Geophys. J . R . astr. SOC.

(1979) 5 7 , 537-555

Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru: evidence

from spatial distribution of earthquakes

Muawia Barazangi* and Bryan L. Isacks

Department of Geological Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA

Received 1978 August 9

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Summary. This paper reports a detailed re-examination of the spatial distribu-
tion of shallow- and intermediate-depth earthquakes located beneath Peru
between latitudes 3" and 18"s. The events are classified into two groups
according to the quality of the locations. The results of this paper confirm
and considerably strengthen the findings of Barazangi & Isacks, which have
taken on significance beyond Peru because of their implications regarding the
tectonics of western North America during the Laramide orogeny. The more
accurately located events that occurred beneath central and northern Peru
clearly define a shallow-dipping (about 10") inclined seismic zone that
extends inland for a distance of about 700 km from the Peru trench.
Although the intermediate-depth events are not uniformly and continuously
distributed along the strike of the arc, the available data are best explained
by a single Benioff zone that defines the descending Nazca plate beneath
central and northern Peru. In southern Peru the Benioff zone is well de-
termined and has a dip of about 30". The transition from the relatively flat
Benioff zone in central Peru and the steeper Benioff zone in southern Peru
is abrupt and is interpreted as a tear in the descending Nazca plate. Con-
siderable seismic activity occurs within the upper 50 km of the overriding
continental South America plate. This activity is well separated from the
shallow-dipping Benioff zone in central and northern Peru, and probably
occurs in the crustal part of the South American lithosphere. All events that
occur outside the spatial pattern of events as described above are based on
few and generally insufficient data. Azimuthal coverage at teleseismic
distances is poor, and no reliable pP readings are available to control hypo-
central depths. A search for ScS-to-P converted phases at the upper boundary
of the descending Nacza plate beneath central Peru has failed to provide any
clear and consistent data. This is in contrast t o the well-documented observa-
tions from Japan.
The flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate beneath central and
northern Peru requires that the thickness of the continental South American
Present address: Institute of Applied Geology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
19
538 M. Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
lithosphere does not exceed about 130 km in this region. A remarkable
correlation exists between the flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate
and the absence of Quaternary volcanism on the overriding South America
plate. This is in marked contrast to the presence of abundant volcanism
above the steeper segment of the descending Nazca plate in southern Peru,
and suggests that generation of arc-type volcanism requires a mantle wedge
of asthenospheric material between the subducted and overriding plates. The
flat geometry of the descending plate may also be the cause for the broad
deformation of the Andean Cordilleras. Many factors may be responsible for
the observed flat geometry, such as the fact that the Nazca plate is relatively
young (< 50 Myr old), and hence is thinner and more buoyant than the older
western Pacific plate. Also, it may be significant that the upper South
American lithosphere is thick, in comparison to the upper western Pacific
plates, and is possibly actively overriding the descending Nazca plate. Finally,
the width of the flat Peru segment along the strike of the arc is probably

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controlled by the existence of the aseismic submarine structural features near
the southern limit (the Nazca ridge) and the northern limit (the Carnegie
ridge) of the flat segment. These features are probably zones of weakness
along which the Nazca plate is being transversely torn.

Introduction
The western part of South America is one of the major plate boundaries on the Earth. There
is controversy regarding the structure of the descending Nazca plate beneath western South
America, especially beneath Peru (see e.g. Isacks & Molnar 1971; Sykes 1972; Barazangi &
Isacks 1976; Isacks & Barazangi 1977; Sacks 1977; Snoke, Sacks & Okada 1977; James
1978). In a recent paper (Barazangi & Isacks 1976) we described the spatial distribution of
earthquakes along western South America based on selected well-located events reported
primarily in the International Seismological Centre (ISC) Bulletins. We showed that the
simple model of the descending of oceanic plates beneath island arcs is also a valid one for
the subduction of the oceanic Nazca plate beneath the continental South American litho-
sphere. In particular, we showed that the well-located events that occurred beneath central
and northern Peru define a shallow-dipping (about 10") Benioff zone. However, the
seismology group of Carnegie Institution of Washington (e.g. Sacks & Snoke 1978; Snoke
& Sacks 1978; James 1978) used all the located events in central and northern Peru as
reported in the USGS hypocentral file, regardless of the quality of the locations, to infer
that the spatial distribution of events does not define a shallow-dipping Benioff zone.
Instead, they suggested: (1) that the shallow and intermediate-depth events beneath Peru
occur within the thick (about 300 km) continental South American plate and (2) that the
descending Nazca plate is aseismic and has a 30" dip. Moreover, these authors reported that
they have obtained observations on ScS-to-P converted phases along the upper boundary of
the descending plate in central Peru. If the model proposed by the Carnegie group is correct,
it suggests a major deviation from the simple concepts of plate tectonics in which mantle
earthquakes occur within the descending oceanic plates. Thus it is essential to investigate the
validity of this proposed model. In this paper we add new data and re-examine our previous
data in detail as well as examine the available ScS-to-P data; in particular, we include all
reported earthquakes in our cross-sections. The events excluded in our previous study do
not change the interpretation of the results and, in fact, the results of this paper agree with
those obtained in our 1976 paper and strongly confirm the validity of our conclusions.
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 53 9
Since the discovery that intermediate and deep earthquakes are associated with
anomalous zones in the upper mantle and the identification of these zones as the descending
lithospheric plates (e.g. Oliver & Isacks 1967), the spatial distribution of mantle earth-
quakes is the best available criterion for mapping the location of lithospheric slabs in the
upper mantle. Although observations on reflected, refracted and converted seismic waves
were successfully used to map the upper boundary of descending plates (e.g. Mitronovas &
Isacks 1971; Okada 1977), the descending slabs were initially identified on the basis of
seismicity. To date there are no clear seismological observations indicating the existence of
descending lithospheric plates that are not based on the observed spatial distribution of
earthquakes in the upper mantle. Thus, in mapping the structure of the descending Nazca
plate beneath South America we have primarily used the spatial distribution of earthquakes.
The ISC earthquake file, from 1964 to 1975, which represents the most complete file
available for the locations of earthquakes on a global basis, contains a large number of
relatively poorly located events. We established a qualitative criterion for classifying the
hypocentral file into good- and poor-quality data, and both sets are presented in this paper.

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Moreover, we present the hypocentres that occurred in Peru for the period 1950-63, and
were relocated by Sykes & Hayes (1971, 1979), and also discussed by Sykes (1972).
The inference of a nearly flat, subducted plate beneath Peru not only has significant
implications regarding the tectonics and evolution of the broad Andean cordilleras, but it
may also have important implications regarding the tectonics of western North America
during the late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic times. Recent studies (e.g. Burchfiel & Davis
1975, 1976; Pilger 1979; Cross & Pilger 1978; Dickinson & Snyder 1978) have applied the
model of a flat subducted plate supported by the results of this paper to explain the classic
Laramide orogeny of late Cretaceous and Palaeogene age in the central Rocky Mountains.

Data and method of analysis

The data used in this study are all shallow- and intermediate-depth events located beneath
Peru between 3" and 18" S latitude and reported by the ISC for the period 1964-75 and by
the USGS for 1976, as well as the events for the period 1950-63 that were relocated by
Sykes & Hayes (1971, 1979). The quality of the locations of these hypocentres varies
considerably. Hence it is essential to examine and classify the data used for determining the
locations into good- and poor-quality data before the spatial distribution of these hypo-
centres can be used effectively to determine the seismotectonics of the region. The reasons
for the existence of many poorly located events in the ISC and USGS hypocentral files are
many and vary from region to region and with time from the 1960s to the 1970s. For
example, small events are reported only by the very sensitive teleseismic stations, which in
the case of Peru are mainly located in North America. This, along with the fact that very
few local stations are operating in Peru, leads to poor locations of the small events. Also,
accurate hypocentral depths often cannot be obtained for small or medium-sized events
owing to the lack of data from stations at distances comparable to the focal depths and to
the lack of pP data.
The method used in this study is to grade the quality of the locations on the basis o f
(1) the number and azimuthal distribution of regional and teleseismic stations that reported
the event and (2) the number and azimuthal distribution of local stations (< 10' distance)
as well as the number and consistency of pP readings. Criterion (1) determines the quality
of the epicentre, while criterion (2) determines the control on hypocentral depth. All the
data reported by the ISC and the USGS and used in determining the hypocentres were
examined, and the overall qualities of the locations were graded into four classes: A, B, C
540 M.Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
and D. Grades A and B represent the good-quality locations; grades C and D, the poor-
quality locations.
Classification A is assigned to an event that is: ( 1 ) reported by many stations distributed
in four quadrants of Azimuth, ( 2 ) reported by at least five local stations (with good
residuals) that cover at least two quadrants of azimuth and are located at distances such that
the ratio (Alh) of the distance of the closest station to the depth of the event is = or < 1.5
and (3) at least five consistent pP readings are reported for the event. Classification B is
assigned to an event that is: (1) reported by many stations distributed in at least three
quadrants of azimuth, ( 2 ) reported by at least three local stations (with good residuals)
that cover at least two quadrants with the A/h ratio of the closest station being or < 3.0
and (3) at least two consistent pP readings are reported for the event. However, since local
-
station reports and pP readings each control primarily the depth of the event, then either of
these criteria may be used to determine classification B if data from one or the other are
insufficient.
Classification C is assigned t o an event that is: (1) reported by possibly many stations

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located in one quadrant (typically North America) and two or three additional stations
located in two different quadrants, (2) reported by at least two local stations with good
residuals and (3) no pP readings or no consistent pP readings are reported for the event.
However, some events, especially shallow events, may be classified as C-type even though
they are reported by many stations with good azimuthal distribution if good data from local
stations and pP readings are lacking. Finally, classification D is assigned t o an event that
is: (1) reported by possibly many stations located in one quadrant (North America) and one
t o three stations located in another quadrant (if more stations are located in different
quadrants they usually have large residuals), (2) may or may not be reported by local
stations and (3) no pP readings are reported for the event. An event may have a reasonably
good local station coverage and still be assigned a D grade because it lacks teleseismic
azimuthal control and pP depth control.
Of a total of 1508 events, 9 1,325,368 and 724 events are assigned A, B, C and D grades,
respectively. Hence the good-quality data (A t B) contains 416 events, or about 28 per cent
of the total number of events. The latitude and longitude of the events we used are those

B O O Y ~ W N E MAGNITUDES IMbI DETERMINED BY THE INTERNATIONAL SEISMOLOGICAL CENTRE

Figure 1. A plot showing the body-wave magnitudes (Mb) for the four grades of events versus the number
of stations used in locating the events. The envelopes of the data are shown. An important feature of this
plot is the overlap (hatched area) in the envelopes of the good-quality (A + B) and the poor-quality
(C + D) data.
 00 I 00

5 loo-

I 022
k-
a
g 200-
012
013 180 020 021 - 200

0j4 015
016
190 oZ4

I 1 I , I
0 ~ 3
*26
300 00 200 400 600

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reported by the ISC or the USGS, and we used pP data to obtain the depths of the events
if these data were provided by the ISC or the USGS. Fig. 1 shows a plot of the body-wave
magnitudes of d l the events versus the number of stations used in locating the events. The
envelopes of the data are shown for the four grades. An important feature of this plot is
the overlap in the envelopes of good-quality (A t B) and the poor-quality (C + D) data.
Thus, although large-magnitude events are, in general, located by large numbers of stations
and the quality of the locations is good, this is not true for small magnitudes. Therefore, a
selection of the events based on only the number of stations or the magnitudes of the events
will eliminate a considerable part of the poorly located events, but it will not eliminate all
of the poorly located events unless, of course, the selection is based on a very high threshold
of magnitude or number. If, however, a high threshold is taken, then many well-located
events will be lost. For example, Fig. 1 indicates that the seismic cross-section presented by
Isacks & Molnar (1971) for Peru based on events with magnitudes larger than about 5
contains for the most part only good-quality data, but many good-quality events were also
eliminated.
Most of the C and D poor-quality events are still located either along the main trend of
seismicity as determined by the A and B good-quality events or within about 50 km of it
(see, e.g. Fig. 7). Only a few events are located considerably away from the main trend of
seismicity. Fig. 2 shows a cross-section of most of these poorly located events, and Table 1
gives a summary of the data used in locating these events. It is clear from Table 1 that the
available data for teleseismic azimuthal control, depth control and sometimes local station
control are insufficient for good location of the events. In fact, some of these events were
relocated by the ISC using basically the same data set used for the USGS locations, and the
two determinations differ by more than 100 km. This indicates the instability of locations
based on insufficient data.
In this study we also present the hypocentral data for Peru for the period 1950-63 that
were relocated by Sykes & Hayes (197 1, 1979). Sykes & Hayes classified the quality of the
events into a combination of A, B and C grades according to the precision of the computa-
tions for epicentres and the depth of events. Thus, a grade of AA represents the highest
quality locations and a grade of CC represents the poorest quality locations. Although
presentation of these earlier data is important in increasing the total time sample under
consideration, it is essential to remember that the overall quality of these data is probably
less than that of the more recent data. This is mainly because of the relatively limited
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Table 1. This table shows a representative example of events located in Peru which have relatively very poor locations (see Fig. 2 for a cross-section view of these
events). All the events are located well outside the main pattern of earthquake distribution as determined from the good quality data as shown in the top section
of Fig. 7. All the events of this table have an overall classification of D, except for event #1 which has a C classification. The earthquake parameters are those
determined by the ISC. This table summarizes the data regarding local station control, depth control and teleseismic azimuthal control which are used in locating
the events. A star near the number of stations indicates that the travel-time residuals for most of these stations are large and range between 4 and up to 20 s.
Azimuthal coverage of local stations indicates the spatial distribution of the stations relative to the epicentre; if the stations are located within 30" of azimuth
then a coverage of 1 is given, and if the stations are located within two azimuthal sectors each of which covers 30" of azimuth then a coverage of 2 is given, and so
on. A indicates epicentral distance (km), and h indicates the depth of events (km).

Earthquake Parnme t e rs L o c a l Station Control Depth Teleseismic Azimuthal Control

Control
Evcnl Ddte Lat Long Depth Nag No. o f Azimuthal Ratio of No. o f No. o f No. o f No. o f No. o f No. of No. of
Local Consistent Regional African
N. America European &Brazilian Antarctica Pacific
I/ Day Month Year W' np Stations Stations Stations Stations Stat i o n s Stat ions
KM. 'lb Stations
(<ino) Readings ( l O o r o l O o ) (NtoNW Azi.) (NE Azi.) ( E Azi.) ( S Azi.) (SW Azi.)

1 9 19hS 5.53 81.3 126 4.5 2 I 7.0 2 19 1 1 -

2 13 1969 13.54 77.75 93 4.3 3 2 2.1 3 6 - -
3 8 1974 9.47 79.44 93 4.8 4 3 2.3 6 23 3 1* -
4 30 1968 8.47 79.86 97 4.7 2 2 5.2 - 7 20 1 >: -
5 24 1965 9.69 79.1 104 4.3 2 1 3.4 9 19 1t - I*
6 6 1965 9.70 78.9 114 4.5 3 1 2.9 7 18 1* -
7 8 1972 9.14 79.3 128 4.4 1 >; 1 3.2 3 8 1 -
8 8 1965 8.6 79.7 132 4.2 23: 1 3.7 11 14 1 -
9 7 1966 8.67 79.4 138 4.0 8.7 2 9 - 1 -
10 31 19 7 0 10.2 78.4 162 4.3 1 1 h.7 1 14 2
11 23 1966 11.1 77.8 163 4.3 3 1 0.9 6 3
12 4 1964 4.26 80.8 199 4.1 2 1 4.8 6 10
13 7 1965 4.4 80.5 227 4.2 2 1 4.1 4 2
14 29 1964 4.52 80.6 254 4.5 2 3: 1 3.6 9 22 -
15 9 1965 3.1 79.5 251 3.8 3 2 4.0 - 5 - -
16 20 1965 4.3 79.1 266 3.7 2* 1 3.3 4 6 - 1
17 6 1967 11.7 75.8 192 3.9 5 2 0.3 3 - - -
18 4 1974 8.8 74.6 275 4.2 5 3 1.6 2 15 1" 2 - -
19 11 1974 8.4 77.1 234 4.3 2 1 1.7 4 7 - -
20 11 1968 6.69 77.9 230 3.7 3 2 2.6 2 5 -
21 11 1965 10.8 75.0 229 3.6 4+ 3 0.6 5 -
22 1 1972 10.63 75.0 172 4.3 4 2 1.4 1 9 1
23 20 1964 5.0 77.8 281 3.7 2 1 2.8 2 7
24 28 1964 13.8 71.7 253 3.7 2 1 1.7 6 -
25 4 1969 6.27 76.85 188 4.7 3 2 3.3 7 26 - -
26 21 1964 8.30 74.9 295 4.2 2 1 1.4 4 15 1* -
27 17 1966 5.04 77.53 82 4.3 1 1 9.3 2 8 1
28 18 1964 12.15 73.53 81 4.3 4 2 2.4 1 16 - -
29 19 1968 5.82 77.4 92 4.8 3* 2 6.8 6 18 1
30 16 1968 5.79 77.09 77 4.5 3 2 8.2 5 20 2
31 24 1974 11.8 73.3 88 4.1 5 2 2.5 - 2 1 -
32 26 Nov 1973 6.84 75.2 92 4.6 4 2 6.2 5 8 2 -
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 543
number of seismic stations available on a worldwide basis in the 1950s and also possibly
because of the less-accurate timing systems used then.

Flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate beneath central and northern Peru
Fig. 3 shows the seismicity map of the good-quality (A + B) events beneath Peru. A major
question discussed by Barazangi & Isacks (1976) is whether the spatial distribution of
hypocentres beneath central and northern Peru can be represented by a single, uniform
Benioff zone. To answer this question it is essential to obtain a detailed knowledge of the
cross-sectional structure of the Benioff zone along the total length of central and northern
Peru. We analysed tens of transverse cross-sections of the seismicity with different widths
along the strike of the arc and with varying azimuths. Figs 4 and 5 shows representative
examples of relatively narrow cross-sections in central and northern Peru, respectively.
Since the trends of the geological structures do not basically change in central Peru, the
narrow cross-sections for this region can be superimposed together into a single section.

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This composite cross-section, which is about 1000 km wide, is shown in Fig. 6. It is
important to note here that the Benioff zones seem to have a finite thickness of about

Figure 3. Seismicity map of Peru showing the distribution of the good-quality (A + B) events for the
period 1964-76. The high Andean Mountains are represented by the 3 km contour. The locations and
widths of the seismic cross-sections are shown. Note the location of the inferred tear in the descending
Nazca plate, which separates the relatively flat segment of the descending Nazca plate beneath central and
northern Peru from the steeper segment beneath southern Peru.
544 M. Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
PERU COAST ANDES

5
5 05
00 00

4
iool SECTION I
2001 CLASS A AND 6 +OC
100

I
k
a
w
D

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I U

300'
SECTION I
CLASS C AND D

do
I 1
200
I
0

I
400
I I
600
co

1
1'";
300
DISTANCE, KM
Figure4. A representative narrow cross-section of the seismicity in central Peru (see Fig. 3 for the
location of the section). The data presented in this figure and in Figs 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0 and 12 are all shallow-
and intermediate-depth events reported by the ISC and USGS for the period 1964-76. The good-quality
data (class A = large circles, class B = small circles) are shown in the top section of the figure, while the
poor-quality data (classes C and D)are shown in the bottom section of the figure.

30 km (e.g. Isacks & Barazangi 1977). The geometry and the seismic thickness of the good-
quality data of the wide central Peru section (Fig. 6) are not appreciably different from
those of the narrow sections of the same region, such as that shown in Fig. 4. This indicates
the relative simplicity and uniformity of the inclined seismic zone beneath central Peru.
However, since the structural trend of the arc changes its geometry in the southern part of
central Peru as well as in northern Peru (see Fig. 3 ) , it is important to obtain seismic cross-
sections of these two regions that are perpendicular to the strike of the inclined seismic
zone before superimposing the sections on the composite section of central Peru (Fig. 6 ) .
Sections 3 and 4 (see Figs 3, 5 and the open circles in Fig. 10) represent the cross-sections
for these two regions. These two cross-sections are superimposed on the wide section
(section 2, Fig. 6) of central Peru in a way to produce the least scatter in the geometry of
the Benioff zone, and the final composite section for central and northern Peru is shown in
Fig. 7. This composite section is about 1600 km wide. Fig. 8 shows a similar composite
section for central and northern Peru using the data of Sykes & Hayes (1971,1979).
Some of the narrow sections used in making the composite section of Fig. 7 have very
few intermediate-depth events. This is because the spatjar distribution of events in Peru is
not uniform and tends to cluster in space (see Figs 3 and 9). This observation is, however,
not unique to Peru. In fact, many arcs are characterized by obvious clustering of mantle
events in space (e.g. Santo 1970). The physical significance of the above observations is not
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 545

SECTION 3
CLASS A AND 0

x
I- oo- I
0 01 0 I I 1 1 1 00
oo; o3
a 0 o o 0 0 00 0 0 0

w 0
n 0 8 0 0 0 OL2 0

-
0 0
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I00 * O 0 0
0
ck - 100
0 oo 0 0 0 O Q 8 0 0
0 @

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0
0 0 0

0
0
200 -
0

0
- 200
SECTION 3 "
0
CLASS C AND D 0

I I I I 1 1 1
3ooL 00 200 400 300

- I I 8 I I yl, (1
I '' 1 1 00
&*
"C
00 ~

0
0 0 0 .u,a v i
,
,_
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i'

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9
'

100 - 0 c' -' , - I00

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SECTION 2
200 - CLASS A AND 6 - 200
5 1 I
1 I I 1 1 1 1
546 M. Barazangi and B. L. Isacks

SECTIONS 2 , 3 AND 4
'5
y. . 2oo- - 200
CLASS A AND E
I I I I I I
I

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o a o 0

DISTANCE, KM
Figure 7. A composite cross-section of the seismicity in central and northern Peru (see Fig. 3 for
locations of sections 2 , 3 and 4 , which are used to obtain this figure). This section is about 1600 km wide.
Symbols are as in Fig. 4. Note that the good-quality data (classes A and B) clearly show a well-defined
and nearly flat Benioff zone, which is also well separated from the shallow Andean activity. This is in
marked contrast t o the large scatter in the poor-quality data (classes C and D).

clear. However, it does not seem reasonable t o divide the subducted plate into pieces
according t o this clustering activity.
The good-quality data of Fig. 7 clearly show a well-defined Benioff zone that dips at
about 10". This is in marked contrast to the ambiguous geometry of the Benioff zone as
based on the poor-quality data of Fig. 7 . The well-defined Benioff zone is well separated
from the shallow seismic activity that occurs in the upper 50 km of the overriding South
America plate; this sub-Andean activity probably occurs in the crustal part of the plate.
The flat geometry of the Benioff zone provides an excellent opportunity to obtain an
estimate of the thickness of the continental South American lithosphere along its western
margin. Since mantle events, which define the descending Nazca plate, occur within the plate
(Isacks & Molnar 1971), and if we assume that the upper surface of the descending plate is
in approximate contact with the lower surface of the upper plate, then from geometrical
considerations we obtain a maximum thickness of the South America plate of about 130 km
in eastern Peru. However, this estimated thickness does not necessarily apply to the parts
of the South America plate east of the intermediate-depth zone. The above discussion also
implies the existence of a very large area of contact between the converging plates. This
may result in a strong interaction between the plates that could explain the occurrence of
many large shallow events in the crustal part of the South American lithosphere above the
shallow-dipping Nazca plate.
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 547
PERU TRENCH

Figure 8. A composite cross-section of the seismicity in central and northern Peru for the period
1950-63. All the events of this section were relocated by Sykes & Hayes (1971, 1979). The location of
this composite section is the same as that of Fig. 7. The large circles represent the better-quality data.

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The quality of the data of this section is, in general, less than that of the good-quality data of Fig. 7.
However, it is clear from this section that the overall geometry of the Benioff zone is similar to that of
the relatively flat geometry shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 9. A longitudinal cross-section of the seismicity in most of central and northern Peru (the data
of this figure are those of sections 2 and 3 of Fig. 3). Only good-quality data are shown in this figure.
The trend of this section is approximately parallel to the overall strike of the arc in central Peru.

A correlation exists between the flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate in central
and northern Peru and the absence of Quaternary volcanism on the upper South America
plate. Although mantle events in central and northern Peru do reach the depths (about
100 km) at which abundant volcanism is usually observed on the surface in other arc systems
(Isacks & Barazangi 1977), volcanism is not observed in central and northern Peru. It is
possible that the upper surface of the relatively flat descending Nazca plate is in close
proximity to the lower surface of the overriding South America plate. This double thickness
of lithospheric material in central and northern Peru may explain the report of a relatively
thick lithospheric plate in this region (Sacks & Okada 1974).

Major tear in the descending Nazca plate beneath southern Peru

A detailed examination of the seismicity map of southern Peru clearly shows that events
located at similar distances from the Peru trench change from about 100 km to about
200 km depth in a relatively short distance along the strike of arc. This vertical offset in
depths is the transition between the flat geometry of central and northern Peru to the
steeper geometry of southern Peru, and probably indicates that the descending Nazca
plate, as defined by these mantle events, is being torn transversely to the arc. This interpreta-
tion is in accord with that of Stauder (1975). Fig. 10 shows cross-sections that clearly define
548 M. Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
VOLCANIC LINE
PERU TRENCH OF SOUTHERN PERU
1 11 I00 ~
200 I--&--- ALTIPLANO
I
-___, I 00
1 "0 0

*ip,.. 0
0 0 O.

"0 *la O '

Oa F 0

O8

I00 - 0 f&g?@Djb0@ 0 &* 0 - 100

0. 0

0
0
9 0.
a
200 - - 200
SECTIONS 4(0), 5A AND a

CLASS A ANDB
2 300 I I I I I I
.300

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k
% 00 I . I I 00
D
0
0
.
0

100 - - 100

200 ~ - zoo
SECTIONS 4(0),5A AND 5B(') 0
a.
CLASS C AND D
I l a *I I
300 00 200 400 300

DISTANCE, KM.
Figure 10. A composite cross-section of the seismicity in southern Peru (see Fig. 3 for the locations of
sections 4, 5A and 5B, which are used to obtain this figure). Symbols are as in Fig. 4. The data in the
southern limits of the central Peru region (open circles) clearly define a relatively flat Benioff zone.
The data of southernmost Peru (closed circles), however, clearly define a Benioff zone with a dip of about
25-30". The apparent vertical offset in the depths of events is interpreted to indicate the existence of a
major tear in the descending Nazca plate.

the geometry of the Benioff zones in this region. The central Peru section is nearly flat and
reaches a depth of about 100 km, while the southern Peru section has a dip of about 25-30'
and reaches a depth of about 250 km. The data of Sykes & Hayes (1971, 1979), shown in
Fig. 11, are also in accord with the above results. The longitudinal cross-section shown in
Fig. 12 also illustrates the relative sharpness of the transition from the flat geometry to the
steeper geometry in southern Peru.

Lack of clear evidence on the structure of the descending Nazca plate from ScS-top
converted phase
Recent studies by Japanese seismologists (e.g. Okada 1977; Hasegawa, Umino & Takagi
1978) used the core-reflected seismic phase ScS and the ScS-to-k' converted phase to map
successfully the upper boundary of the descending Pacific plate beneath Japan. They
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 549
VOLCANIC LINE
PERU TRENCH OF SOUTHERN PERU

I
I-
a
g 200-
SECTIONS 4(O),5A AND 5B(.)
DATA OF SYKES AND HAYES
CLASS A,B,C A N D 0
300
- I
00
I
200 ----&--

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DISTANCE, KM
Figure 11. A composite cross-section of the seismicity in southern Peru for the period 1950-63. All the
events of this section were relocated by Sykes & Hayes (1971, 1979). The location of this composite
section is the same as that of Fig. 10. Symbols are as in Fig. 8.

observed that nearby deep earthquakes not only produce the 'normal' ScS phase, but also
produce a large, clear arrival on the vertical-component record that precedes ScS and is
interpreted as an ScS-to-P converted phase along the upper boundary of the descending plate
(see Fig. 13). They also observed a correlation between increase in distance between the
recording station and the Japan trench and increase in the difference in time between ScS
and the converted phase. The time difference thus correlates well to the depth of the Benioff
zone beneath the station. The consistency and clarity of the ScS-top data that are reported
by Okada (1 977) and Hasegawa et al. (1978) and the existence of many seismic stations in
Japan provided the Japanese seismologists with an excellent opportunity both to map the
upper boundary of the descending plate in relation to the Benioff zone and to estimate the
velocity contrast between the descending plate and the surrounding mantle.

75 .On W
14.0' s VOLCANOES OF SOUTHERN PERU
I N.W 200 v V V T T V W w vv S.E .
I n m

00
I
200
I I
400
I I 0

600
1
I I
800
DISTANCE. KM
Figure 12. A longitudinal cross-section of the seismicity in southern Peru (the data of this figure are those
of sections 4, 5A and 5B of Fig. 3). Only good-quality data are shown in this figure. The trend of this
section is approximately parallel to the overall strike of the arc in southern Peru. This section shows the
relative sharpness of the transition from the flat geometry to the steeper geometry of the Benioff zone
in southern Peru.
550 M.Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
PERU (NNA STATION) JAPAN

-
URA
A :8 80', A z 38'
FEB 15,1967 AUG 13,1967
BRAZIL , d = 597 S W JAPAN, d = 362
A = 6 l5', Az: 241'
?- KMU
r- A = 8 95', A z = 38'
r-
-&?
4
a
4
Y
NOV 3.1965 C

SEPT 5 , 1970
MAT, d = 576
SEA OF OKHOTSK
JAN 12.1972 A.18 32", Az:216'
-

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JUL 25,1969

A = 18.60". Az :314'
1
OEC 20,1966 6
KGJ
ARGENTINA, d = 582
W
in
MAR 5,1965
{z
N
SNOKE 2L

&T>
ARGENTINA , d 2 568 SEISMIC STATION
A 2 19.57'. A2 : 317"

bCT\NG' ' EARTHQUAKE

ARGENTINA, d : 581
A = 20 OO",Az :318"
1 L - L

Figure 13. Representative seismograms showing ScS phases produced by deep earthquakes at station
N N A in Peru (left) and at different Japanese stations (right). The records are aligned according to the
ScS arrival times. For every event two records are shown (one horizontal and the vertical). Note the
clear seismic-wave arrivals on the Z components of the Japanese records a few seconds before the ScS
arrivals. These early arrivals are interpreted by the Japanese seismologists to indicate ScS-toP converted
phases along the upper boundary of the descending plate. The crosssection of the Earth (tower right)
shows representative ray paths of ScS and ScSp phases. The dashed lines on the 2 records of station
NNA indicate the expected arrival times of the ScSp phases. Direct comparison between the Peru and
Japan records indicates that no clear, consistent, ScS-top converted phases are observed at station NNA.

Recently, Snoke et al. (1 977) reported an observation at station NNA in central Peru that
they suggested to be similar to the Japanese observations, and on this basis inferred that the
descending Nazca plate beneath central Peru has a steep dip (about 30") instead of the
nearly flat geometry of the plate inferred from studies of seismicity. The observation of
Snoke et al. was produced by the 1965 March 5 deep event in Argentina (see Fig. 13). In
this study we examined most of the ScS data produced at station NNA in central Peru by
nearby deep events located in Brazil and Argentina. Fig. 13 shows representative examples
 Subduction of the Nazca plate beneath Peru 551
of most of the records that can be reproduced. Comparison between the Peru and Japan
data shown in Fig. 13 clearly indicates that no clear, consistent ScS-to-P converted phases
are observed at station NNA. Unfortunately, there are no data available from other seismic
stations in central Peru located at different distances from the Peru trench. Finally, even if
we accept the one observation of Snoke et al. as a possible ScS-top converted phase (whch
requires conversion at about 160 km depth), it is possible that the conversion occurs at the
lower boundary of the descending Nazca plate, in accordance with the flat geometry of the
plate.

Discussion
Based on the spatial distribution of precisely located earthquakes beneath Peru that occurred
during the past 27 years, we show that the descending Nazca plate beneath central and
northern Peru has a dip of about lo", a relatively flat geometry. This is in marked contrast

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to the steeper geometry (about 25-30") of the descending Nazca plate beneath southern
Peru. The transition from flat to steeper geometries occurs along a well-defined tear in the
descending Nazca plate.
A remarkable correlation exists between the flat geometry of the descending Nazca
plate and the absence of Quaternary volcanism on the upper South America plate. It is
possible that the upper surface of the descending plate is in close contact with the overriding
South America plate and little or no room is left for asthenospheric material between the
two plates. This suggests that generation of arc-type volcanism requires the existence of an
asthenospheric mantle wedge between the descending and upper plates. The flat geometry
of the descending Nazca plate is also found beneath the region of central Chile, between
about 27" S to 33" S latitudes, which is also characterized by the absence of Quaternary
volcanism (Barazangi & Isacks 1976). In southern Peru abundant Quaternary volcanism
exists on the South America plate where the descending Nazca plate has a steeper dip and
also where an asthenospheric mantle wedge separates the descending and upper plates
(Chinn, Isacks & Barazangi 1979). Another striking observation is the apparent simplicity
and uniformity of the structure of the descending plate for a considerable distance along
the strike of the arc. No obvious contortions or segmentations of the descending Nazca
plate seem to exist along a distance of about 1600 km beneath central and northern Peru.
Similarly, the structure of the descending plate beneath southern Peru and northern Chile
for about 1300 km and beneath central Chile for about 600 km along the strike of the
South American arc seems to be simple and uniform. As emphasized by Isacks & Barazangi
(1977), the uniformity of the structure of the descending plates to depths of about 200-
300 km and along lengths of arcs between about 500-1500 km on a global basis is one of
the most outstanding observations regarding the mechanics of bending of the descending
plates.
The Quaternary volcanic line in southern Peru extends to a distance of about 100 km to
the north-west of the tear in the descending Nazca plate (see Fig. 3 ) . However, it appears
that Pliocene volcanism extends to a distance of about 400 km to the north-west of the tear
(Noble & McKee 1977; Noble 1978). Also, the inland extension of the Nazca ridge and the
northern end of the high Andean plateau of the Altiplano seem to occur at a distance of
about 300-400 km to the north-west of the tear. Another significant structural feature in
southern Peru (at about 14"s latitude) is the Pisco-Abancay deflection zone (Ham &
Herrera 1963), which represents a major change in the trend of the Andean tectonic grain
and the sub-Andean fault system. North of this deflection zone, field observations of recent
crustal movements indicate that the central Peru region is under a state of compression (e.g.
552 M.Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
Megard & Philip 1976; Noble 1978). This is consistent with the results obtained by Stauder
(1 975) from the focal mechanisms of shallow sub-Andean earthquakes. However, south of
the deflection zone, in the Altiplano region, field observations indicate predominantly
extensional neotectonics (Megard & Philip 1976). It is thus possible that a close relationship
exists between the following features: (1) the Quaternary and Pliocene volcanism, ( 2 ) the
Altiplano, (3) the Nazca ridge, (4) the tear, (5) the Pisco-Abancay deflection zone, (6) the
neotectonics and the state of stress and (7) the major bend in the coastline near the Chile-
Peru border.
It is possible to speculate that the Nazca ridge, which may represent a dormant transform
fault (Anderson et al. 1976), is a zone of weakness along which the descending plate tears
beneath southern Peru. This would require that the ridge had an offset along its trend. Also,
it is possible that the Quaternary and Pliocene volcanism in the region where the descending
plate has at present a flat geometry to the north-west of the tear may be due to either:
(1) local contortion of the descending plate during the early stages of the development of
the tear, and hence the possible trapping of asthenospheric material above the southern edge

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of the flat descending plate or (2) the possible southwards migration of the tear if the tear
is structurally related to the proposed southwards migration of the Nazca ridge during at
least the Pliocene and Quaternary time (Pilger 1979). Noble & McKee (1977), however,
suggested that this Quaternary and Pliocene volcanism may be related to subsidiary tears
in the descending plate.
The flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate may be responsible for the broad de-
formation of the Andean cordilleras in Peru (see Fig. 14). This deformation is characterized
by steep faults and shear zones trending along the strike of the Andes. The crustal blocks
bounded by these faults are in relative motion with respect to each other (e.g. Myers 1975).
The easternmost part of the recent deformation represents the sub-Andean fault system.
This fault system is a series of west-dipping reverse faults along wluch the western crustal
blocks are elevated relative to the eastern blocks (Ham & Herrera 1963). The broad Andean
deformation, which seems to be due to a predominantly compressive stress field in the upper
plate, may be the result of the strong interaction or coupling between the descending and

BROAD DEFORMATION OF THE

PERU
-1 ANDEAN CORDiLLERAS -I
TRENCH

,
I I
00
I 200
I
400
OiSTANCE, KM
1 I
600
1 I
800
I
Figure 14. A crosssection showing the inferred geometries of the descending Nazca plate and the
continental South America plate in central and northern Peru. The inclined thin lines schematically
represent the distribution of the good-quality hypocentres. The inferred faults in the continental crust
beneath the Andean and the sub-Andean regions are schematically adopted from Ham & Herrera (1963)
and Myers (1975). Results obtained from focal mechanism data by Isacks & Molnar (1971), Stauder
(1975) and Isacks & Barazangi (1977) are summarized and indicate: (1) thrusting of the Nazca plate
beneath South America (thin arrows approximately beneath the coast line), (2) down-dip compression
on top of down-dip tension within the descending Nazca plate, probably due to unbending of the
descending plate, (3) down-dip tension within the descending plate, (4) horizontal tension beneath the
trench and (5) horizontal compression within the South America plate (heavy arrows).
 Subduction 0f the Nazca plate beneath Peru 553
upper plates that generates the recent and active compressional tectonics observed in central
and northern Peru.
The cause of the flat geometry of the descending Nazca plate is not clear. It is possible
that many factors are responsible for this unique geometry. One possible factor concerns the
age of the Nazca plate. The eastern margin of the Nazca plate is relatively young (< about
50 Myr), and hence it is thinner and more buoyant than, say, the older (- 100 Myr) western
Pacific plate. Thus, the descending Nazca plate probably has less gravitational force acting
on it in comparison to the older descending plates. Moreover, it may be important that
the upper continental lithosphere is relatively thick in comparison, for example, to the
oceanic-type or small continental blocks of the western Pacific upper plates. Another
possible factor is described by Jischke (1975). He showed that if the region between the
descending and upper plates is narrow and varies with depth, hydrodynamic forces arise
that can overcome the gravitational forces acting on the descending plate, and hence the
plate tends to follow the contours of the lower surface of the upper plate. Two more factors
that may contribute to the development of the flat geometry are: (1) The possibility that the

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upper South America plate is actively overriding the descending Nazca plate; that is, the
absolute motion of the South America plate is in a westerly direction towards the Peru
trench. ( 2 ) Pilger (1979) (see also Kelleher & McCann 1976) proposed that the flat geometry
may be the result of the subduction of aseismic ridges which tend to reduce the average
density of the descending plate. As a consequence, buoyancy forces tend to reduce the angle
of subduction of the descending plate.
The flat geometry of the descending plate is probably not a steady-state process. If the
absence of Quaternary volcanism on the South America plate is directly related to the flat
geometry of the descending plate, then the occurrence of widespread volcanism during
Miocene time in central and northern Peru (Noble et al. 1974) suggests that the descending
plate must have had a steeper dip during that time. It is possible that the gravitational
forces that are acting on the descending plate will eventually overcome the other forces
that are keeping the plate flat, and hence will lead to the gradual separation of the
descending and upper plates and the subsequent flow of asthenospheric material in the
wedge between the two plates. This would result in a new episode of volcanism on the upper
plate. It is tempting to speculate that the steeper geometry of the descending Nazca plate in
southern Peru and northern Chile is a result of such a process, and that the high plateau
of the Altiplano, which now lies above the more steeply dipping plate, is a result of the
inflow of asthenospheric material.
Moreover, a new cycle of flat geometry of the descending plate in southern Peru and
northern Chile may develop in the future after the steeper part of the descending plate
breaks off from the near-horizontal Nazca plate close to the western edge of the upper
South America plate. The strikingly linear distribution of intermediate-depth events that
occurs in northern Chile for a distance of about 700 km and has a trend approximately
parallel to the structural grain of the Andes is probably a major fault zone within the steeply
descending Nazca plate (Barazangi & Isacks 1976). This fault zone may be a zone of
weakness along which the steeply descending plate will be detached in the future.
It is possible that the width of the flat segment is controlled by the existence of aseismic
structural features on the oceanic Nazca plate. The Nazca and Carnegie ridges, which are
located near the southern and northern limits, respectively, of the flat segment, are such
features. Moreover, across the Nazca ridge the age of the Nazca plate changes (Wortel &
Vlaar 1978). These ridges may be zones of weakness along which the Nazca plate is being
transversely torn as it descends beneath the South America plate.
Although the nearly flat geometry of the descending plate exists at present only beneath
5 54 M . Barazangi and B. L. Isacks
central and northern Peru and beneath central Chile, this unique geometry may have existed
beneath the western United States in the past. The correlation in central and northern
Peru between: (1) the flat geometry of the descending plate, (2) the recent broad de-
formation of the upper lithosphere to distances of about 700 km from the Peru trench and
(3) the lack of Quaternary volcanism on the upper lithosphere provides a model that may
explain the classic Laramide orogeny of late Cretaceous and Palaeogene age in the central
Rocky Mountains of the western United States. Recent studies (Burchfiel & Davis 1975;
Cross & Pilger 1978; Dickinson & Snyder 1978) show that during the evolution of the
Laramide structures between about 70 and 45 Myr ago a prominent magmatic gap occurred
in a corridor from the Laramide structures westward to the postulated Farallon-North
America plate boundary, a distance of about 800-1000 km (Burchfiel & Davies 1976).
The similarity of this tectonic setting with the presently active tectonics of central and
northern Peru suggests that the descending Farallon plate had a flat geometry for a
considerable distance beneath the upper North American lithosphere during the late
Cretaceous and early Palaeogene time.

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Acknowledgments
We are very thankful to Lynn Sykes of the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of
Columbia University for allowing us to use his yet unpublished relocated hypocentres of
Peru for the time period 1950-63. W. Dickinson, A. Hasegawa, R. Pilger and M. Wortel
kindly sent us preprints of their forthcoming papers. We thank Jack Oliver for reviewing
this paper, Donald Turcotte for useful discussion, Judy Healey for editing, and Araceli de
Ramos and Douglas Chinn for helping on different aspects of the paper. The research
reported in this paper is supported by National Science Foundation Grant EAR75-14815
A0 1. Department of Geological Sciences of Cornell University Contribution No. 632.

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