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to The Musical Quarterly
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The Twentieth Century
Derek B. Scott
309
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310 The Musical Quarterly
The first type of musical Orientalism was the Turkish style, which,
according to Jonathan Bellman, "evolved from a sort of battle music
played by Turkish military bands outside the walls of Vienna during
the siege of that city in 1683."5 He remarks that few had heard it and
virtually no one remembered it, and that "what became understood as
Turkish Style was thus almost entirely the product of the European
imagination."6 It clearly gave pleasure, but also a sense of superiority
over the Turks. Why did the Turkish style arrive as the first example of
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Orientalism and Musical Style 311
Indian Boy
I I I
10
. tI
Exa
Allegro moderato
Vi IR
Eae. "e daie P, (3
C co0 l 8va
1- - - .-AS.
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312 The Musical Quarterly
Orientalism in music? Was it because the Turks had dared to try to con-
quer the West? The successful lifting of the Siege of Vienna ended Turk-
ish expansionism.
Typical Turkish style of the eighteenth century would be a ] march
with a bass of reiterated quavers (often asserting a tonic pedal); a melody
decorated with grace notes (often dissonant) and insisting on the notes
of the tonic triad, but with an occasional raised fourth; and "crude" har-
mony, such as root-position triads and octave doubling of melody.7 The
Chorus of Janissaries from Mozart's Die Entfiihrung aus dem Serail (1782)
is a good example. Alfred Einstein describes the unusual circumstances
of the first performance of this work in London in 1827: "To our aston-
ishment," he says, "the prelude to this 'Turkish opera' begins with the
solemn strains from the scene of the men in armor in the Zauberflate ...
Next follows the flute and drum solo of the trial by fire and water. Only
after this does Mozart's presto get under way."8 Evidently, the Egypt of
Die Zauberfldte and the Turkey of Die Entfiihrung lacked distinguishing
codes in England at this time. My argument, however, is that musical
Orientalism has never been overly concerned with establishing distinc-
tions between Eastern cultures, and that an interchangeability of exotic
signifiers proved to be commonplace rather than astonishing.
The next style to arrive after the style turc in the genealogy of musical
Orientalism was the style hongrois, which Bellman describes as "derived
from the exotic-sounding music played by Gypsy bands (not actual Mag-
yars) in Hungary and westward to Vienna."9 When it emerged alongside
the Turkish style in the middle of the eighteenth century, there was no
clear line between the two. The following pieces illustrate the crossover:
Haydn's rondo "In the Gypsies' Style" (the finale of the Piano Trio in G
Major, Hob. XV: 25); the finale of Mozart's Violin Concerto in A Major
(known as the "Turkish"), K. 219; and Beethoven's "Alla Ingharese" for
piano (known as "Rage over a Lost Penny"). The style hongrois is marked
by syncopation, dactylic and dotted rhythms, virtuoso violin or quasi-
violin passages (the Gypsies were Hungary's professional musicians), a
more prominent raised fourth than in the Turkish style, and the melodic
interval of the augmented second. It became a more distinct style in the
nineteenth century, and the augmented second was increasingly used to
connote "Gypsy." The "Gypsy scale" was theorized by Liszt,10 who empha-
sized difference by choosing the raised fourth degree and omitting the
equally common diatonic fourth degree (see Ex. 3). Hungaria, Symphonic
Poem no. 9 (1854), has a conventional modulation to the dominant in
mm. 79-86 while retaining a transposed version of the "Hungarian" aug-
mented second (see Ex. 4). What we have is a spiced-up major-minor
tonality rather than music based on a different ethnic scale pattern-
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Orientalism and Musical Style 313
Violins 3 3
p molto espressivo, ca
5 3 3
Example
unorth
fashion
East an
mode b
but wit
flected
aeolian-
in "The
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314 The Musical Quarterly
f recitativo ad lib.
dim.
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Orientalism and Musical Style 315
WITH p
EXPRESSION
Like the wild, cease- less mo - tion, Of the deep heav - ing
13
I , ,
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316 The Musical Quarterly
Modir=
Oboe Solo
p 3
Spain
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Orientalism and Musical Style 317
part - ed! As in my bright days, in my bright days de - part - ed! Sing to thy
child, the sick - heart - ed, Songs for a spi - rit op - press'd! Sing to thy child, the sick -
14
heart - ed, Songs for a spi - rit, for a spi - rit op - press'd!_ Sing to thy child, _ to thy
18
child, the sick - heart-ed, Songs for a spi - rit, for a spi - rit op - press'd!_ Sing to thy
22
child, _ to thy child the sick - heart-ed, Songs _ for a spi - rit, for a spi - rit op - press'd!
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318 The Musical Quarterly
Piano f dim.
W I I I I
heart from care and sor-row free, I rule o'erspi - rits brave and bold, Who
13
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Orientalism and Musical Style 319
a cultural Other). Verdi's Hebrew slaves (Nabucco) are Italians, but not,
for the most part, his Egyptians (Aida).29 However, if we turn to a com-
poser like Sullivan, who was very aware of the semiotics of style, we find
that in The Gondoliers the Italian style signifies Italy. This is different
from using a style as a common language: there is an element of parody
here or, at least, an acknowledgment of cultural specificity.30
In his "canto gitano" from Capriccio espagnol (1887), Rimsky-
Korsakov opts for phrygian inflections rather than an augmented second
between B-flat and C-sharp (see Ex. 10). The phrygian mode was to
become a favorite Spanish signifier (a guitarist today can quickly and
easily suggest Spain by playing a vigorous rhythm on the chord changes
E major to F major to G major and back again). Bizet's "fate theme" from
Carmen has "Gypsy" augmented seconds, but moved around within
Western-style sequences: they are not part of a mode but form a motive
fit for transposing. However, the transposing is not random: Bizet has the
best of all worlds, using augmented seconds at all three of the favorite
places for signifying the cultural Other within the space of an octave. He
thereby produces a veritable Orientalist tone row (see Exx. 11 and 12).
Debussy, on the other hand, decides that Liszt's Hungarian "Gypsy" scale
is good enough for his habafiera La soiree dans Grenade (1903; see Ex.
13). Before leaving Spain, it is interesting to note that a television
advertisement for Spanish holidays (run in January 1996 on the United
Kingdom's Channel 4) used an arrangement of Ravel's Bolero as back-
ground music. This must have been chosen because it was thought to
signify Spain to potential British holidaymakers better than Spanish
music does.
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320 The Musical Quarterly
tuttaforza I
5 Retenu- --------------------------------
A4 3 3 3 3
North Africa
The next stop on our musical tour is Egypt. Rameau's "L'Egiptienne" [The
Egyptian woman] from Nouvelles suites de piaces de clavecin (1736) has no
obvious Egyptian connotations today. But if we move once again to the
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Orientalism and Musical Style 321
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322 The Musical Quarterly
6.~~I L_-.
12
p- f -pP decresc.
3p P
3 Ka
A " 3
3 3 3 3 P
increases the im
Valentino's own
those who are f
Other. Although
twentieth centu
observe above, c
in Western prac
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Orientalism and Musical Style 323
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324 The Musical Quarterly
Allegro moderato
PIANO f
odf
In the Tem- pie of Dai Ni - chi, not a mile from Nik - ko town, There's a
13
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Orientalism and Musical Style 325
Cantabile
rail. p sostenuto.
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326 The Musical Quarterly
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Orientalism and Musical Style 327
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328 The Musical Quarterly
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Orientalism and Musical Style 329
tural superiority over the Turks. The related issue of the Oriental as
"childlike"62 and the "theory of Semitic simplicity"63 finds a musical
illustration in Hassan's song "There Was Once a Small Street Arab"
from The Rose of Persia (Basil Hood and Arthur Sullivan, 1899) and
connects back to Purcell's childlike portrayal of the Indian boy.
In the eighteenth century, not only is there the cult of the noble
savage to consider, but the cultural elite were still able to regard the peas-
antry as a cultural Other. For a while this persisted even after the making
of a working class, as shown by Ritchie's comments in The Night Side of
London that the "costermonger race" is "alien" and their songs are not
"ours" (addressing the reader as an assumed class equal).64 Hence, the
favored means of musical representation of a cultural Other prior to Ori-
entalist music was the pastoral style. Pastoral conventions signify a rural
Other in opposition to the courtly (later, urban), in much the same way
as Orientalist conventions signify an East in opposition to the West.
However, though pastoral conventions, like Orientalist conventions,
carry associations of nature as opposed to art, they do not function as
signs of ethnic difference. Conventions for representing ethnic difference
developed alongside the rise of an aggressive mercantile bourgeoisie and
were usually first applied to neighboring countries over which they held
sway. In England, where the breakup of feudalism came early, racial cari-
catures-Irish, Scottish and Welsh--appeared in song at the time of Dib-
din's Table Entertainments, toward the end of the eighteenth century.65
The contradictory messages of Orientalist music can be found in its
earliest manifestations, such as the style hongrois. Because of that style's
association with Gypsies, and because Gypsies were often viewed as
untrustworthy, it was often used to suggest dissembling.66 Yet Gypsies
could be identified with as outsiders, which is what Bellman feels Schu-
bert did.67 The construction of Jewishness in Western music is perhaps
the most fraught with contradictions. The musical Jew is sometimes the
ordinary Western European-even an implied Christian Protestant. In
Handel's Judas Maccabeus (1746), the Romans are the villains, suggest-
ing to the English Protestant middle class the Roman Catholic Stuarts of
the recently crushed Jacobite Rebellion. In other Handel oratorios, the
Jews as chosen people again resonated with middle-class aspirations. A
similar ideology is at play in the twentieth century in MGM's biblical
epics (especially evident when Jewish heroes are played by Gentiles).
Here, again, myth relates to myth: Hollywood film composers construct
an identity for the Israelites that is more reminiscent of the Western
medieval church than of Palestine.68 In its harmonic language and use of
aeolian, dorian, and phrygian modes, this style owes more to a work like
Vaughan Williams's Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis than to any
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330 The Musical Quarterly
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Orientalism and Musical Style 331
lyrics of this song that their connotations are very similar. Thus, our sur-
vey would seem to indicate that, in one sense, we have not moved at all.
Orientalism is never quite a case of "anything goes." It is possible to
mix signifiers of difference in a confusing manner; for example, it would
be possible to write a calypso using Liszt's "Hungarian" scale. Moreover,
Orientalist signs are contextual. For example, a mixture of " and 3 is not
a sign for Spanish in William Byrd's madrigal "Though Amaryllis Dance
in Green," but it is in Bernstein's "I Want to Be in America" (from West
Side Story). Likewise, the similarity between the close of the first move-
ment of Anton Bruckner's Sixth Symphony and the theme tune of Mau-
rice Jarre's Lawurence of Arabia does not create confusion. It is interesting,
nonetheless, to wonder how much more stress on the phrygian in Bruck-
ner's coda would have been necessary to conjure up Sinbad for Tovey,
rather than Odysseus.73 However, putting such matters as context aside,
the geographical vagueness of much musical Orientalism remains. I will
conclude with a final example, this time as it occurs in the labeling of
exotic instruments: if we consult the Everyman Dictionary of Music74 for a
definition of "Turkish Crescent," we find, "see Chinese Pavilion."
Notes
1. "[A] myth derives its significance not from contemporary or archaic institutions of
which it is a reflection, but from its relation to other myths within a transformation
group." Claude Levi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked: Introduction to a Science of Mythol-
ogy, trans. John and Doreen Weightman (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 51, n. 5;
originally published as Le cru et le cuit (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1964).
4. Carolyn Abbate, Unsung Voices: Opera and Musical Narrative in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), 4.
5. Jonathan Bellman, The "Style Hongrois" in the Music of Western Europe (Boston:
Northeastern University Press, 1993), 13-14; see also 31-32. Bence Szabolcsi is con-
cerned to trace ethnographic sources for Mozart's exoticisms and to rebut the accusation
of "lighthearted toying" on Mozart's part ("Exoticisms in Mozart," Music and Letters 37
[1956]: 323-32). To rescue Mozart from this charge, Szabolcsi attempts to convey a sense
of Mozart's dignifying folk music by raising it to the level of art. The question, "What are
the ideological implications of revoicing these 'foreign' elements through the Viennese
style?" is not asked. His theoretical model is not of Self and Other, but of Art and Folk;
he thinks, therefore, in terms of elevation rather than mediation.
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332 The Musical Quarterly
7. For fuller discussion, see Miriam Karpilow Whaples, "Exoticism in Dramatic Music,
1600-1800" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1958); Thomas Bauman, W. A. Mozart:
Die Entffihrung aus dem Serail (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); and Bell-
man, The "Style Hongrois," 33-42.
8. Alfred Einstein, Essays on Music, rev. ed. (London: Faber, 1958), 211.
10. The Gipsy in Music, trans. Edwin Evans (1881; reprint, London: William Reeves,
1960), 301; originally published as Des Bohimiens et de leur musique en Hongrie (1859).
12. "I'll Sing Thee Songs of Araby" (1877), words by W. G. Wills, music by Frederic
Clay (from the cantata Lalla Rookh).
13. "A Son of the Desert Am I" (ca. 1898), words by John P. Wilson, music by Walter
A. Phillips (published in New York).
14. "The Arab's Farewell to His Favourite Steed" (ca. 1865), words by Caroline Nor-
ton, music by John Blockley.
15. Number 2 of her Sabbath Lays of 1853. The words of this song reflect upon a bibli-
cal text, Revelation 12:1 and 4. For details of this tune's dissemination in France, see
Ralph P. Locke, "Cutthroats and Casbah Dancers, Muezzins and Timeless Sands: Musical
Images of the Middle East," in The Exotic in Western Music, ed. Jonathan Bellman
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 104-36 and 116.
16. Supposedly composed by the New York Congressman Sol Bloom for an Egyptian
dance at the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; see Derek B. Scott, The
Singing Bourgeois (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1989), 106.
17. Whole-tone scales on trombones accompany the act 3 chorus of followers of the
evil magician.
19. Richard Taruskin, " 'Entoiling the Falconet': Russian Musical Orientalism in Con-
text," Cambridge Opera Journal 4, no. 3 (1992): 253-80, 255; reprinted in Bellman, The
Exotic in Western Music, 194-217.
21. Roy M. Prendergast, Film Music: A Neglected Art, 2d ed. (New York: Norton,
1992), 69.
23. Pius Alexander Wolff's play Preciosa was based on Cervantes's tale La Gitanella.
24. See Bellman, The "Style Hongrois," 144. John Warrack refers to a Dresden librar-
ian's recollection of Weber's studying a collection of Spanish national tunes and even
turning up examples of "genuine Gipsy music," but adds that Weber's "own knowledge of
Spain was negligible, being based chiefly on his overhearing of a few Spanish songs in
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Orientalism and Musical Style 333
the company of Spohr from Spanish soldiers garrisoned near Gotha." Carl Maria von
Weber, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 241-42.
25. "Mother, O! Sing Me to Rest" (1830), words by Felicia Hemans, music anon.
26. "A Bandit's Life Is the Life for Me!" (1872), words and music by E. Harper.
27. "The Bandolero" (1894), words and music by Leslie Stuart [Thomas Augustine
Barrett].
28. It has often been remarked that Bizet was influenced by Spanish music in this
opera; for example, that his Habaftera is based on Sebasti in Yradier's El Arreglito and the
entr'acte to act 4 on an arrangement by Manuel Garcfa of a Spanish polo, and that other
tunes are taken from a Paris edition of Spanish songs. For a discussion of Spanish music
in Carmen, the extent to which it was already mediated before Bizet appropriated it, and
how far he altered it to suit his own purpose, see Susan McClary, Georges Bizet: Carmen
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 51-58. Bizet's Orientalism, however, is
evident in this music's treatment (especially in his harmony and orchestration) and the
decisions he takes as to who sings in this style-for example, Don Jose is Spanish, but
musically he is French. On this subject, see James Parakilas, "The Soldier and the Exotic:
Operatic Variations on a Theme of Racial Encounter," Opera Quarterly 10, no. 2 (1994):
33-56, and no. 3 (1994): 43-69.
29. Interestingly, Italians almost become the cultural Other in Tchaikovsky's Capriccio
italien (1880), so that some pe ople find the piece suggests Spain rather than Italy.
30. He treats Scottish music in a similar way in Haddon Hall (at the same time showing
informed knowledge of Highland bagpipe ornamentation).
31. However, "Abdulmajid," from Glass's Heroes Symphony, does adopt an Orientalist
manner.
33. This change suggests that Berlioz was not merely trying to be "ancient" by using
modal melody in the previous section (although to some extent, of course, Berlioz
wished the whole of L'Enfance du Christ to sound "ancient"). An unmistakable exotic
moment, earlier in the work, is the cabalistic dance of the soothsayers.
35. "Kashmiri Song," from Four Indian Love Lyrics, words by Laurence Hope, music by
Amy Woodforde-Finden, 1902.
36. Item 2, side 2 (no date), The Great Screen Lovers Collection (Deja Vu Records
DVMC 2117, 1987).
37. "The Mousmee; Or, His Sweetheart in Japan" (1893), words by Douglas Sladen,
music by Walter W. Hedgcock.
38. As a further illustration of this ideology at work, note how in Les Troyens Berlioz
characterizes 'oL LoXkoL with drone fifths, exotic percussion (antique cymbals), and
clashing grace notes, but not, say, Aeneas or Cassandra.
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334 The Musical Quarterly
39. "The Sheik of Araby" (1921), words by Harry B. Smith and Francis Wheeler, music
by Ted Snyder.
40. See "The Story of Ali Baba, and the Forty Thieves Destroyed by a Slave," in Ara-
bian Nights' Entertainments, ed. Robert L. Mack (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995),
764-87.
41. Rexton S. Bunnett, Chu Chin Chow, CD booklet (EMI 0777 7 899392 6, 1984), 6.
42. Said, Orientalism, 188-90, 309. When, for example, a seedy nightclub advertises
"exotic dancers," the meaning is clear. As Said says, "the association between the Orient
and sex is remarkably persistent" (Orientalism, 309). Russians, too, associated the Orient
with sex; see Taruskin, "'Entoiling the Falconet'," 259-61.
43. Oscar Asche, foreword to Chu Chin Chow, reproduced in Bunnett, Chu Chin
Chow, 8.
44. Here, I am, of course, referring to the music and not to the show's book or to such
things as casting policy.
48. Victor Hugo, in the preface to his volume of verse Les Orientales of 1829, states:
"Spain is still the Orient; Spain is half African, Africa is half Asian." Quoted in Susan
McClary, Georges Bizet: Carmen, 30.
49. It is not my contention that such devices are employed in an utterly indiscriminate
manner: for example, pentatonic melody and gongs are not likely to be used to evoke
Spain.
51. See Taruskin, "'Entoiling the Falconet'," 277; Scheherazade, third movement, mm.
162-64, provides an example.
53. For a well-balanced account of these positive and negative factors, see Ralph P.
Locke, "Cutthroats and Casbah Dancers," esp. 105-8.
54. In this case, musical Orientalism operates as a sort of musical fancy dress. Consider
the following comment on Oriental masquerade: "Stereotypical and inaccurate though
they often were, exotic costumes marked out a kind of symbolic interpenetration with
difference-an almost erotic commingling with the alien." Terry Castle, Masquerade and
Civilisation: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (London:
Methuen, 1986), 61-62. I am grateful to Marian Gilbert Read for drawing my attention
to this point and to the passage quoted. Sometimes Oriental fancy dress moves to the
mainstream: Leon Bakst's "Oriental" designs for the Ballets Russes transformed Paris
fashions in the second decade of the twentieth century; see Colin McDowell, "Choreog-
rapher of Change," Sunday Times, Culture section, 28 Jan. 1996, 14.
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Orientalism and Musical Style 335
55. For Bakhtin's theory of the carnivalesque, see Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His
World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984).
56. Remark attributed to Alan Clark, former British Government Minister for Defense,
in an Amnesty International advertisement (Guardian, 16 Mar. 1996, 13.)
59. Herbert Spencer, Principles of Biology, part 6, chap. 12, sec. 363 (1864).
60. See Christine Bolt, "Race and the Victorians," in British Imperialism in the Nine-
teenth Century, ed. C. C. Eldridge (London: Macmillan, 1984), 126-47, 133. She cites
D. A. Lorimer, Colour, Class, and the Victorians (Leicester: Leicester University Press,
1978), chap. 7.
64. J. E. Ritchie, The Night Side of London, 2d ed. (London: William Tweedie, 1858),
207. The term "costermonger" originally described a person who sold fruit from a market
barrow (a costard was a type of large apple), but about this time it began to be used for
any street seller and tended to conjure up the image of a "typical" London working-class
Cockney.
68. Consider Ernest Gold's music for Exodus (1960), Mikl6s R6zsa's music for King of
Kings (1961), or Alfred Newman's score for The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965).
69. Archibald T. Davison and Willi Apel, Historical Anthology of Music, vol. 1 (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946), 227. The piece may be found on p. 108.
70. Denis Stevens pointed out that it "becomes intelligible when the upper string of
the lute is tuned a semitone higher according to instructions." Musicology: A Practical
Guide (London: Macdonald, 1980), 175. The instruction to tune the chanterelle a semi-
tone higher is given above the tablature.
71. His poem Asie, mentioned earlier during the discussion of Ravel's SheMhrazade of
1903.
72. Hugh Macdonald, "Something Borrowed, Something New," Pell&as & Melisande,
Opera Guide 9 (London: John Calder, 1982), 7.
73. Tovey is reminded of the "Homeric seas" in the coda to this movement; see Essays
in Musical Analysis, vol. 2, Symphonies (ii) (1935; reprint, London: Oxford University
Press, 1989), 81.
74. Eric Blom, comp., Everyman's Dictionary of Music, 5th ed., ed. Jack Westrup (Lon-
don: Dent, 1971), 720.
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