Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 62

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PHONEMIC AWARENESS
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
S K I L LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
I MP LI C A T I O NS F O R R E A D I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
IPAD APPS ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0

PHONICS
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
S Y S T E MA T I C A ND E X P LI C I T T E A C HI NG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
S Y L LA B L E P A T T E R NS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
O NS E T A ND R I ME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
RESEARCH BASED STRAT EGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

WORD RECOGNITION
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
RESEARCH BASED STRAT EGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

FLUENCY
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
I MP LI C A T I O NS F O R R E A D I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

VOCABULARY
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
R E C E P T I V E A ND E X P R E S S I V E V O C A B U LA R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
MA R Z A N O ’ S S I X - S T E P P R O C E S S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
I MP LI C A T I O NS F O R R E A D I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
RESEARCH BASED STRAT EGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

COMPREHENSION
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
I MP LI C A T I O NS F O R R E A D I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
RESEARCH BASED STRAT EGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

WRITTEN EXPRESSION
D E FI NI T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
T H E W R I T I NG P R O C E S S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
S T A G E S O F W R I T I NG D E V E LO P ME N T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
C O NF E R E N C I NG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
RESEARCH BASED STRAT EGIES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
R E S E A R C H B A S E D I N T E R V E NT I O N P R O G R A MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
IPAD APPS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
R E FE R E NC E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
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WHAT IS IT?
Phonemic awareness is the “ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words” (National Reading Panel, 2000).
Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound within our language system (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.). Phonemic
awareness is the most advanced level of phonological awareness, which is the umbrella term for the various oral language skills that
can be attained, and the understanding that spoken language can be broken down into smaller pieces. At the phonemic awareness
level of the phonological awareness continuum, students will be able to “hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds
(phonemes) in words” (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.).

PHONEMIC AWARENESS SKILLS


Students who can demonstrate good phonemic awareness skills should be able to do the following:

ELISION

Elision is the term used to describe the deletion of an unstressed letters or syllables from a word or phrase to reduce the number of
letters or syllables, and to blend words. The missing letters or syllables or replaced with an apostrophe. Often, elisions can be found
in poetry or prose, and are typically used to improve the flow of speech. Elisions are often confused with contractions, which are
slightly different. Contractions are the combination of words to form a shorter word, such as “can’t” for “cannot” (Elision, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF ELISIONS:
 ne’er – never  gonna – going to  ev’n – even
 wanna – want to  o’er – over  ‘tis – it is

ADDITION

Phoneme addition is the term used to describe the ability to identify how a word might sound if a phoneme was added to the word
(Kurtz, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF ADDITIONS:
INITIAL: FINAL:
 “What is ‘top’ with an /s/ at the beginning? (stop)”  “What is ‘car’ with a /t/ at the end? (cart)”
 “What is ‘cab’ with an /s/ at the beginning? (scab)”  “What is ‘moo’ with an /n/ at the end? (moon)”
 “What is ‘kid’ with an /s/ at the beginning? (skid)”  “What is ‘boo’ with a /k/ at the end? (book)”

DELETION
PAGE | 3

Phoneme deletion is the term used to describe the ability to identify how a word might sound if one of the phonemes were
removed (Kurtz, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF DELETIONS:
INITIAL: FINAL:
 “What is ‘cat’ without the /k/? (at)”  “What is ‘fleet’ without the /t/? (flee)”
 “What is ‘bit’ without the /b/? (it)”  “What is ‘moon’ without the /n/? (moo)”
 “What is ‘stop’ without the /s/? (top)”  “What is ‘fork’ without the /k/? (for)”

SUBSTITUTION

Phoneme substitution is the term used to describe the ability to replace a phoneme that’s in a word with a different phoneme to
create a new word (Kurtz, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF SUBSTITUIONS:
INITIAL: FINAL:
 “What is ‘cat’ with a /s/ instead of a /k/? (sat)”  “What is ‘moon’ with a /d/ instead of a /n/? (mood)”
 “What is ‘bit’ with a /k/ instead of a /b/? (kit)”  “What is ‘fork’ with a /m/ instead of a /k/? (form)”
 What is ‘top’ with a /m/ instead of a /t/? (mop)”  “What is ‘cat’ with a /k/ instead of a /t/? (cap)”

ISOLATION

Phoneme isolation is the term used to describe the ability to identify where a phoneme appears in a word or point out the phoneme
that is in a certain position in the word (Kurtz, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF ISOLATION:
INITIAL: FINAL:
 “What is the first sound in ‘paste’? (/p/)”  “What is the last sound in ‘moon’? (/n/)”
 “Where is the /k/ in ‘cat’? (beginning)”  “Where is the /p/ in ‘stop’? (ending)”
 “Is /b/ the first sound in ‘beach’? (yes)  Is /f/ the last sound in ‘fork’? (no)”

IDENTIFICATION

Phoneme identification is the term used to describe the ability to recognize common sounds in different words (National Reading
Panel, 2000).

EXAMPLES OF IDENTIFI CATION:


INITIAL: FINAL:
 “Which sound is the same in ‘bike,’ ‘boy,’ and ‘bell’?  “Which sound is the same in ‘sip,’ ‘cup,’ and ‘top’?
(/b/)” (/t/)”
 “Which sound is the same in ‘cat,’ ‘cup,’ and ‘cake’?  “Which sound is the same in ‘bad,’ ‘find,’ and ‘sand’?
(/k/)” (/d/)”
 “Which two words begin with the same sound:  “Which two words end with the same sound: ‘hop,’
‘pup,’ ‘fall,’ ‘fun’? (‘fall’ and ‘fun’)” ‘tap,’ ‘dog’? (‘hop’ and ‘tap’)”

CATEGORIZATION
PAGE | 4

Phoneme categorization is the term used to describe the ability to recognize a word with an odd sound in a sequence (National
Reading Panel, 2000).

EXAMPLES OF CATEGORIZATION:
INITIAL: FINAL:
 “Which of these words does not belong: ‘bus,’ ‘bun,’  “Which of these words does not belong: ‘cab,’ ‘box,’
‘rug’? (‘rug’)” ‘rib’? (‘box’)”
 “Which word does not begin the same as the others:  “Which word does not end the same as the others:
‘cat,’ ‘dog,’ ‘cake’? (‘dog’)” ‘pole,’ ‘lamp,’ ‘doll’? (‘lamp’)”
 “Which of these words begin the same: ‘dog,’ ‘desk,’  “Which of these words end the same: ‘box,’ ‘fix,’
‘kite’? (‘dog’ and ‘desk’)” ‘exit’? (‘box’ and ‘fix’)”

SEGMENTATION

Phoneme segmentation is the term used to describe the ability to identify the elements of words (Kurtz, n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF SEGMENTATION:
SPECIFIC SOUNDS: NUMBER OF SOUNDS:
 “What sounds do you hear in ‘drab’? (/d/-/r/-/a/-/b/)”  “How many sounds do you hear in ‘drab’? (4
 “What sounds do you hear in ‘foot’? (/f/-/oo/-/t/)” sounds)”
 “What sounds do you hear in ‘shoe’? (/sh/-/oe/)”  “How many sounds do you hear in ‘foot’? (3
sounds)”
 “How many sounds do you hear in ‘shoe’? (2
sounds)”
BLENDING

Phoneme blending is the term used to describe the ability to identify a word when only hearing parts of the word in isolation (Kurtz,
n.d.).

EXAMPLES OF BLENDING:
EMERGING SKILL: PROFICIENT SKILLS:
 “What word do I make if I put together ‘snow’ and  “What word does /b/-/i/-/t/ make? (bit)”
‘ball’? (snowball)”  “What word does /k/-/a/-/t/ make? (cat)”
 “What word do I make if I put together ‘cup’ and  “What word am I trying to make when I say /t/-/o/-
‘cake’? (cupcake)” /p/? (top)”
 “What word do I make if I put together ‘po’ and
‘ny’? (pony)”

IMPLICATIONS FOR READING


Phonemic awareness is a good indicator for whether a student will be a successful reader. For students to be successful in reading,
they must understand that the sounds they hear in words relate to the letters they see on the page. A student may know their
letters and can say them without have phonemic awareness. That is, they understand letters, and may even understand that letters
make up words, but they cannot relate letters to their sounds. Since reading is mainly comprised of decoding and comprehension,
phonemic awareness is an important skill to have to decode properly (Hoover, 2002). Therefore, it is so important for students to
obtain proficiency in phonological awareness, and more specifically, phonemic awareness.

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING PHONEMIC AWARENESS


PAGE | 5

The learning and development of phonemic awareness is a priority in the lower-elementary grades (pre-kindergarten, kindergarten,
and first grade). Typically, teachers spend about 10-15 minutes per day developing these skills in students. If there is a high
population of at-risk students in the school, more time may need to be dedicated daily to the development in phonemic awareness
(Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.). Some of the strategies included on Reading Rockets that would be beneficial to
developing a student’s phonemic awareness may include (Phonemic Awareness, n.d.):

RHYMING

 Use word families to introduce rhyming words to students, and have them manipulate the words through activities.
 Have students listen to a story and invite them to find rhyming words and “catch” them (“hat, mat, catch it!”).
 Read books that feature rhyming words, such as Dr. Seuss stories.

WORD AWARENESS AND RECOGNITION

 Clapping the number of words in a sentence.


 Implementing a Word Wall in the classroom.
 Manipulating words in sentences using paper strips, unifix cubes, etc. to re-create a sentence in the proper order.

SYLLABLE AWARENESS AND RECOGNITION

 Clapping the number of syllables in a word.


o Can also be used for students to learn each others names at the beginning of the year.
 Sorting picture and word cards into categories based upon their number of syllables.
 Have students place their hand under their chin to determine how many times their mouth opens, which determines the
number of syllables in a word.

ONSET AND RIME

 Have students manipulate various onsets when given a specific rime to determine if the words are real or not real.
 Have students sort words by their rime in a pocket chart.
 Match an onset with a rime to create a word that make sense.

PHONEMES

 Have students guess the word you are saying by either breaking it down into sounds, saying the word very slow, or using a
robot voice.
 Have students segment words into individual phonemes.
 Use Elkonin Boxes and have students break up words by their sounds.
o Below is an example of an Elkonin Box used for the word “sheep,” which contains 3 phonemes: /sh/ /ee/ /p/:
PAGE | 6

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS


With so many different students working at different paces, it’s important to know and understand how to implement intervention
programs and when it’s the appropriate time to do so. Response to Intervention (RTI) is determined through a teachers’ assessment
of her students to provide the appropriate level of instruction (Kelly, 2011).

RTI TIERS

TIER 1 TIER 2 TIER 3


 beneficial to all students  beneficial to students who  beneficial to students who
 core-curriculum are somewhat below grade are significantly below grade
level level
 early intervention services  intensive intervention
services

INTERVENTION PROGRAM S FOR PHONEMIC AWARENESS

PHONEMIC AWARENESS I N YOUNG CHILDREN


This program supplements any pre-reading program that may already be implemented in the classroom. It features many activities
and games to develop skills in rhyming, alliteration, and segmentation. The program also includes an assessment tool that is easy to
use and can be used monthly to monitor student progress. This program accommodates individual learning and teaching styles
(Phonemic Awareness in Young Children - Item Description, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 1  pre-kindergarten  individual
 Tier 2  kindergarten  small group
 Tier 3  first grade  whole group

FUNNIX
This program is a computer-based intervention program. Funnix features 220 lessons that can take beginning non-readers up to
reading at beginning third grade level. Along with the program, there are also printable materials, such as workbook pages and
placement tests. You can also purchase a physical student workbook and a hardcover reader. The program also includes a complete
teaching guide (Funnix Bginning Reading & Funnix 2, 2012).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 1  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 2  first grade  small group
 Tier 3  second grade  whole group

KINDERGARTEN PEER ASSISTED LEARNI NG STRATEGIES ( K-PALS)


This program is a structured, peer-mediated reading program that provides materials for young children to practice and develop
their phonemic awareness skills. The K-PALS program allows for practice in letter-sound correspondence, decoding, phonological
awareness, and sight words. This program is typically implemented 3-4 times a week for about 30-35 minutes. Students work with
each other and the teacher to develop and practice their phonemic awareness skills (PALS Reading, n.d.).
PAGE | 7

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade  small group

WATERFORD
This program is a personalized learning software that will automatically adapt to each students’ individual level. This ensures that
each student can succeed at their own level and pace. The student-friendly design allows students to work independently and
oversee their own learning. This program allows for different ways of implementation, such as on a computer, tablet, or phone.
With 7,000+ learning activities, songs, and books, students are exposed to a wide variety of learning tools. It also provides
assessments, and allows teachers to access easy-to-read reports in real-time (Waterford Early Learning, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade
 second grade

VOYAGER PASSPORT
This program uses early intervention to accelerate the learning for students who need supplemental instruction in order to master
priority reading skills and strategies. Voyager Passport uses targeted instruction to ensure that students are receiving the instruction
that they are showing deficits in. It also includes differentiated instruction within the program for diverse population, including
English language learners. The program has many useful features, such as progress monitoring, reteaching and correction support,
and online data management for teachers (Voyager Passport with eBooks, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade
 second grade
 third grade
 fourth grade
 fifth grade

ASSESSING PHONEMIC AWARENESS


To drive instruction and monitor students’ progress, assessments must be used to understand the level of phonemic awareness that
children are experiencing. Assessments can either be formal or informal, and both will provide valuable information about a
student’s development of phonemic awareness skills.

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

CTOPP-2
The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition (CTOPP-2), created by Richard Wagner, Joseph Torgesen,
Carol Rashotte, and Nils A. Pearson, is a test used to evaluate phonological processing abilities. This test will determine a student’s
strengths prior to beginning reading. With this test, an individual whose phonological awareness abilities are significantly below their
peers can be identified, and therefore, begin receiving intervention services. The subtests included in the CTOPP-2 are:

 elision  phoneme isolation  non-word repetition


 blending words  blending non-words  rapid digit naming
 sound matching  memory for digits  rapid letter naming
PAGE | 8

 rapid color naming  rapid object naming

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–6  $330  40 minutes
 ages 7–24

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/language/products/100000737/comprehensive-test-of-phonological-processing-second-edition-ctopp-
2-ctopp-2.html#tab-details

PAT 2
The Phonological Awareness Test 2 (PAT 2), created by Carolyn Robertson, M.Ed. and Wanda Salter, M.A., M.S., CCC-SLP, is a test
used to assess the pre-reading skills in students that are early indicators of reading success. This test helps identify students who may
lack phonological knowledge and difficulty corresponding sounds with symbols. The PAT 2 assesses the oral language components
that comprise words. Subtests featured in the Pat 2 include:

 Rhyming: Discrimination and  Deletion: Compound  Blending: Syllables and


Production Words, Syllables, and Phonemes
 Segmentation: Sentences, Phonemes  Graphemes
Syllables, and Phonemes  Substitution with  Decoding
 Isolation: Initial, Final, Medial Manipulatives  Invented Spelling
GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:
 kindergarten – fourth grade  $179.95  40 minutes
 ages 5–9

LINKS:
https://www.linguisystems.com/products/product/display?itemid=10489#top

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

PHONEMIC AWARENESS ASSESSMENT


A one-on-one assessment, provided by Reading Rockets, that measures students’ ability to match, isolate, bend, segment, and
manipulate phonemes. Assessment should occur three times during the school year, and data should be used to guide instruction. A
chart, checklist, or anecdotal notes would be useful for tracking data.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten – first grade  free  none provided

LINKS:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/phonemic-awareness-assessment

QUICK EVALUATION OF PHONEMIC AWARENESS


This informal, one-on-one evaluation, provided by Miscese R. Gagen of Right Track Reading, has various oral and listening activities
that will help you assess a student’s phonemic awareness abilities. These short activities are beneficial for tracking specific areas
where a student may show deficits. A chart, checklist, or anecdotal notes would be useful for tracking data.
PAGE | 9

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 pre-kindergarten -  free  none provided
kindergarten
LINKS:
http://www.righttrackreading.com/

http://righttrackreading.com/phonemicevaluation.html

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT PHONEMIC AWARENESS DEVELOPMENT

HEARBUILDER PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS

This app, created by Super Duper Publications, is a research- and evidence-based software program. The app allows students to earn
instruments and band members to form a rock band, all while learning to blend, segment, and manipulate sounds.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 none provided  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/hea
rbuilder-
phonological-
awareness/id667
457445?mt=8

READING MAGIC 1

This app, created by Preschool University, allows students to practice blending and segmenting words to improve their phonemic
awareness skills. Besides being beneficial to young children, English language learners can also benefit from this app.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 5 and under  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/abc
-magic-reading-
short-
vowel/id4168968
53?mt=8

SOUND BEGINNINGS

This app, created by Preschool University, allows students to develop foundational skills through interactive games. Students will play
games that will help them identify beginning, middle, or ending sounds. This app focuses on practicing the sounds of the letters, and
not the names of them.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 none provided  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/sou
PAGE | 10

nd- 98864?mt=8
beginnings/id5418
POCKET CHARTS! ENDING LETTER SOUNDS

This app, created by Good Neighbor Press, Inc., helps students develop early literacy skills. The app focuses on the ending sounds of
words, and using a pocket chart format, much like the ones that can be found in classrooms, to have students sort pictures by their
ending letter sounds.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 6-8  4+  $0.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/end
ing-letter-
sounds/id470259
117?mt=8

PARTNERS IN RHYME

This app, created by Preschool University, helps students develop better phonemic awareness with rhyming. Students will work with
sounds within words to discern words that do rhyme and words that don’t rhyme. They will also be introduced to word families by
the sounds they make.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 5 and under  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/par
tners-in-
rhyme/id7213347
45?mt=8

REFERENCES
Elision. (n.d.). (Literary Devices) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Literary Devices: https://literarydevices.net/elision/#

Florida Center for Reading Research. (n.d.). Phonological Awareness. (Florida State University) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from
Empowering Teachers: http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/ET/essentials/components/pa.html

Funnix Bginning Reading & Funnix 2. (2012). (Royal Limited Partnership) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Funnix:
http://www.funnix.com/

Hoover, W. A. (2002, December 3). The Importance of Phonemic Awareness in Learning to Read. SEDL Letter, XIV(3). Retrieved
January 22, 2017, from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedl-letter/v14n03/3.html

Kelly, C. (2011). Reading Intervention Programs: A Comparative Chart. (WETA Public Broadcasting) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from
Reading Rockets: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/reading-intervention-programs-comparative-chart

Kurtz, R. (n.d.). Phonemic Awareness. (Speech-Language-Development.com) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Speech-Language-
Development: http://www.speech-language-development.com/phoneme-deletion.html

National Reading Panel. (2000, April 13). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on
Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Retrieved January 22, 2017, from
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/documents/report.pdf
PAGE | 11

PALS Reading. (n.d.). (Vanderbilt Kennedy Center) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Peer Assisted Learning Strategies:
http://vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/pals/reading.html

Phonemic Awareness. (n.d.). (WETA Public Broadcasting) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Reading Rockets:
http://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/phonemic

Phonemic Awareness in Young Children - Item Description. (n.d.). Retrieved January 22, 2017, from LearningStore:
http://www.learningstore.org/we1096b.html

Voyager Passport with eBooks. (n.d.). (Voyager Sopris Learning) Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Voyager Sopris Learning:
http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/voyager-passport/overview

Waterford Early Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved January 22, 2017, from Waterford: http://www.waterford.org/waterford-early-learning/
PAGE | 12

WHAT IS IT?
Phonics instruction focuses on ensuring that beginning readers begin understanding the alphabetic system, which includes letter-
sound correspondence and spelling patterns. Students must also be able to take what they know about the alphabetic system and
apply it to their own reading (National Reading Panel, 2000). There are 40 sounds and 26 letters in the English language, and
beginning readers must be able to connect them (Rhonda Armistead & Leigh Armistead, 2004). Phonics is different than phonological
awareness in that phonics combines visual and oral skills, whereas phonological awareness is simply an oral skill. However,
phonological awareness and phonics are interwoven, and often go hand-in-hand with one another (Tate, 2014).

SYSTEMATIC AND EXPLICIT APPROACH TO PHONICS INSTRUCTION


There are many different reading programs available to teach phonics, but there is a stress on teaching phonics systematically and
explicitly. To be systematic, sound/spelling relationships must be taught in a logical order, from simple to complex, and in accordance
with the structure of the English language. To be explicit, instruction must be isolated to one concept at a time, whether a sound or
a spelling patter, and uses it as the organizing principle of the lesson. This type of instruction also allows for ample practice for
students and the ability to apply what they’ve learned as they begin to read words, sentences, and text. Systematic, explicit phonics
instruction is better to be taught early, such as in kindergarten or first grade, and most students will only need two years of this type
of instruction in order to be successful. However, some students may need more, such as students with disabilities and English
language learners (Rhonda Armistead & Leigh Armistead, 2004). There are essentially two systematic approaches to teaching
phonics: analytical and synthetic.

ANALYTIC PHONICS INSTRUCTION

Analytic phonics is the more traditional method of phonics instruction that involves students analyzing a word that they’re trying to
read. Analytical phonics focuses on finding patterns and differences within a word, and stresses word families and/or onset and rime
(Tate, 2014). Students are pressed to take clues from whole-word recognition, initial sound, and the context of the word.
Essentially, children are encouraged to “guess” what the words is. Although this approach is beneficial to some students, the method
can be really hit-or-miss (Analytic Phonics vs Synthetic Phonics, n.d.).

SYNTHETIC PHONICS INSTRUCTION

Synthetic phonics focuses on the individual sound/symbol relationships of words, and uses a sequential approach (left to right) to
decoding unknown words (Tate, 2014). There is no “guessing” involved, and students are encouraged to blend the phonemes to
make and read the word in front of them (Analytic Phonics vs Synthetic Phonics, n.d.)

ANALYTIC VS SYNTHETIC
PAGE | 13

A combination of analytic and synthetic phonics is beneficial to students and allows them to become automatic decoders and more
fluent in their reading. Teachers should not consider one phonics instruction over the other; instead, teach students both strategies
and let them determine which one works for them (Tate, 2014).

SYLLABLE PATTERNS
A syllable is a part of a word that only contains one vowel sound. Some syllables have more than one vowel in it, but syllables refer
to the sounds you hear, not the printed letters. The letter ‘y’ can also be considered a vowel in syllables. There are essentially seven
types of syllable patterns to master. Of course, there’s always exceptions to the rule, but by learning the main syllable patterns,
students will be much more successful in reading (Tate, 2014).

CLOSED SYLLABLES

A closed syllable features a single vowel that is followed by a consonant. Typically, the vowels are short in closed syllables.

EXAMPLES OF CLOSED SYLLABLES:


 cat
 dog
 fish
 rab | bit
 nap | kin
 doc | tor

OPEN SYLLABLES

An open syllable features a single vowel at the end of the syllable. Typically, the vowels are long in open syllables.

EXAMPLES OF OPEN SYLLABLES:


 me
 go
 we
 ti | ger
 ba | by
 pa | per

MAGIC ‘E’ SYLLABLES

Magic ‘e’ syllables feature a long vowel, followed by a consonant, and ending with a silent ‘e’.

EXAMPLES OF MAGIC ‘E’ SYLLABLES


 bake
 pine
 bone
 es | cape
 sun | rise
 con | fuse

VOWEL TEAM SYLLABLES


PAGE | 14

Vowel team syllables feature two letters that, when put together, make only one vowel sound.

EXAMPLES OF VOWEL TEAM SYLLABLES:


 team
 float
 seed
 rain | coat
 be | cause
 cray | on

R-CONTROLLED SYLLABLES

An r-controlled syllable features one or more vowels followed by the single letter ‘r.’ It is said that the vowel sound is “controlled”
by the ‘r.’ It can also be referred to as a “bossy ‘r’.”

EXAMPLES OF R-CONTROLLED SYLLABLES :


 car
 bird
 fort
 birth | day
 per | son
 tur | key

DIPHTHONG SYLLABLES

A diphthong syllable features two vowels that create a new vowel sound when their individual vowel sounds are combined.

EXAMPLES OF DIPHTHON G SYLLABLES:


 boil
 cloud
 look
 an | noy
 au | thor
 bam | boo

CONSONANT -LE SYLLABLES

Consonant -le syllables feature an unaccented final syllable that contains a consonant followed by an -le.

EXAMPLES OF CONSONAN T -LE SYLLABLES:


 bub | ble
 sta | ple
 cir | cle
 puz | zle
 ti | tle
 fum | ble
PAGE | 15

ONSET AND RIME PATTERNS


The onset of a word is the beginning consonant or consonant blend of a word. The rime refers to the letters that follow the onset,
which usually have a vowel and ending consonants. Not all words have onsets, but it’s still an important step in teaching students
how to read because it helps them recognize common pieces within a word. This allows students the opportunity to decode new
words and helps them in spelling new words. Typically, this type of instruction focuses on the various word families, and how you
can manipulate the onset to create new words. With these newly obtained skills, students will have higher literacy skills and
strategies that they can use throughout their education (Reading Rockets, 2014).

EXAMPLES OF ONSE T AND RIME:

ONSET:
RIME:
 ‘c’ in cat
 ‘p’ in pick  ‘at’ in cat
 ‘sl’ in slap  ‘ick’ in pick
 ‘ap’ in slap
RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING PHONICS
Just like with phonemic awareness, phonics instruction should be taught at the lower-elementary level. For students to comprehend
the text they are reading, they must first learn to convert letters into identifiable words, which is done through phonics instruction.
Systematic and explicit phonics instruction leads to a child’s improvement in word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension.
Some strategies that would be beneficial to phonics instruction include (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004):

PRINT AWARENESS

 Participation in read-aloud activities that model the concepts of print and its conventions.
 Reinforce the forms and functions of print by including signs, labels, posters, calendars, and other forms of text throughout
the classroom.
 Emphasize different print conventions, such as directionality, capital letters (“Captain Capital leads the way!”), and
punctuation.

ALPHABETIC KNOWLEDGE

 Practice recognition of letter names, shapes, and sounds.


 Instruction that allows students to see, play with, and compare letters.
 Songs, games, and other activities help students identify letters, learn both uppercase and lowercase forms, and notice
similarities and differences among various letters.

ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE

 Teach letter-sound correspondence explicitly and isolated, and then provide multiple opportunities throughout the day for
practicing.
 Ensure that students are engaging in practice of new and old sound-letter relationships.
 Allow students to practice what they’ve learned so that they can apply it to reading.

DECODING AND READING PRACTICE

 To enhance their skills in decoding, students should be given opportunities to practice with word families, spelling patterns,
and onsets and rimes.
 More advanced readers must begin to focus on structural analysis, understanding the parts to understand the whole, which
includes inflectional endings (-ed, -es), prefixes (pre-, in-, un-), and suffixes (-ful, -ly).
PAGE | 16

 Engage students in discussions about a text to ensure that they understand that the purpose of reading is to get meaning,
and without decoding, you won’t be able to comprehend.

IRREGULAR WORDS

 Irregular words, or sight words, should be taught in a reasonable order and in a meaningful way, such as a with rhymes,
songs, or hand gestures.
 Instruction should happen simultaneously with letter-sound correspondence to build a strong foundation for beginning
readers.
 A Word Wall should be a central focus of the classroom, where students can locate irregular words to assist them in their
reading and writing.

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

TOUCHPHONICS

Touchphonics is a hands-on approach to learning and understanding the components of phonics. This program teaches decoding
concepts through visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile modalities to ensure that students are given a multi-sensory experience.
This program is especially great for struggling readers, students with attention deficit disorders, dyslexic students, English language
learners, students with autism, and students with cerebral palsy (Touchphonics, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :

 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual


 Tier 3  first grade  small group
 second grade  whole group
 third grade
 fourth grade
 fifth grade

HEADSPROUT
Headsprout is an online, interactive program that teachers the fundamentals of reading and comprehension. The program adapts to
the specific needs of each learner to reach the areas that they struggle with the most. The program includes embedded assessments
and easy-to-read reports for teachers. The program also contains various motivational strategies and rewards to ensure that kids
stay engaged throughout their learning (Headsprout, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade
 second grade
 third grade
 fourth grade
 fifth grade

SAXON PHONICS AND SPELLING

Saxon Phonics and Spelling uses a unique researched-based method of building foundational reading skills. Through explicit
instruction, students are engaged in a multisensory approach that engages visual, auditory, and tactile senses. This program is
beneficial to English language learners, and can be used alone or to supplement a core reading program that’s already in place. The
program features fully developed lesson plans that are effective and ready to teach (Saxon Phonics and Spelling, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S):  Tier 2


 Tier 1
PAGE | 17

 Tier 3 GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 kindergarten  individual
 first grade  small group
 second grade  whole group
 third grade

PROJECT READ: PHONICS

Project Read: Phonics contains a multisensory approach to the learning needs of beginning readers. The program applies
sound/symbol knowledge to spelling and reading comprehension through direct instruction. The program contains word building
activities as well as various decoding strategies, such as sound/symbol, syllabication, and context clues to guide the reader toward a
more successful reading experience (Phonics, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade  small group
 second grade  whole group

PHONICS FOR READING

Phonics for Reading is a program used to support students who struggle with reading comprehension due to a variety of weak areas,
such as phonemic awareness and decoding skills. This program uses systematic, explicit instruction that builds confidence and
motivation in readers of all ages. It also provides teachers with data collected from assessments throughout the program (Phonics
for Reading, 2011).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  first grade  individual
 Tier 2  second grade  small group
 Tier 3  third grade  whole group
 fourth grade
 fifth grade

ASSESSING PHONICS SKILLS

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

WJ III DRB
The Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ III DRB), created by Richard Woodcock, Nancy Mather, and Frederick
A. Schrank, is a test used to evaluate a student’s phonological awareness, phonics knowledge, reading achievement, and related oral
language abilities. The test assesses specific attributes of reading achievement of a student, which gives the examiner valuable data
regarding a student’s level of achievement in reading.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 2–90  $487.15  5–10 minutes per test
 50–60 minutes total

LINKS:
http://www.hmhco.com/hmh-assessments/reading/wj-iii-drb#system-requirements
PAGE | 18

WIAT-III
The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test – Third Edition (WIAT-III), created by Pearson Education, is a test used to identify the
academic strengths and weaknesses of a student, and helps to design instructional objectives and interventions. There are eight areas
of achievement that can be measured, but you can simply focus on reading goals and objectives with the Early Reading Skills subtests.
These subtests determine where a student’s strengths and weaknesses lie in reading, and allow the teacher to use the data gathered
to drive instruction.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–50  $561.35  varies by grade level and the
number of subtests
administered

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000463/wechsler-individual-achievement-testthird-edition-wiatiii-wiat-
iii.html#tab-details

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

CORE PHONICS SURVEY


The CORE Phonics Survey, as seen in the Core Teaching Reading Sourcebook and adapted by Scholastic Red, is used to asses a student’s
current level in regards to phonics and phonics-related skills that are essential for reading. Students are assessed on their alphabet
skills, reading and decoding skills, and their spelling skills. The following items are in each subtest:

READING AND DECODING


ALPHABET SKILLS SKILLS SPELLING SKILLS

 Letter Names (uppercase)  Short Vowels in CVC Words  Initial Consonants


 Letter Names (lowercase)  Short Vowels, Digraphs, and  Final Consonants
 Consonant Sounds -tch Trigraph  CVC Words
 Long Vowel Sounds  Consonant Blends with Short  Long Vowel Spellings
 Short Vowel Sounds Vowels
 Long Vowel Spellings
 Variant Vowels and
Diphthongs
 r- and l-controlled Vowels
 Multisyllabic Words

The information retrieved from this assessment will guide teachers in their phonics instruction. It will also provide insight into
designing phonics skill groups that can be geared toward the areas that there may have been a deficit.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–eighth grade  free  10–15 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.senia.asia/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/CORE-Phonics-Survey-Scholastic.pdf

THE NONSENSE WORD TE ST


PAGE | 19

This assessment, presented by Scholastic from Teaching Phonics & Word Study in the Intermediate Grades, assesses the student’s ability
to read nonsense words with the correct pronunciation per common sound-spelling relationships. For students with dyslexia, this
assessment will be very difficult. Once a student has completed this assessment, the teacher can look through the mispronounced
words to determine if there is a pattern of weakness among sound-spelling relationships. The data gathered will help drive
instruction on the weak areas of the assessment.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 third grade–twelfth grade  free  8–12 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.scholastic.com/content/collateral_resources/pdf/r/reading_bestpractices_phonics_nonsensewordtest.pdf

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT PHONICS DEVELOPMENT

FIRST WORDS DELUXE

This app, created by Learning Touch LLC, that teaches letters-sounds, spelling and word recognition in a fun and interactive way. The
app is presented in multiple languages to suit every learner. This app is for beginning readers and provides a lot of guidance for a
younger audience.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 5 and under  4+  $4.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/first
-words-
deluxe/id3374629
79?mt=8

ABCMOUSE.COM

This app, created by Age of Learning, Inc., has been proven to accelerate a student’s learning, which in turn helps them develop skills
faster in literacy and math. Through the app, students can learn through a variety of activities, including games, books, songs, art
projects, puzzles, and even printable worksheets that can be done at home or school.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 2–7  4+  app – free  https://itunes.appl
 membership – e.com/us/app/abc
$7.99/month or mouse.com-
$79.99/year early-
learning/id586328
581?mt=8

AVOKIDDO ABC RIDE

This app, created by AVOKIDDO, features many fun and interactive alphabet and spelling games. The app progresses naturally as
students master each skill area and move on to the next one. You can also adjust individual game difficulty to ensure that students
are engaged the whole time.

AGE RANGE:  5 and under RATING:  4+


PAGE | 20

COST: LINK:
 $2.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/id8
27657068?ign-
mpt=uo%3D4

ENDLESS ALPHABET

This app, created by Originator Inc., students can learn their alphabet and build vocabulary, all while interacting with adorable
monsters. Students will be exposed to puzzle gams and short animations to provide meaning and context to the vocabulary words
that are being introduced.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 5 and under  4+  $8.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/id5
91626572?ign-
mpt=uo%3D4

ABC SHAKEDOWN

This app, created by i-Itch Inc., uses digital flashcards to get students prepared for reading. The focus of this app is sound-symbol
correspondence, and incorporates your phone’s or iPad’s ability to “shake” to engage students. Each sound in the app is enunciated,
articulated, and properly spoken with the guidance of a speech pathologist.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 none provided  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/abc
-
shakedown/id347
966971?mt=8&ig
n-mpt=uo%3D4

REFERENCES
Analytic Phonics vs Synthetic Phonics. (n.d.). (Get Reading Right) Retrieved January 24, 2017, from Get Reading Right:
http://www.getreadingright.com.au/analytic-phonics-vs-synthetic-phonics/

Headsprout. (n.d.). (Learning A-Z) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from Learning A-Z: https://www.headsprout.com/

National Reading Panel. (2000). Phonics Instruction. In Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research
Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction (pp. 2-89 - 2-176). Retrieved January 24, 2017, from
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/documents/report.pdf

Phonics. (n.d.). (Language Circle Enterprises) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from Project Read: https://www.projectread.com/

Phonics for Reading. (2011). (Curriculum Associates, LLC) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from Curriculum Associates New Hampshire:
http://www.curriculumassociates.com/products/detail.aspx?title=PhonicsReading

Reading Rockets. (2014, July 12). Onset/Rime Games. (WETA Public Broadcasting) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from Reading Rockets:
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/onset_rime
PAGE | 21

Rhonda Armistead, M. N., & Leigh Armistead, E. N. (2004). Reading Instruction: Implications of the National Reading Panel Report.
Helping Children at School: Handouts From Your School Psychologist. Retrieved January 24, 2017, from National Association of
School Psychologists.

Saxon Phonics and Spelling. (n.d.). (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from HMH:
http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/literature-and-language-arts/language-arts/saxon-phonics-and-
spelling#hmh-professional-services

Tate, C. (2014, August 10). Breaking the Barrier of Multisyllabic Words - A Visual Pattern Approach. Retrieved January 24, 2017, from
EDU 610: Teaching Language Arts and Literacy.

Touchphonics. (n.d.). (Educatiors Publishing Service) Retrieved January 26, 2017, from EPS:
http://eps.schoolspecialty.com/products/literacy/phonics-word-study/touchphonics/about-the-program

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Phonics and Word Study. In S. Vaughn, & S. Linan-Thompson, Research-Based Methods of
Reading Instruction, Grades K-3. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Retrieved January 26, 2017, from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104134/chapters/Phonics-and-Word-Study.aspx
PAGE | 22

WHAT IS IT?
Word recognition is an extension of phonics that focuses on a person’s ability to identify written words accurately and with fluency.
The process in which students use strategies to pronounce and identify unknown words is called word identification. With this
ability, students are also able to understand the new words meaning by using context clues with the sentence. Students also use
their phonics skills to recognize unknown words by implementing the strategies they’ve learned regarding word parts and how the
word is used in the context. Along with basic word recognition, many teachers want students to acquire intelligent word
recognition, which is based on the idea of word discrimination. This means that students will be able to notice differences between
two printed words and analyze them quickly, all while maintaining the meaning of the text they are reading. Essentially, as teachers,
the goal is to have students automatically recognize words without much deliberation on the matter (What is Word Recognition?,
n.d.).

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING WORD RECOGNITION

CHUNKING

 Look at familiar letters, especially beginning and ending sounds, and see if the word could be sounded out using common
phonics decoding strategies.
 Identify familiar letter chunks within a word, including prefixes, suffixes, endings, whole words, or base words.
 Recognize common beginnings and endings of words to blend the chunks together.

CONTEXT CLUES

 Read the rest of the sentence to see if the word can be determined using phonics strategies and contextual clues.
 Use pictures or other text features to determine what the word may be, or if the “guessed” word makes sense.
 Read the previous sentence again, and then try reading the sentence with the unfamiliar word to see if context clues help
solve the unknown word.

CONNECTIONS

 Identify a familiar word that looks like the new word that the student is having trouble with to determine if they are similar
in meaning.
 Use a word that would make sense in the sentence to see if it helps in remembering what the unfamiliar word may be.
 Engage prior knowledge of the book or subject to establish what the word may be or if it makes sense.

WORD WALL

 Have an easily accessible word wall within the classroom that displays high-frequency words.
 Students can keep their own word dictionaries that have words that they struggle with.
PAGE | 23

 Build upon the wall as new words are entered into a student’s vocabulary; do not simply put all of the words up at the
beginning of the school year.

SUPPLEMENTAL CLASSRO OM MATERIALS

 Include labels on various items in the room so that students are able to practice reading these words.
 Anchor charts should be used around the room and help students in discovering strategies for decoding words
independently.
 Engage students in practicing their sight words through various whole-group and center activities focused on recognizing
words.

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

WORD WARM-UPS

Word Warm-ups is a program that helps build mastery and automaticity in decoding words. The program features systematic
phonics instruction that allows students to practice decoding and encoding one-, two-, and three-syllable words. This program is
audio-supported, so it can easily be individualized to meet the needs of each student so that they can work independently (Word
Warm-ups, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  skill level:  individual
 Tier 2 o first grade–fourth
 Tier 3 grade
 intervention level:
o first grade–eighth
grade

WILSON JUST WORDS

Wilson Language Training’s Just Words program is designed for students and adults who have mild to moderate difficulty decoding
and encoding words, which makes it difficult for them to read and spell. This program should be used in combination with other
literature-rich programs that are already present within a school’s curriculum (Just Words, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  fourth grade–twelfth grade  small group

I-READY READING

i-Ready Reading is a computer-based intervention program that adapts to students’ individual needs. Each lesson builds upon
previous skills and is engaging to students with fun characters and games. The program was built based upon Common Core
standards, so it provides teachers with insight into exactly where their students are and what areas they need to work on (i-Ready,
n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2
 Tier 3
PAGE | 24

PHONICS AND WORD STU DY

The Phonics and Word Study intervention program from Continental Press is a six-level program that focuses on decoding using
phonics and structural analysis. It’s target audience is under-performing readers in the upper grades who still struggle with phonics
and decoding skills. This program can be used alone or alongside another reading program (Phonics and Word Study, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT:


 Tier 2  third grade–eighth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group
 whole group

LEXIA LITERACY IMPRO VEMENT

Lexia’s Literacy Improvement program uses a technology-based application to meet the needs of every learner and individualized
each student’s learning path. Students are taught using an explicit and systematic instruction type that adapts to their area of need.
Teachers are provided with progress monitoring data that can help drive teacher-led instruction (Literacy Improvement Pre-K-5,
n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  pre-kindergarten–fifth grade  individual
 Tier 2
 Tier 3

ASSESSING WORD RECOGNITION SKILLS

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

KTEA-3
The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition (KTEA-3), created by Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman,
PhD, provides an in-depth assessment of students’ academic skills across a variety of skill areas. Students can be tested in the areas
of letter and word recognition, nonsense word decoding, word recognition fluency, and decoding fluency. Teachers are provided
with a summary of student performance to understand their ability level in each tested area to determine their instructional
approach.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–25  $433.15  15–85 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/education/products/100000777/kaufman-test-of-educational-achievement-third-edition-ktea-
3.html#tab-details

TOWRE-2
The Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (TOWRE-2), published by Pro-Ed, assesses the efficiency of sight word
recognition and decoding in both children and adults. It focuses on a person’s ability to pronounce printed words and phonemically
regular non-words. Since the test can be administered quickly, it’s a good tool for teachers to use to monitor growth of students
over time.
PAGE | 25

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 6–24  $302  5–10 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.proedinc.com/customer/productView.aspx?ID=5074

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

DOLCH/FRY SIGHT WORD S ASSESSMENT


This assessment of grade-appropriate sight words provides insight into a student’s ability to read the most common words found in
our language. Teachers have students read through a list of the sight words, making sure to mark which ones the student gets wrong
or it is not read with automaticity. Teachers can then determine which words still need to be worked on during instruction, and the
student(s) will be given the opportunity to practice them.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 Dolch:  free  5–10 minutes
o pre-kindergarten–
third grade
 Fry:
o third grade–ninth
grade
LINKS:
http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/dolch/
http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/fry/

THE NAMES TEST


The Names Test, created by Patricia Cunningham and F.A. Dufflemeyer, is a quick assessment to determine a student’s level of
decoding skills. Students are given a list of 25 decodable first and last names and told to read them aloud. Teachers record any
incorrect pronunciations to determine where a student’s strengths and weaknesses lie with decoding.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 second grade–fifth grade  free  5–10 minutes

LINKS:
http://departments.olatheschools.com/mtss/files/2012/07/namestestlevel1_2-abc.pdf

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT WORD RECOGNITION

WORD RECOGNITION LEVEL 1

This app, created by Bugbrained, LLC, is based upon Common Core standards in word recognition. Students can practice reading
grade-appropriate words to provide them with a head start on literacy. Students are provided with immediate feedback to help
them take control of their own learning.
PAGE | 26

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6–8  4+  $1.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/wo
rd-recognition-
level-
1/id481788060?m
t=8

KIDS’ WORDS JUNGLE

This app, created by Circular3D, is an educational game focused on building young children’s ability to decode and read words. The
words are pronounced correctly before and after the child completes the word to ensure that they are getting a solid foundation of
word recognition skills.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 5 and under  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/kid
s-words-
jungle/id5073429
32?mt=8

LEARN TO READ NOK-SYLLABLES

This app, created by Pitruf, is an interactive and engaging game that allows students to create objects in a magical laboratory, but only
after solving the correct arrangement of words. Each level gets progressively more difficult, and children can earn prizes as they
complete each level. Once they’ve completed all the levels, they will be challenged to compete in the tournament mode, which gives
them the same questions, but they are now timed.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 3–7  4+  $2.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/lear
n-to-read-nok-
syllables/id10125
23887?mt=8&ign-
mpt=uo%3D8

SIGHT WORDS

This app, created by EDOKI ACADEMY, is a fun and engaging way for kids to recognize, read, and write up to 320 sight words. It was
developed with the Common Core standards in mind to ensure that students are exposed to high frequency words that they are
most likely to encounter in their age-appropriate texts. The words featured in the game are a compilation of Dolch’s and Fry’s lists
of high-frequency words.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 3–8  4+  $2.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/the
-sight-word-
adventure/id9315
29829?l=fr&mt=8
PAGE | 27

&ign- mpt=uo%3D8

MONKEY WORD SCHOOL A DVENTURE

This app, created by THUP Games, is a fun and interactive way for kids to explore letters, sight words, phonics, and spelling. Students
will be exposed to digraphs, consonant blends, irregular vowels, and other important concepts in reading. There is also a special
focus on sight words to help students understand these fundamental words that are so important to reading and writing success.

AGE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 3–7  4+  $1.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/mo
nkey-word-
school-
adventure/id5659
51597?mt=8

REFERENCES
i-Ready. (n.d.). (Curriculum Associates, LLC) Retrieved January 29, 2017, from Curriculum Associates fo New Hampshire:
http://www.curriculumassociates.com/products/iready/diagnostic-instruction.aspx

Just Words. (n.d.). (Wilson Language Training Corporation) Retrieved January 29, 2017, from Wilson Language Training:
http://www.wilsonlanguage.com/programs/just-words/

Literacy Improvement Pre-K-5. (n.d.). (L. Learning, Producer, & A Rosetta Stone Company) Retrieved January 29, 2017, from Lexia:
http://www.lexialearning.com/solutions/literacy-improvement-pre-k-5

Phonics and Word Study. (n.d.). (Continental) Retrieved January 29, 2017, from Continental:
https://www.continentalpress.com/phonics-and-word-study.html

Tips for Teaching Word Recognition. (n.d.). Retrieved January 28, 2017, from Reading-Tutors.com: https://www.reading-
tutors.com/tips/TH_Tips_WordRecog.pdf

What is Word Recognition? (n.d.). (DWW, LLC) Retrieved January 27, 2017, from k5 Chalkbox: http://www.k5chalkbox.com/what-is-
word-recognition.html

Word Study in Action: Applying Word Comprehension Strategies to New Text (2010). [Motion Picture]. Knatim. Retrieved January 28,
2017, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=56TUpDlfWZE&feature=related

Word Warm-ups. (n.d.). (Read Naturally Inc.) Retrieved January 28, 2017, from Read Naturally:
https://www.readnaturally.com/product/word-warm-ups#custom328
PAGE | 28

WHAT IS IT?
Fluency refers to the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with appropriate expression for the text. Fluency is something that
is developed over time with repeated practice and support from the teacher. The development of fluency occurs as students begin
to know and recognize high-frequency words, how to decode words that are unfamiliar to them, and how to construct meaning
more rapidly and actively. Sight word recognition is one of the most important factors attributed to reading fluency. The elements of
fluency include rate of reading, accuracy of reading, the phrasing of the text, intonations, and expression (Florida Center for Reading
Research, n.d.).

IMPLICATIONS FOR READING


Before a student can become a fluent reader, the must first become accurate readers. For this to happen, there needs to be a focus
on phonemic awareness and phonics instruction. The students must also be constantly exposed to models of fluent reading, such as
read-alouds or recorded books. For students to develop fluency, they must also have plenty of practice reading text that is at their
individual reading level (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.). For fluency to exist, students must be able to comprehend the
text. Fluency allows students to gain deeper access to the text and take away meaning from what they are reading (Rasinski, 2011).

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FLUENCY


When developing fluency in students, it is important to remember that repeated exposure is the best way for students to become
more fluent in their reading. Through modeling, read-alouds, partner reading, and independent reading, students will become more
fluent when reading (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.).

ECHO READING

Echo reading is when the teacher provides students with the chance to echo small sections of the text that have been read aloud.
Students will can read the text as the teacher is reading, as well as during their echo.

CHORAL READING

Working in a small group, the teacher allows the students to read in unison with them as they go through a text together.

AUDIO-ASSISTED READING

Audio-assisted reading allows the students to build knowledge around the text with a recording device. The process occurs in four
steps that allow students to show their fluency of the text.

1. students listen to the recording of the text while following along in a hard copy
2. students listen to the recording a second time and read along with it
3. students practice reading sections of the text until they are reading fluently
4. students read the section to the teacher to show their fluency of the text
PAGE | 29

PARTNER READING

During partner reading, students are paired up according their reading ability and take turns reading a text at the independent level
of the weaker reader. Reading level and personality are important considerations when matching students for partner reading. The
whole class is taught how to correct readers appropriately, and utilize these strategies during partner reading.

DECODABLE TEXT READING

Students are asked to read texts that include a variety words with phonic elements that have previously been taught. The student is
then given a new text and uses what they’ve learned to practice the specific phonics features.

TIMED REPEATED READING

Students are timed while reading and rereading a text at their reading level to determine the number of words they can read
correctly per minute, with three repeated reading producing maximal gain.

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

READ NATURALLY

Read Naturally is a reading program that allows for differentiated instruction through a tiered model that ultimately accelerates
reading achievement. The strategy behind Read Naturally includes a combination of teacher modeling, repeated reading, and
progress monitoring. It comes in a variety of formats, including web-based and paper-based (Using Read Naturally Programs as RTI
Reading Interventions, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  first grade–eighth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group
 whole group

GREAT LEAPS READING FLUENCY PROGRAMS

The Great Leaps Reading Fluency Programs provides evidence-based interventions for students struggling to make significant strides
in their reading. The programs contain a variety of materials that cover alphabet and initial sound recognition, sequential phonics,
sight words, consonant reversals, high frequency word phrases, and story reading. The programs allow for a quick and efficient way
of producing results, with only ten minutes of intervention a day yielding significant results (Reading Intervention, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  kindergarten–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 3

CORRECTIVE READING

Corrective Reading is a program that focuses on decoding and comprehension abilities to improve fluency. This program gives
students structure, support, and practice in their deficit area. This program contains multiple levels and entry points, so all students
can benefit from this program (Corrective Reading, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  third grade–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group
 whole group
PAGE | 30

QUICKREADS

QuickReads is a program that applies research regarding the types of texts used to teach reading, and provides meaningful grade-
level reading for students to advance in their abilities. Books are produced so that 98% of the words included in them are a part of
the grade-level curriculum. This program builds fluency and comprehension of texts through repeated readings and monitoring. They
also provide high-interest informational texts in the content areas of science and social studies (QuickReads Family of Products,
n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  second grade–sixth grade  individual
 Tier 3

READ WELL

The Read Well program focuses on building the critical skills that students require to become successful readers and learners. Based
on research, this program allows teachers to target students at all stages of development, and provides for a flexible approach to
teaching students at their skill levels (Read Well Reading Curriculum, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–third grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

ASSESSING FLUENCY SKILLS

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

WJ III DRB
The Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ III DRB), created by Richard Woodcock, Nancy Mather, and Frederick
A. Schrank, is a test used to evaluate a student’s fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, reading achievement, and related oral language
abilities. The test assesses specific attributes of reading achievement of a student, which gives the examiner valuable data regarding a
student’s level of achievement in reading.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 2–90  $487.15  5–10 minutes per test
 50–60 minutes total

LINKS:
http://www.hmhco.com/hmh-assessments/reading/wj-iii-drb#system-requirements

KTEA-3
The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition (KTEA-3), created by Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman,
PhD, provides an in-depth assessment of students’ academic skills across a variety of skill areas. Students can be tested in the areas
of silent reading fluency, reading comprehension, reading vocabulary, word recognition fluency, and decoding fluency. Teachers are
provided with a summary of student performance to understand their ability level in each tested area to determine their
instructional approach.
PAGE | 31

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–25  $433.15  15–85 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/education/products/100000777/kaufman-test-of-educational-achievement-third-edition-ktea-
3.html#tab-details

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

DIBELS ORF
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Oral Reading Fluency (DIBELS ORF) assessment, created at the University of
Oregon, helps determine a student’s accuracy and fluency when reading a text. The assessment helps identify children who may need
additional support in reading instruction, and allows for monitoring of progress toward instructional goals. Students read a passage
aloud for one minute, as the teacher marks any omitted words, substitutions, and 3+ second of hesitation. It measures the student’s
words per minute, and can be used throughout the school year to provide information regarding a student’s growth in reading.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 first grade–third grade  $1 per student per year  none provided

LINKS:
https://dibels.uoregon.edu/assessment/dibels/measures/orf.php

BAS
The Fountas & Pinnell Benchmark Assessment Systems (BAS), created by Irene C. Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell, are used to determine
a student’s independent and instructional reading levels. Also known as running records, these assessments are used to inform
instruction and place students in appropriate reading groups. The assessments come in three different systems, depending on age
and ability. Teachers assess students individually, which allows for a close monitoring of a student’s reading fluency, as well as an
engaging conversation regarding a student’s comprehension of the story.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–eighth grade  $425 for each level  varies on student and
number of books read

LINKS:
http://www.fountasandpinnell.com/bas/

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT

READING SPEED/FLUENC Y BUILDER – GRADES 2–5

Reading Speed/Fluency Builder – Grades 2–5, created by Janine Toole, is an app that quickly builds a child’s reading speed to meet the
expectations of their grade level. Through a fun, game-like environment, students are motivated to build their fluency skills through a
variety of different levels.
PAGE | 32

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6–8  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
 second grade– e.com/us/app/rea
fifth grade ding-speed-
fluency-builder-
grades-2-
5/id1080258925?
mt=8

ONE MINUTE READER

One Minute Reader, created by Read Naturally, Inc., is a reading program that applies research-based principles that maximize reading
results. The app uses interesting, nonfiction stories that engage students’ curiosity. Readers read along with a recorded, fluent
reader so that they know how to say the words and read in a much more natural voice. This app can also enhance vocabulary and
promote comprehension.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 kindergarten–fifth  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
grade e.com/us/app/one
-minute-
reader/id4653175
39?mt=8

HMH READERS

HMH Readers, created by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, is an app that features a selection of interesting fictional nonfiction texts. These
texts are used to reinforce reading skills, promote academic vocabulary acquisition, and improve a student’s reading fluency and
comprehension.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 kindergarten–  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
sixth grade e.com/us/app/hm
h-
readers/id543777
923?mt=8

RED APPLE READERS – PARK PLANET

Red Apple Readers – Park Planet, created by Red Apple Reading, is an app that allows children to practice their reading skills through
ten fun and interactive stories. This app increases early readers’ confidence by allowing the app to read to them, or for them to read
along with the story. The stories also provide a rich vocabulary that is presented in an easy-to-read format.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 4–7  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/red
-apple-readers-
park-
planet/id9099078
78?mt=8
PAGE | 33

FLUENCY LEVEL 1

Fluency Level 1, created by Bugbrained, LLC, is an app that allows for practice of fluency skills outside of the typical timed readings.
This app focuses on all aspects of fluency, including accuracy, smoothness, expression, and automaticity. Based on the Common
Core standards, this app is a great supplement to any fluency instruction and can be used by parents to ensure their children are on
track for meeting grade-level expectations.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6–8  4+  $1.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/flue
ncy-level-
1/id489627619?m
t=8

REFERENCES
Corrective Reading. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved from McGraw-Hill Education:
https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/corrective-reading/

Florida Center for Reading Research. (n.d.). Fluency. (Florida State University) Retrieved from Empowering Teachers:
http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/ET/essentials/components/comp.html

QuickReads Family of Products. (n.d.). (TextProject, Inc.) Retrieved from TextProject: http://textproject.org/classroom-
materials/students/commercially-available-products-powered-by-text/quickreads-family-of-products/

Rasinski, T. (2011, January 13). Tim Rasinski on Fluency. (Scholastic Inc.) Retrieved from Scholastic:
http://www.scholastic.com/livewebcasts/teacher_talks/2010-2011/tim_rasinski_qa.htm

Read Well Reading Curriculum. (n.d.). (Voyager Sopris Learning, Inc.) Retrieved from Voyager Sopris Learning:
http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/read-well/overview

Reading Intervention. (n.d.). (Great Leaps) Retrieved from Great Leaps Reading, Language and Math Intervention Programs:
http://www.greatleaps.com/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=1

Using Read Naturally Programs as RTI Reading Interventions. (n.d.). (Read Naturally Inc.) Retrieved from Read Naturally:
https://www.readnaturally.com/rti/rn-programs-in-rti-model
PAGE | 34

WHAT IS IT?
Vocabulary refers to the ability to pronounce and understand the meanings of the words that are necessary to communicate with
others. The purpose of vocabulary instruction is to expand the oral vocabulary while simultaneously developing an extensive print
vocabulary. Often, vocabulary knowledge is separated into two categories: oral and print. Oral vocabulary refers to listening and
speaking, while print refers to reading and writing. Vocabulary instruction should be a staple in every classroom, as it provides
students with an understanding of both the meaning and the use of the words they are learning. Teaching students various word-
learning strategies will help them gain a better understanding of familiar words. One strategy, morphemic analysis, refers the ability to
analyze a word based upon knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and other meaningful word units that are added to a base word.
Contextual analysis refers to the ability to infer meaning of the word based upon surrounding text and definitions. To reach every
student, a combination of direct and indirect instruction should be utilized (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.).

RECEPTIVE AND EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY

RECEPTIVE VOCABULARY

Receptive vocabulary, which is the listening part of oral vocabulary, refers to the ability to listen to words and understand their
meaning when someone else is speaking them.

EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY

Expressive vocabulary, which is the speaking part of oral vocabulary, refers to the ability to use our knowledge of words to select
the appropriate word usage when we are speaking.

MARZANO’S SIX-STEP PROCESS FOR TEACHING VOCABULARY


Robert J. Marzano has combined many years of research and reflection on instructional strategies in the classroom. He has taken the
information regarding vocabulary instruction and created a six-step process for teaching vocabulary. This process works for all grade
levels and is most beneficial when all the steps are incorporated into the teaching. Steps one, two, and three should be completed in
sequential order, but steps four, five, and six do not need to be presented in any order (Marzano, 2009).

STEP 1 – PROVIDE A DESCRIPTION, EXPLANATION, OR E XAMPLE OF THE NEW TERM

This is the first step that a teacher will use when teaching new vocabulary words. Providing an explanation or description of the
word in the teacher’s own words is much more beneficial to students than reading a textbook or dictionary definition. Using visuals,
such as pictures or videos engages the students, and allows them to further understand the word and its context. Also, be sure to
include a non-linguistic representation of the term for English language learners.
PAGE | 35

STEP 2 – ASK STUDENTS TO REST ATE THE DESCRIPTION, EXPLANATION, OR EXAM PLE IN THEIR OWN
WORD

This is the step where students are given the opportunity to restate the description, explanation, or example given by the teacher.
Students will take examples from their own lives instead of reiterating what the teacher has already provided. Teachers should also
provide corrections to any misunderstandings of the word to ensure proper synthesis. Being able to put it in their own words
provides a deeper meaning of the word, and allows them to make connections. For English language learners, it may be easier for
them to write their explanation in their native language.

STEP 3 – ASK STUDENTS TO CONSTRUCT A PICTURE, PICTOGRAPH, OR SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF


THE TERM

In this step, students will be given the opportunity to show what they know about the word by presenting an image that they believe
best represents the new vocabulary word. Teachers must be sure to model what the expectations are to ensure that students have
a good understanding of what they are expected to do. A fun example of this can be done through a game such as Pictionary. If
needed, students may also search for an image on the Internet if they struggle with drawing.

STEP 4 – ENGAGE STUDENTS PERI ODICALLY IN ACTIVITIES THAT HELP THEM AD D TO THEIR
KNOWLEDGE OF THE TERMS IN THEIR VOCABULA RY NOTEBOOK

By this step, students should have a solid basis for what the new vocabulary word is, what it means, and how to use it. To maintain
this level of knowledge, teachers should provide students with activities to review the new word. This may include word analysis,
discovering related words, or sorting and classifying the word. Another great activity includes having students compare a previous
vocabulary word with the new word.

STEP 5 – PERIODICALLY ASK STU DENTS TO DISCUSS THE TERMS WITH ONE ANOTH ER

In this step, students can compare their own work with that of their peers to deepen the understanding of the word, and even
establish new ways of thinking about the word. As students make comparisons, allow them to revise their own work and seek
clarification regarding a disagreement or misunderstanding. If the student is an English language learner, allow them to use their
native language when appropriate.

STEP 6 – INVOLVE STUDENTS PERIODICALLY IN GAMES THAT ENABLE THEM TO PLAY WITH TERMS

In this step, students get to practice what they’ve learned about the word. Teachers may craft a game specifically surrounding the
terms their using, or modify pre-existing games, such as memory, Jeopardy, or Bingo. Students can also be asked to create a game
using their vocabulary words to further enhance their synthesis of the word (Marzano's Six Step Process: Teaching Academic
Vocabulary).

IMPLICATIONS FOR READING


For more than half a century, the importance of vocabulary instruction in overall reading achievement has been recognized. To
comprehend a text, there are two skills that a student must possess: word knowledge (vocabulary) and reasoning in the reading.
When a learner is beginning to read unfamiliar words, they seek out vocabulary words that they already know or have heard before.
This way, they have a better understanding of the text. However, if the student has not heard or used the unknown vocabulary
word, it will not help them understand the text any better. Therefore, it is important to include vocabulary as a middle ground
between oral and written words to ensure that students are comprehending the text they are reading (National Reading Panel,
2000).

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING VOCABULARY


Although there isn’t a single right or wrong way to teach vocabulary, it is important for students to be engaged in instruction that
goes beyond traditional dictionary definitions and helps them form connections between what they already know. Effective
vocabulary instruction includes integration, repetition, and opportunities to use the words meaningfully. By connecting new words to
PAGE | 36

prior knowledge, constant engagement and practice with the words, and opportunities to use the words, students will build up a
proficient vocabulary (Kinsella, Stump, & Feldman, n.d.).
INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF INDEPENDENT READI NG

When students have an opportunity to read, their vocabulary increases. This is especially true when they are exposed to a wide
range of texts that can produce a large variety of new vocabulary words. However, if the time for independent reading isn’t available,
this can create underprepared students who lack the habit of reading, and therefore, do not enjoy it.

STRATEGIES TO HELP MOTIVATE STUDENTS TO READ


 matching texts to student reading levels or personal interests
 reading incentive programs that include quizzes on the books
 regular discussions on the books
 setting weekly and individual goals for time read or number of books read
 adding more structure to independent reading by including a quick write-up about what they read to increase student
accountability

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE DICTIONARIES FOR THE CLASSROOM

When choosing the types of dictionaries to include in the classroom, you must not only consider the age and grade of the students.
If students are struggling with reading, they may require a much simpler version. Some dictionaries are much smaller, but include
more high-frequency words and definitions, and have age-appropriate sample sentences to allow students to get a better grasp of the
words they’re learning. This is especially helpful for English language learners, who may also benefit from dictionaries that include
pictures to help them understand what it is they’re reading.

WORD SELECTION

It is important for teachers to choose which words are the most important words to learn because a large amount of words may be
too much for some learners to handle. Teachers must choose which words are vital to add to a child’s vocabulary. When choosing
which words to include in the instruction, the teacher must separate teaching vocabulary from teaching concepts.

TEACHING VOCABULARY TEACHING CONCEPTS


 teaching new labels or finer distinctions for familiar  introduction of new ideas, notions, theories, etc.,
concepts that require much more instruction to build
understanding

TIPS FOR SELECTING VOCABULARY WORDS


 distinguish between words that simply label concepts that students already know and words that represent new concepts
 ask yourself:
o “Is this concept or word generative?”
o “Will knowing this word lead to important learning in other lessons, texts, or units?”
 be careful not to “accessorize” vocabulary as opposed to focusing on critical academic vocabulary that helps improve
understanding of the “big ideas”

LIST-GROUP-LABEL

This strategy encourages the use of brainstorming to help students identify what they already known about concepts and words,
while also allowing students to engage in analysis and critical thinking. This works well as a pre-reading activity that allows students
to build upon their prior knowledge, be introduced to critical concepts, and make sure they are truly paying attention to the text
when reading. Students can work in small groups or pairs to categorize their words.

DIRECTIONS
PAGE | 37

1. think of all the words related to one of the “big ideas” from a text
2. group the words in a list by some shared characteristic or other commonality
3. decide on an appropriate label for each group
4. try to add more words to the categories

After the steps are completed, invite students to share their thinking with the rest of the class. Their peers are encouraged to add
words as they see fit. Once completed, teachers can have students take their thinking one step further by creating a semantic map
to visualize their thinking. A semantic map is a graphic organizer that maps out the connections of words or phrases that are related
to a concept (Zorfass, Gray, & PowerUp WHAT WORKS, 2014).

EXAMPLE OF A SEMANTIC MAP (VAUGHN, 2003)

WORD ANALYSIS

Many struggling readers lack a basic knowledge of the origins of words or their etymology, such as Latin or Greek roots, and how a
prefix or suffix can alter the meaning of a word. By teaching students a cluster of words that all share a common origin, students are
better prepared to understand content-area texts and connect new words with what they’ve already learned. Although a teacher
can’t teach students all the affixes of words, it is important to consider the most common or important ones that appear in everyday
reading.

PREFIXES

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

un- not; reversal of uncover


PAGE | 38

re- again, back, really review


in- / im- in, into, not insert, impede
dis- away, apart, negative discover
en- / em- in; within; on entail, embalm
mis- wrong mistaken
pre- before prevent
a- not; in, on; without atypical
multi- many multimedia
pan- all pandemic
micro- very small microcosm
pro- in favor of, before protect
SUFFIXES

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

-s, -es more than one; verb marker characters, reaches


-ed in the past; quality, state walked
-ing when you do something; quality, state walking
-ly how something is safely
-er, -or one who, what, that, which drummer
-tion, -sion state, quality; act action, mission
-able, -ible able to be disposable, reversible
-al, -ial related to, like final, partial
-less without; not useless
-ism state, quality; act realism

COMMON LATIN AND GRE EK ROOTS

ROOT MEANING ORIGIN EXAMPLE

-aud- hear Latin audio, audition


-astro- star Greek astrology, astronaut
-bio- life Greek biography, biology
-dict- speak, tell Latin dictate, predict
-geo- earth Greek geology, geography
-meter- measure Greek thermometer
-min- small, little Latin minimize, minimum
-port- carry Latin transport, portable
-phono- sound Greek microphone
-duc(t)- lead Latin deduct, produce, educate

TIPS FOR STUDYING LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS


PAGE | 39

 highlight Greek and Latin roots as they appear in text


 associate new words derived from a root with word that’s already known
 encourage students to look for words that share a newly learned root during their independent reading
 encourage students to use words containing newly learned roots in writing, conversations, and discussions

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

LANGUAGE FOR LEARNING

Language for Learning is a program that allows children to acquire words, concepts, and statements that important for oral
instruction and written language. This program helps teachers to create a classroom and learning environment that is language-
centered, and that builds background knowledge that enriches student learning. This program is also helpful for English language
learners (Language for Learning, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  pre-kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  kindergarten  small group
 first grade  whole group
 second grade

LANGUAGE FOR THINKING

Language for Thinking is supplemental program that builds upon the concepts, vocabulary, and statement patterns that were
introduced to students in the Language for Learning program. This program provides students with a much more enriching
vocabulary development experience, and allows for extensive practice of new and old concepts. This program boasts that it is an
essential step toward reading comprehension (Language for Thinking, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  first grade  individual
 Tier 2  second grade  small group
 Tier 3  third grade  whole group

VOCABULARY FOR ACHIEVEMENT

Vocabulary for Achievement is a program that helps students master vocabulary skills and strategies through a variety of organized,
thematic texts that focus on concepts that students can connect with, which prepares them to read, understand, and write
effectively. For older students, this program also has practice tests and activities that prepare them for taking the SAT (Vocabulary
for Achievement, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  third grade – twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group
 whole group

READ WELL
PAGE | 40

Read Well is a program that helps students build the skills necessary for them to become successful readers. This program allows
for effective instruction that targets students at all stages of development and reading ability. The program is very flexible, allowing
teachers to meet the needs of each student and adapt instruction accordingly. This program also follows the Common Core
Standards for language arts instruction (Read Well Reading Curriculum, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  kindergarten  individual
 Tier 3  first grade  small group
 second grade  whole group
 third grade

ACCELERATED VOCABULA RY

Accelerated Vocabulary is a program that focuses on closing the achievement gap and helps guide teachers to creating a rich
vocabulary in students that helps them access and understand their reading and the rest of their curriculum. This program provides
units of instruction that focus on conceptual vocabulary and spans the entire school year. Included in the program are strategies,
graphic organizers, overhead transparencies, record sheets, and explanations of the research that went into the development of the
program (Akhavan, 2007).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten – sixth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

ASSESSING VOCABULARY SKILLS

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

PPVT-4
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition (PPVT-4), created by Lloyd M. Dunn, PhD and Douglas M. Dunn, PhD, is an
assessment to test a student’s receptive vocabulary of the English language. This test requires no reading or writing on the part of
the student, which helps them focus on the questions they are given. This assessment provides evidence-based interventions that are
directly linked to the scores and the reporting software that comes with it.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 2–90+  $468  10 – 15 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/language/products/100000501/peabody-picture-vocabulary-test-fourth-edition-ppvt-4.html#tab-
pricing

EVT-2
The Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition (EVT-2), created by Kathleen T. Williams, PhD, is an assessment of a student’s
ability to demonstrate expressive vocabulary and word retrieval of the English language. This test was designed to be coordinated
with the PPVT-4 to compare a student’s receptive and expressive vocabulary. This is also a great tool to assess English language
learners and their ability to acquire an extensive English vocabulary.

GRADE/AGE RANGE:  ages 2–90+ COST:


PAGE | 41

 $468 ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 10 – 20 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/language/products/100000416/expressive-vocabulary-test-second-edition-evt-
2.html?origsearchtext=evt%202#tab-details

BRIGANCE CIBS II
The BRIGANCE Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills II (CIBS II), created by Brian F. French, PhD, and Frances Page Glascoe,
PhD, is used to assess students’ strengths and weaknesses within the classroom based upon the skills that are deemed to be
important foundational skills. This assessment meets state standards, and complies with IDEA and NCLB. There are many subtests
for both language arts and math. Some of the helpful subtests for assessing vocabulary are receptive vocabulary and comprehension,
word recognition, reading vocabulary and comprehension, word analysis, and functional word recognition.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–ninth grade  $339.00  varies

LINKS:
http://www.curriculumassociates.com/products/detail.aspx?title=BrigCIBSII#ordernow

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

VKS
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), created by Wesche and Paribakht, is a self-report assessment that measures word
knowledge gains. However, this assessment is not intended to be able to tap into sophisticated knowledge or lexical nuances of a
word in multiple contexts. Instead, it combines a student’s self-reported knowledge of a word and allows them to demonstrate that
knowledge in a constructed way. The assessment can be set up in a way that makes sense to the teacher, the learning environment,
and the content area. The format and scoring guide falls into five categories:

1. I don’t remember having seen this word before. (1 point)


2. I have seen this word before, but I don’t think I know what it means. (2 points)
3. I have seen this word before, and I think it means __________________. (synonym or translation; 3 points)
4. I know this word. It means __________________. (synonym or translation; 4 points)
5. I can use this word in a sentence: __________________. (category 4 must also be completed; 5 points)

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–twelfth grade  free  5–10 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/classroom-vocabulary-assessment-content-areas

VRT
The Vocabulary Recognition Task, VRT, is a simple, teacher-created assessment used to measure the recognition of vocabulary in a
content area. The task should include enough words that include most them that are related to the topic and the rest being
unrelated to the topic. This is beneficially as a pre-test to inform instructional decision making and as a post-test to ensure that
students learned what was expected. Below are examples of VRTs:
PAGE | 42

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–twelfth grade  free  5–10 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/classroom-vocabulary-assessment-content-areas

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

BLUSTER!

This app, created by McGraw-Hill School Education Group, allows students to practice word skills while also expanding their
vocabulary. In single-player mode, students are asked to match rhyming words, prefixes, suffixes, synonyms, homophones, adjectives,
and more. There is also a collaborative team mode that allows two players to play at the same time. It also can be switched to a
head-to-head test of who is the quickest!

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 kindergarten–fifth  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
grade
e.com/us/app/blu
ster!/id41616069
3?mt=8
PAGE | 43

OPPOSITE OCEAN (ANTO NYMS)

This app, created by NRCC Games, allows students to enhance their knowledge of opposite words by helping two young magicians
from a school of magic choose the correct antonym of the given word. Students receive pearls from a clam that are added to a
treasure chest. If you get five antonyms correct in a row, a mermaid rewards you with a bonus jewel; however, if you get five wrong
in a row, a squid squirts ink.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 second grade–  4+  $0.99  https://itunes.appl
sixth grade e.com/us/app/opp
osite-ocean-
antonyms/id4432
13664?mt=8

SAME MEANING MAGIC ( SYNONYMS)

This app, created by NRCC Games, allows students to enhance their knowledge of same-meaning words by helping two young
magicians from a school of magic choose the correct synonym of the given word. Students earn gold coins when a correct word is
chosen, while the well spews green smoke when you choose an incorrect word.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 second grade–  4+  $0.99  https://itunes.appl
sixth grade e.com/us/app/sam
e-meaning-magic-
synonyms/id4432
12030?mt=8

KNOWJI VOCAB

This app, created by Knowji, Inc., focuses on teaching words that are featured on the SAT, GRE, ACT, and ASVAB exams, however
users of all ages can greatly benefit from the app as it teaches practical and common words. This app is also aligned with the
Common Core standards. It focuses on providing an effective and rich content base that helps users learn and remember vocabulary
words.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 sixth grade–  4+  $9.99  https://itunes.appl
twelfth grade e.com/us/app/kno
wji-vocab-7-10-
sat-
gre/id580345416?
mt=8

WORLD’S WORST PET - VOCABULARY

This app, created by Curriculum Associates, LLC, helps students build a rich and practical vocabulary by exposing them to common
vocabulary words. This app aligns with the Common Core standards, and provides a fun story, a reward system, and many
opportunities for students to practice their new enhanced vocabulary. This app is a part of i-Ready, which is an award-winning
program that provides instruction and intervention to students.

AGE/GRADE RANGE:  fourth grade– RATING:  4+


eighth grade
PAGE | 44

COST: LINK:
 free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/wo
rlds-worst-pet-
vocabulary/id730
540095?mt=8

REFERENCES
Akhavan, N. (2007, June 1). Accelerated Vocabulary Instruction. (Scholastic Inc.) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from Scholastic:
https://shop.scholastic.com/shop/en/tso/Accelerated-Vocabulary-Instruction#/collapse-one-DescriptionFragment

Florida Center for Reading Research. (n.d.). Vocabulary. (Florida State University) Retrieved February 09, 2017, from Empowering
Teachers: http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/ET/essentials/components/vocab.html

Kinsella, D. K., Stump, D. C., & Feldman, D. K. (n.d.). Strategies for Vocabulary Development. (Pearson Education, Inc.) Retrieved
February 11, 2017, from Pearson: http://www.phschool.com/eteach/language_arts/2002_03/essay.html

Language for Learning. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from McGraw Hill Education:
https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/language-for-learning/

Language for Thinking. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from McGraw Hill Education:
https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/language-for-thinking/

Marzano, R. J. (2009, September). The Art and Science of Teaching / Six Steps to Better Vocabulary Instruction. (E. Leadership, Ed.)
Teaching for the 21st Century, 67(1), 83-84. Retrieved February 09, 2017, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/sept09/vol67/num01/Six-Steps-to-Better-Vocabulary-Instruction.aspx

Marzano's Six Step Process: Teaching Academic Vocabulary. (n.d.). Retrieved February 09, 2017, from
file:///C:/Users/jasmi/Downloads/ESL+Institute-Finn.Miller-6+Six_Step_Process+Marzano+Vocab+Games+(1).pdf

National Reading Panel. (2000). Vocabulary Instruction. In N. R. Panel, & N. I. Development (Ed.), Teaching Children to Read: An
Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction (pp. 4-15).
United States Department of Education. Retrieved February 11, 2017

Read Well Reading Curriculum. (n.d.). (Voyager Sopris Learning, Inc.) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from Voyager Sopris Learning:
http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/read-well/overview

Vaughn, S. (2003). Semantic Maps. Retrieved February 11, 2017, from Teaching Exceptional, Diverse, and At-Risk Students in the
General Education Classroom: http://academic.evergreen.edu/f/fordter/contentlit/Semanticmap.htm

Vocabulary for Achievement. (n.d.). (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt:
http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/literature-and-language-arts/language-arts/vocabulary-for-achievement

Zorfass, J., Gray, T., & PowerUp WHAT WORKS. (2014). Connecting Word Meanings Through Semantic Mapping. (WETA Public
Broadcasting) Retrieved February 11, 2017, from Reading Rockets: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/connecting-word-
meanings-through-semantic-mapping
PAGE | 45

WHAT IS IT?
Comprehension refers to the ability to understand and gain meaning from a text. This occurs because of the interactions that take
place between a reader and the text. Reader characteristics, such as word reading ability and vocabulary, can have an impact on
comprehension, which can occur before reading even begins. During the reading process, students rely on their cognitive and
linguistic processing abilities, as well as their knowledge of and skill in comprehension strategies, to help them construct meaning
from the text. Once a student is finished reading, they use other strategies and their expressive skills to demonstrate understanding
of the text (Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.).

IMPLICATIONS FOR READING


The entire goal of reading a text is to be able to comprehend it and extract information from the text. Without comprehension
skills, you would simply be reading words on a page without any real meaning. When we begin to use critical thinking skills while
reading, we begin to understand the text, and determine the main idea, supporting details, sequence of events, and other features of
the text. To be successful academically and professionally, strong reading comprehension skills are essential. The ability to
comprehend what is being read builds independent learning skills that allows students to absorb information, explore literature
more deeply, and enjoy reading. Strong comprehension skills allow students to gain the ability to closely and actively read text,
which results in a much more positive reading experience. Students with strong comprehension skills enjoy reading and learning
because they make connections with the text and extract meaning from it (Institute of Education Sciences, 2010).

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING COMPREHENSION


There are a variety of strategies that a teacher can use to ensure that students are comprehending what they are reading. Teachers
must determine which strategies are appropriate to their learners, and ensure that these strategies are taught to the students
(Florida Center for Reading Research, n.d.).

NONFICTION

BEFORE READING DURING READING AFTER READING


 activate the students’ prior  monitoring thinking process  reflection
knowledge of the subject and o students are o students should reflect
engage them in exploring the encouraged to identify and expand upon what
text what they might not they’ve learned from
o have students take a understand to gain the text
“picture walk” before accurate meaning from  questioning
reading the text the text o teachers use a variety
 identify the type of text and  constructing meaning from text of questioning
genre that the text is written in o students should be techniques, such as
o discuss what features focusing on key inferencing, to
the text has that makes concepts, as well as understand a student’s
it distinguishable drawing upon prior ability
PAGE | 46

 define important and difficult knowledge to compare  summarizing


vocabulary words that they may and integrate it with o provide students with
experience in the text the text the opportunity to
o use “student-friendly”  reread summarize what
definitions and o encourage rereading of they’ve read, or
connections to ensure a text to ensure that provide a gist
synthesis students are properly statement, to show
engaged and what they’ve learned
synthesizing the from the text
information

FICTION

BEFORE READING DURING READING AFTER READING


 activate the students’ prior  monitor thinking process  reflection
knowledge of the subject and o have students o students should
engage them in exploring the discover if their reflect on what
text predictions are they’ve read and can
o refer students to correct or have expand upon it
other texts by the them clarify the through a variety of
same author and main ideas of the activities that show
have them make text understanding
predictions as to  construct meaning from text  managing the text
what may happen in o students should o explore different
the text focus their attention elements of the
 determine the features of a on the key points of text, such as plot or
fiction text to guide students’ a fictional text: characters, and
understanding of text characters, setting, allow students to
o characters, setting, plot, problem, and openly discuss their
plot, problem, and solution to be able thinking
solution to make inferences  summarizing
 take a picture walk and have a better o students should
o have students look understanding determine the main
through the story to  visualization idea of the plot and
begin thinking about o encourage students retell what
what may happen in to make a mental happened in the
the story picture of what story, being sure to
they’re reading to include characters,
gain a better setting, plot,
understanding of the problem, and
text outside of the solution, as well as
words and pictures the author’s
presented on the purpose for writing
page the text

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

SOAR TO SUCCESS
PAGE | 47

Soar to Success is an intensive reading program that uses proven strategies to accelerate reading. The program uses a variety of
fiction and nonfiction texts, as a well as a focus on foundational skills and reading strategies, to promote literacy in students. This
program is a great supplement to any current reading program that is being used in the classroom (Soar to Success: Reading, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–eighth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

RAVE-O

RAVE-O is an intervention program designed to promote fluency, comprehension, and closer reading of texts. This program helps
to accelerate learning while closing the achievement gap. Students can interact with and analyze the texts that they are reading. They
are also able to build their own thoughts, opinions, and new knowledge based upon what they have just read, which helps build a
student’s comprehension ability (Maryanne Wolf, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  second grade–fourth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group

READUP

ReadUp is a reading intervention program that prepares students for future reading success. The program allows for differentiation
to meet the specific need area where the student is behind. ReadUp allows students to reach the grade-level comprehension skills
needed to stay on par with the rigors of the Common Core Standards. This program provides both comprehension remediation
and intervention (ReadUp: An RTI Soultion for the Common Core, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  second grade–fifth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group
 whole group

READ 180 UNIVERSAL

READ 180 Universal is a comprehensive support system for students that is uses a blended learning approach, including whole group
and small group instruction. It provides many great features that build and improve upon foundational skills. Students are provided
with individualized texts that meet their individual needs. Rereading texts provides students with the opportunity to closely read the
text to build deep comprehension (READ 180, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  fourth grade–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

REWARDS
PAGE | 48

Rewards is an intervention program that results in long-term literacy achievement. This program can supplement any core
curriculum that’s already being utilized in the classroom. The goals of REWARDS include the increasing of students’ comprehension
skills, which will greatly benefit them across all content-specific classes. REWARDS also provides practice questions that are
commonly seen on state tests to help prepare students for taking them (Anita L. Archer, Vachon, & Gleason, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  fourth grade–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

ASSESSING COMPREHENSION SKILLS

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

GORT-5
The Gray Oral Reading Tests–Fifth Edition (GORT-5), created by J. Lee Wiederholt and Brian R. Bryant, is an assessment of oral
reading fluency and comprehension. This assessment can help determine a student’s current level of comprehension ability, as well
as identifying students in need of more intensive instruction and interventions.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 6–23  $275  20–30 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.proedinc.com/customer/productView.aspx?ID=5097

TORC-4
The Test of Reading Comprehension–Fourth Edition, created by Virginia L. Brown, Donald D. Hammill, and J. Lee Wiederholt, is an
assessment of silent reading comprehension of texts. It can be used to identify students who are below grade level in reading
comprehension, track progress of students’ achievements, and allows educators to research the deficits in students’ reading
achievement.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 7–17  $263  30–45 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.proedinc.com/customer/ProductView.aspx?ID=4412&sSearchWord=

WIAT-III
The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Third Edition, created by David Wechsler, is an achievement test to determine a
student’s achievement in a variety of academic areas. This test features both reading and listening comprehension subtests to
determine a student’s comprehension ability.

GRADE/AGE RANGE:  ages 4–50 COST:


PAGE | 49

 $561.35 ADMINISTRATION TIME:  varies depending on grade


level and number of subtests
LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000463/wechsler-individual-achievement-testthird-edition-wiatiii-wiat-
iii.html#tab-details

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

BAS
The Fountas & Pinnell Benchmark Assessment Systems (BAS), created by Irene C. Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell, are used to determine
a student’s independent and instructional reading levels. Also known as running records, these assessments are used to inform
instruction and place students in appropriate reading groups. The assessments come in three different systems, depending on age
and ability. Teachers assess students individually, which allows for an engaging conversation regarding a student’s comprehension of
the story.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–eighth grade  $425 for each level  varies on student and
number of books read

LINKS:
http://www.fountasandpinnell.com/bas/

IRI
The Informal Reading Inventory (IRI), created by Betty Roe and Paul C. Burns, is an informal assessment of students’ word
recognition, word meaning, reading strategies, and comprehension. This assessment is given individually to determine a student’s
strengths and weaknesses in reading. This assessment provides ongoing data throughout the school year to inform instruction.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 first grade–twelfth grade  $97.38  varies depending on
passages/questions

LINKS:
https://www.amazon.com/Informal-Reading-Inventory-Preprimer-Education/dp/0495808946

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT

LIGHTSAIL EDUCATION

LightSail Education, created by LightSail, is an adaptive reading app that allows students to access thousands of texts. Students have
access to personalized libraries that are engaging and interesting. Throughout the reading of a text, assessment questions appear to
assess a student’s comprehension of the text. This motivates students to increase their reading volume. Teachers have access to
real-time data presented by the app regarding a student’s reading behavior, comprehension, and growth, which is useful in driving
reading instruction.

 kindergarten– RATING: COST:


twelfth grade
AGE/GRADE RANGE:  4+  free
PAGE | 50

 https://itunes.appl education/id8282
LINK:
e.com/us/app/ligh 97984?mt=8
tsail-
INSPIRATION MAPS VPP

Inspiration Maps VPP, created by Inspiration Software, Inc., is a visual learning tool that allows users to create a variety of graphic
organizers. This tool is beneficial to students and allows them to organize their thinking to determine comprehension level. Students
can customize their organizers to appear as concept maps, outlines, or other forms of organization. This is especially beneficial for
students when met with difficult, conceptual texts.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 none specified  4+  $9.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/id5
10173686

BRAINPOP FEATURE MOV IE

BrainPOP Featured Movie, created by BrainPOP, is an app that provides a different animated movie every day. Along with the movie,
it offers an interactive quiz to check listening comprehension. The movies are from several different subjects and topics, such as
social studies, science, engineering, and the arts. The full BrainPOP app is beneficial for many different lessons, but the movie-a-day
allows students to experience something quick and new to engage them. There is a subscription cost for BrainPOP.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 9–11  4+  free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/brai
npop-featured-
movie/id3648943
52?mt=8&ign-
mpt=uo%3D8

SECOND GRADE READING COMPREHENSION

Second Grade Reading Comprehension, created by Abitalk Incorporated, is a grade-specific app that provides relevant, fictional stories
that can help improve a child’s comprehension. Each story introduces new vocabulary and concepts, as well as an assessment that
determines a student’s level of comprehension. The assessment includes multiple-choice, true/false, and matching questions. The app
provides detailed reports on each student’s progress. Another great feature is the ability to add your own stories, images, and
questions, which can be beneficial to students who work best when the text is meaningful to them.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6–8  4+  $3.99  https://itunes.appl
 second grade e.com/us/app/seco
nd-grade-reading-
comprehension/id
547784812?mt=8
&ign-
mpt=uo%3D8

READING COMPREHENSIO N: FABLE EDITION

Reading Comprehension: Fable Edition, created by King’s Apps, is a fun app that encourages reading through a combination of
reading, comprehension, and games. The app is based upon Aesop’s Fables, and provides readers with a comprehension quiz after
PAGE | 51

reading each story. Once the stories are complete, students can challenge other readers to a game of recall, or play alone and try to
make the list of high scores. Students unlock achievements as they progress, which motivates students to keep going.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 second grade–  4+  $0.99  https://itunes.appl
fourth grade e.com/us/app/rea
ding-
comprehension-
fable/id54932500
9?mt=8&ign-
mpt=uo%3D8

REFERENCES
Anita L. Archer, P., Vachon, V., & Gleason, M. M. (n.d.). REWARDS. (Voyager Sopris Learning, Inc.) Retrieved from Voyager Sopris
Learning: http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/rewards/overview

Florida Center for Reading Research. (n.d.). Comprehension. (Florida State University) Retrieved from Empowering Teachers:
http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/ET/essentials/components/comp.html

Institute of Education Sciences. (2010). Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. National Center for
Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.

Maryanne Wolf, E. (n.d.). RAVE-O. (Voyager Sopris Learning, Inc.) Retrieved from Voyager Sopris Learning:
http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/rave-o/overview

READ 180. (n.d.). (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) Retrieved from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: http://www.hmhco.com/products/read-
180/

ReadUp: An RTI Soultion for the Common Core. (n.d.). (Catapult Learning) Retrieved from Catapult Learning:
https://www.catapultlearning.com/response-to-intervention/materials/readup/

Soar to Success: Reading. (n.d.). (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) Retrieved from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt:
http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/intervention/reading/soar-to-success-reading#preview
PAGE | 52

WHAT IS IT?
Writing is a method of communicating with oneself or with others. The communication can occur simultaneously with the writing,
or many years from the time of publication. Written language is very different than oral language, and requires the development and
coordination of multiple operations, including affective, cognitive, linguistic, and physical abilities, to accomplish the goal of creating a
piece of writing that is genre-specific, suits the audience needs, and communicates the author’s purpose (Writing, n.d.). Writing
skills, much like skills in reading comprehension, are a great predictor of future academic success in students. To function in society,
many people need to be able to write effectively. Since the term literacy includes reading and writing, poor writing skills should be
included in the discussion regarding the nation’s literacy crisis (Graham & Perin, 2007).

THE WRITING PROCESS


Typically, the writing process contains five distinct steps that assist writers in publishing a piece of writing. Depending on the grade
level of students, teachers may add or subtract steps, as well as modify what they entail. The process will eventually become intuitive
for writers as they advance their abilities, and begins to occur naturally as opposed to a step-by-step guide (LifeRich Publishing, n.d.).
Along with a description of each step, there is a helpful graphic that jogs the memory about what occurs at each step, as well as
questions that are helpful to consider (Montenegro, n.d.).

PREWRITING

This is where the thinking process begins and occurs before you begin writing a draft.
However, the thinking process that begins here will continue throughout the writing
process, as this is just a precursor to writing (Resources for Writers, n.d.).

EXAMPLES QUESTIONS TO CONSIDE R


 thinking  What do I want to say?
 taking notes  How do I want to say it?
 talking to others  Who will read my writing?
 brainstorming  What else do I need to know to begin?
 outline  Who can I talk to about my ideas?
 gathering information
o interviews
o research
o assessing data

DRAFTING
PAGE | 53

This is the stage where writing begins to take shape as sentences and paragraphs are
formed. When drafting, you want to think about being able to explain you thinking
and ideas by supporting them with details. At this stage, spelling and grammar should
not be the focus. Typically, when forming a draft, the writer is spilling out what they
know onto the page, and it’s usually to tell themselves what they know about the
topic (Resources for Writers, n.d.).

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDE R
 Are my thoughts organized?
 Which ideas do I want to develop?
 In what order do I want to say them?
 Who can read this and offer suggestions?

REVISING

This stage is key when determining the effectiveness and outcome of a written piece.
This is where the writing begins to become reader-centered, as there is a focus on
the needs and expectations of the audience. Spelling and grammar are still not a
focus in this stage, as it’s more about making the sentences clear, concise, and
accurate (Resources for Writers, n.d.). This would also be the stage that
conferencing with teachers and peers should occur, as they will help you determine
what areas of the writing can be improved upon (LifeRich Publishing, n.d.).

EXAMPLES QUESTIONS TO CONSIDE R


 add  Have I read what I have written?
o add scenes and details so that your writing  Are my details clear?
makes sense  Should I add or take out parts?
 rearrange  Have I used the best ideas and words?
o consider flow, sequencing, and pacing of the  Is my writing in a sensible order?
written piece  What suggestions have others made?
 remove
o reread to determine if some passages can
be cut so as not to overwhelm the reader
 replace
o ask friends and teachers to give feedback on
your writing to determine if something
needs to be replaced

EDITING

After the other steps in the writing process are complete, it is then time to go back
and look at the grammar, mechanics, and spelling of your writing. The author wants
to make sure that their final, published work is nice and polished, with no errors
(Resources for Writers, n.d.).

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDE R
 Have I used complete sentences?
 Are my spelling, capitalization, and punctuation correct?
PAGE | 54

 Have I marked corrections that I need?


 Has someone checked my work?
 Do I have a correct and neat copy?

PUBLISHING

Publishing is the last stage of the writing process. Students can share their writing
with others in written form, oral form, or a combination of both. Before a student’s
writing is shared, teachers MUST have the consent of the author. Some students do
not choose to have their writing published and made available to others, and that’s
okay. If students are given the option to publish their writing and celebrate their
accomplishments for completing a written assignment, they have the choice about
whether to share their work (Institute of Education Sciences, 2012).

EXAMPLES QUESTIONS TO CONSIDE R


 bulletin boards  Should I illustrate it and display it?
 class journal  Should I bind it in a book?
 oral presentations  Should I read it out loud?
 class newsletters  Can I place it in a classroom library?
 school publications  Will I act it out?
 local newspapers
 class books

STAGES OF WRITING DEVELOPMENT


Children move through stages as they begin to write that reflect their expanding knowledge of literacy, which includes letters,
sounds, and the spacing of words within a sentence. Children are prepared daily through interactions with the world around them to
become readers and writers, and as they build on these interactions, they move through developmental writing stages (Reading
Rockets, 2010). The examples included with the description provide a better idea of what each stage of writing development looks
like. Depending on the child, they may move through the stages in a different order, or they may appear to move ahead to another
stage before passing through a previous stage (Stone, n.d.).

PRELITERATE

DRAWING SCRIBBLING
 children use pictures to tell a story  children “write” using random scribbles that
 children “read” their pictures as if it were written resemble writing
 children have a sense that drawing/writing is a way of  children will hold and use writing utensils like an
communicating a message adult would

EARLY EMERGENT
PAGE | 55

LETTER-LIKE FORMS
 children begin using shapes in their writing that resembles
letters
 the shapes used are not actual letters
 tends to look like poorly formed letters, but are unique to the
child who wrote them

EMERGENT

RANDOM LETTERS OR LE TTER STRINGS


 children begin using letter sequences in their writing
 letters used are typically learned from the child’s name
 the same letter may be written many ways by the child
 children tend to include long strings of letters that appear in no
order

TRANSITIONAL

INVENTED SPELLING
 children will use letters and sounds that they know in writing,
and will make up their own spelling when they are unsure of
how to write it
 children may use one letter to represent an entire syllable
 words may not be spaced properly, and overlay each other
 with practice, more words are spelled conventionally
 at the highest level of this stage, only one or two letters may be invented/omitted

FLUENCY

CONVENTIONAL SPELLING
 children’s writing often resembles that of adults
 common spelling mistakes may be made, but children rely on
their phonics knowledge to spell unfamiliar words
 punctuation, upper case letters, and lower case letters are
typically in
the correct spots
● writing begins to be used for more purposes and becomes a more
important part of a child’s learning

CONFERENCING WITH STUDENTS


Conferencing with students regarding their writing is an important part of developing proficient writers. These conferences should
be short and direct, to not lose the meaning of the conference. The first aspect of the conference should be a focus on what the
student has written, and how they’ve been doing with their writing. This can be looked at as a pre-assessment of the student’s level
of writing. The teacher gathers information during this part of the conference to determine what they want to teach the students in
an individualized, on-the-spot lesson. The student can take away something that they can now focus on in their writing to prepare
for another conference in the future. There should be a record, whether with the student or the teacher, that determines the
decision that was made and the lesson that was taught so that there is clear evidence to whether or a not a student has improved in
PAGE | 56

their writing (Ray & Laminack, 2001). The expected behaviors of conferences should be modeled by the teacher, with a focus on
what sort of comments and feedback is useful and constructive to the author in further developing their writing (Writing
Conferences, n.d.).

SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUCCESSFUL WRITING CONFERENCE


 predictable structure  facilitate role reversals
 focus on only a few points  encourage use of a vocabulary suitable for writing
 determine solutions to students’ problems  inspire pleasure in writing

RESEARCH BASED STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING WRITTEN EXPRESSION


Writing can be challenging for many students, and a good foundation of strategies for teaching writing to students is essential in their
success as writers (Gillespie & Graham, 2011).

GOALS

When you set specific goals for writing assignments, it provides students with the reinforcement to become more motivated to
reach their goal. The goals can be set by the teacher or by the students. These goals can also pertain to the whole class, or students
can have individual goals based upon their level of proficiency in writing.

MODELS

Providing students with models that demonstrate the expectations of the students during their writing time allows students to
visualize what it is that they are supposed to be doing. The model may be the teacher, another classmate, or an outside source. It is
important that the teacher works with the student to analyze the model to determine which elements should be implemented into
their own writing.

COLLABORATIVE WRITING

Collaborative writing allows students to practice the stages of writing, such as planning, writing, editing, and revising with a partner
or group. Clear expectations for individual and group performance should be clearly explained so that students can meet the goals
of the writing session. Students within the pair or group can take turns analyzing a written piece, providing feedback, and
determining how it can be enhanced. Then, another student will have a turn as well. Working collaboratively, weaker writers have
the chance of gaining skills from their stronger-writing peers to enhance their own writing.

PREWRITING

Before beginning the writing process, engage students in prewriting activities that will allow them to start gathering ideas for their
writing. Students may be asked about what they already know on the topic, do some research on the topic, and arrange their ideas
using a graphic organizer so that they have a better picture of where their writing is going.

SUMMARIZING TEXT

A great way to build writing skills is through summarization of a text that was read. Students practice conveying an accurate
statement of the main ideas of a text, and present them in a clear, concise manner. Explicit instruction on effective summaries should
be presented to the students, and good models of summaries should be slowly faded from instruction as students become more
proficient in writing summaries.

RESEARCH BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS

HANDWRITING WITHOUT TEARS

Handwriting Without Tears is a program that provides developmentally appropriate and multisensory tools to the classroom. The
program uses a developmental sequence that provides a stress-free approach to handwriting. It follows three stages of learning that
include imitation, copying, and independent writing (Why It Works, n.d.).
PAGE | 57

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–fifth grade  individual
 Tier 2
 small group
 Tier 3
 whole group

STEP UP TO WRITING

Step Up to Writing provides a multimodal instructional model, flexible implementation options, and aligns nicely with the core
curriculum. This program supports writing across all content areas, establishing a common writing language that spans content and
grade levels. The program focuses on the types of texts that are expected in state standards, as well as an emphasis on using
technology to create and publish work (Auman, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

ESSENTIALS FOR WRITI NG

Essentials for Writing is a program that provides direct instruction to middle- and high-school students that turns them into
purposeful communicators via their writing. The program focuses on providing strategies for writing a variety of tests, including
those that appear on high-stakes tests, such as state tests and high-school exit exams. The scaffolded lessons help students to
generate ideas and provide appropriate supporting details (Essentials for Writing, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 2  sixth grade–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 3  small group

HIGH-PERFORMANCE WRITING

High-Performance Writing is a focused approach to building writing skills in all students. This program is designed to include
instruction that is beneficial to special education students and English-language learners, and focuses on the skills needed to excel in
writing. The Six Traits of Effective Writing are incorporated into the program to ensure that students have the basic strategies
needed to write well. A focus on self-evaluation of writing helps to promote independent writing amongst all students (High-
Performance Writing, n.d.).

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  first grade–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

REASONING AND WRITING

Reasoning and Writing is a program that focuses on teaching the skills necessary to produce good writing. For students to write
well, they must be able to think well, and this program incorporates higher-level thinking with writing instruction to ensure that
students have the tools necessary to produce structured, expressive, and refined ideas in writing. Students are provided with a
checklist to self-monitor their own thinking and make sure that they are applying specific rules and skills in their writing that
develops them into proficient editors and writers (Reasoning and Writing, n.d.).
PAGE | 58

RTI TIER(S): GRADE LEVEL(S): INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT :


 Tier 1  kindergarten–twelfth grade  individual
 Tier 2  small group
 Tier 3  whole group

ASSESSING WRITTEN EXPRESSION

FORMAL ASSESSMENTS

KTEA-3
The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition (KTEA-3), created by Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman,
PhD, provides an in-depth assessment of students’ academic skills across a variety of skill areas. Students can be tested in the areas
of writing fluency and written expression. Teachers are provided with a summary of student performance to understand their ability
level in each tested area to determine their instructional approach.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–25  $433.15  15–85 minutes

LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/education/products/100000777/kaufman-test-of-educational-achievement-third-edition-ktea-
3.html#tab-details

WIAT-III
The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Third Edition (WIAT-III), created by David Wechsler, is an achievement test to
determine a student’s achievement in a variety of academic areas. This test features a subtest in written expression that assesses the
writing process, which includes writing letters and words as quickly as possible, writing sentences, and writing a paragraph or essay.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 4–50  $561.35  varies depending on grade
level and number of subtests
LINKS:
http://www.pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000463/wechsler-individual-achievement-testthird-edition-wiatiii-wiat-
iii.html#tab-details

TOWL-4
The Test of Written Language–Fourth Edition (TOWL-4), created by Donald D. Hammill and Stephen C. Larsen, is a diagnostic test
that focuses on assessing written expression. The test provides seven different subtests that help assess all aspects of a student’s
writing, such as the conventional, linguistic, and conceptual areas. It is used to identify students who may need special education
services, to determine the strengths and weaknesses of students’ writing abilities, and to document any progress made in the writing
programs implemented in the classroom.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 ages 9–18  $275  60–90 minutes

LINKS:
PAGE | 59

http://www.pearsonclinical.com/language/products/100000083/test-of-written-language-fourth-edition-towl-4.html#tab-pricing

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS

QUICK WRITES
Quick Writes are informal and quick (five minutes or less) writing pieces that can be used for informally assessing a student’s writing.
These can be used with writing goals to keep track of student progress in writing. The topic can be anything, including a free write, a
summary of reading, a way of brainstorming prior to a formal writing assignment, or simply to focus ideas surrounding a class
discussion. Teachers can use these informal quick writes to determine a student’s ability level in writing.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–twelfth grade  free  five minutes or less

LINKS:
https://lincs.ed.gov/programs/teal/guide/studentwriting

CONFERENCING
Teacher-student conferences are a great way of assessing a student’s writing ability. Working together, the teacher and the student
can determine if they have reached a previously-set goal, and decide on what goal they would like to work on next. The goals can
include anything, from spelling, to structure, or to adding details. Teachers can keep a checklist of the progress made for each
student to understand the strides being made in their writing.

GRADE/AGE RANGE: COST: ADMINISTRATION TIME:


 kindergarten–twelfth grade  free  five to ten minutes

LINKS:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njLGV3drzRo&feature=related

IPAD APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT WRITTEN EXPRESSION DEVELOPMENT

WRITEROOM

WriteRoom, created by Hog Bay Software, is a writing tool that allows for full-screen writing without all the distractions typically
seen in other word processing programs. The program lets users simply focus on the writing, with nothing else to distract them.
The app lets the user choose the themes and backgrounds that will allow them to have the most focus on their writing.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6+  4+  $9.99 https://itunes.apple.com/us
/app/writeroom/id417967
324?mt=12

DRAGON DICTATION
Dragon Dictation, created by Nuance Communications, allows for an easy-to-use voice recognition program that lets users speak
instead of type. Students that have difficulty with physically writing or typing can use this program to dictate their writing pieces and
have the software turn it into text. This app also supports many languages, so English-language learners can use their first language to
write if they are more comfortable with it.

AGE/GRADE RANGE:  ages 6+ RATING:  4+


PAGE | 60

COST: LINK:
 free  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/dra
gon-
dictation/id34144
6764?mt=8

STORYBUILDER FOR IPA D

StoryBuilder for iPad, created by Mobile Education Store LLC, is an app that helps students improve the formation of paragraphs,
integrate their ideas into writing, and improve the ability to make inferences based upon the evidence presented. The app is used a
lot with students who receive speech therapy services, and provides extensive audio clips to promote auditory processing for special
needs children.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6+  4+  $7.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/sto
rybuilder-for-
ipad/id377631532
?mt=8

POPPLET

Popplet, created by Notion, is an app that is used to capture and organize ideas, and can sort them visually. Students can use the app
to organize their facts, thoughts, and images in an easy-to-use graphic organizer. Students can also create relationships between their
ideas and generate new ideas that may fit in with their prior knowledge.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 ages 6+  4+  $4.99  https://itunes.appl
e.com/us/app/pop
plet/id374151636
?mt=8

SENTENCEBUILDER FOR IPAD

SentenceBuilder for iPad, created by Mobile Education Store LLC, is an app that allows children to learn how to develop grammatically-
correct sentences. There is a focus on the various connector words that make up over 80% of the English language. This app is often
used by speech therapists during services for special education students.

AGE/GRADE RANGE: RATING: COST: LINK:


 https://itunes.appl
 ages 3–10  4+  $5.99
e.com/us/app/sent
ence-builder-for-
ipad/id364197515?
mt=8

REFERENCES
Auman, M. (n.d.). Step Up to Writing, Fourth Edition. (Voyager Sopris Learning, Inc.) Retrieved from Voyager Sopris Learning:
http://www.voyagersopris.com/curriculum/subject/literacy/step-up-to-writing-fourth-edition/overview
PAGE | 61

Essentials for Writing. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved from McGraw-Hill Education:
https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/essentials-for-writing/

Gillespie, A., & Graham, S. (2011). Evidence-Based Practices for Teaching Writing. (John Hopkins University) Retrieved from John
Hopkins School of Education: http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Better/articles/Winter2011.html

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools. Retrieved
from Alliance for Excellent Education: http://all4ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/10/WritingNext.pdf

High-Performance Writing. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved from McGraw-Hill Education:


https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/high-performance-writing/

Institute of Education Sciences. (2012). Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers. National Center for Education
Evaluation and Regional Assistance.

LifeRich Publishing. (n.d.). The 5-Step Writing Process: From Brainstorming to Publishing. (Trusted Media Brands, Inc.; Author Solutions,
LLC) Retrieved from Reader's Digest: http://www.liferichpublishing.com/AuthorResources/General/5-Step-Writing-
Process.aspx

Montenegro, J. S. (n.d.). The Writing Process. (Weebly) Retrieved from Mr. James in E6: http://ctedandan.weebly.com/writing-
process.html

Ray, K. W., & Laminack, L. (2001). Conferring: The Essential Teaching Act. In K. W. Ray, & L. Laminack, The Writing Workshop:
Working through the Hard Parts (And They're All Hard Parts) (pp. 155-171). National Council of Teachers of English.

Reading Rockets. (2010). How Writing Develops. (WETA) Retrieved from Reading Rockets:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/how-writing-develops

Reasoning and Writing. (n.d.). (McGraw-Hill Education) Retrieved from McGraw-Hill Education:
https://www.mheonline.com/directinstruction/reasoning-and-writing/

Resources for Writers: The Writing Process. (n.d.). (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Retrieved from Comparative Media Studies:
http://cmsw.mit.edu/writing-and-communication-center/resources/writers/writing-process/

Stone, C. (n.d.). Stages of Writing Development. (Weebly) Retrieved from Mrs. Stone's 4th Grade Class:
http://pcekindertechteach.weebly.com/stages-of-writing-development.html

Why It Works. (n.d.). (Handwriting Without Tears) Retrieved from Handwriting Without Tears: http://www.hwtears.com/hwt

Writing. (n.d.). (The University of Kansas) Retrieved from The University of Kansas:
http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/?q=instruction/writing

Writing Conferences. (n.d.). (WETA) Retrieved from Reading Rockets: http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/writing_conferences

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