be decreased by applying
pressure.
4. A gas can diffuse into another gas.
Reason: Molecules in a gas move very fast. Hence the speed of diffusion is very large.
5. A gas on cooling changes into liquid state.
Reason: Cooling reduces intermolecular separation and increase intermolecular force of attraction.
6. A gas can flow in all directions. It requires a vessel closed from all sides.

Gas laws

Boyle's Law
states that equal pressure is inversely proportional to volume (when temperature is constant).

Charles's Law
states that volume is proportional to temperature (when pressure is constant). Remember that
temperature must be measured in Kelvin.

Gay-Lussac's Law
states that pressure is proportional to temperature (when volume is constant).

Avogadro's Law
states that equal volumes of all ideal gases (at the same temperature and pressure) contain the same
number of molecules.

Pressure versus Force

The volume of a gas is one of its characteristic properties. Another characteristic property is the pressure
the gas exerts on its surroundings. Many of us got our first exposure to the pressure of a gas when we
rode to the neighborhood gas station to check the pressure of our bicycle tires. Depending on the kind of
bicycle we had, we added air to the tires until the pressure gauge read between 30 and 70 pounds per
square inch (lb/in2 or psi). Two important properties of pressure can be obtained from this example.

1. The pressure of a gas becomes larger as more gas is added to the container.

2. Pressure is measured in units (such as lb/in2) that describe the force exerted by the gas divided by the
area over which this force is distributed.

The first conclusion can be summarized in the following relationship, where P is the pressure of the gas
and n is the amount of gas in the container.

Because the pressure increases as gas is added to the container, P is directly proportional to n.

The second conclusion describes the relationship between pressure and force. Pressure is defined as the
force exerted on an object divided by the area over which the force is distributed.
Solutions
 are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances.
 In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
 A homogenous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
 The solubility (ability to dissolve) of a solute in a solvent is dependent on the
A. Temperature
For solid solutes
as temperature increases, solubility increases.
For gas solutes
:as temperature increases, solubility decreases.

B. Pressure
For solid solutes
as pressure increases, solubility remains the same.
For gas solutes:
as pressure increases, solubility increases

C. Nature of Solute/Solvent

TYPES of SOLUTIONS
1. An unsaturated solution is a solution in which more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature.
2. A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at a given
temperature.
3. A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more solute than would dissolve in a saturated
solution at a given temperature.

Concentration is a general term that expresses the quantity of solute contained in a given amount of
solution. Various ways of expressing concentration are in use; the choice is usually a matter of
convenience in a particular application. You should become familiar with all of them.
Concentration of a solution can be expressed either quantitatively or qualitatively (dilute or
concentrated).

How concentrations are expressed

1. Parts-per concentration
2. Weight/volume and volume/volume basis
3. Molarity: mole/volume basis
4. Mole fraction: mole/mole basis
5. Molality: mole/weight basis

ACIDS and BASES

By the 1884 definition of Svante Arrhenius (Sweden), an acid is a material that can release a proton or
hydrogen ion (H +). Hydrogen chloride in water solution ionizes and becomes hydrogen ions and chloride
ions. If that is the case, a base, or alkali, is a material that can donate a hydroxide ion (OH-). Sodium
hydroxide in water solution becomes sodium ions and hydroxide ions. By the definition of both Thomas
Lowry (England) and J.N. Brønsted (Denmark) working independently in 1923, an acid is a material that
donates a proton and a base is a material that can accept a proton

Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids
1. turn blue litmus red
2. taste sour
3. Acids corrode metals
4. positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)

Bases
1. turn red litmus blue
2. taste bitter
3. Negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH–)
4. Feel slippery
5. Most hand soaps and drain cleaners are bases
6. Strong bases are caustic
pH stands for (presence of Hydrogen)
Numbered from 0 to 14.

The lower the pH number – the higher Acid

That means more Hydrogen Ions (H+)
The higher the pH - the higher the Base
That means less Hydrogen Ions (H+)

Several Types of Acids

 Hydrochloric Acid.
Stomach acid - has the sour taste of acid.

 Acetic Acid
An ingredient in vinegar.

 Citric Acid
Citrus fruits such as lemons, grapefruit, oranges, and limes have citric acid in the juice.

 Lactic Acid
Sour milk, sour cream, yogurt, and cottage cheese have lactic acid.

Some Common Bases

 Ammonia
The most widely used base
Used in household cleaning materials
Used as fertilizer

 Calcium hydroxide
Used to make mortar and plaster
Used to help neutralize acid soil

 Sodium hydroxide
One of the strongest bases
Used in oven cleaners and drain cleaners

Electrolytes
Mixture of chemicals that use H+ ions to conduct an electrical current.
Fluid that regulates the flow of nutrients into and waste products out of cells.