INTEGRATED CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROJECT

(ICHEP)

UTILIZING HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H2S)

FROM NATURAL GAS (NG) PROCESSING

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 11th APRIL 2018

PHONE
NAME ID COURSE
NUMBER
MOHAMAD MUKHZIN MOHD
18867 019-6540228
RASID CHEMICAL
RAIHA AMIRA BINTI MOHD ENGINEERING
19676 017-9442857
TAINUN
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER 2: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF PLANT 10

CHAPTER 3: MASS BALANCE OF PROCESSES 13

CHAPTER 4: ENERGY ANALYSIS AND BALANCE OF 16

PROCESSES

CHAPTER 5: PRESSURE DROP OF STREAMS 24

CHAPTER 6: CONSTRUCTION OF MATERIALS 36

ii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ACID GAS REMOVAL UNIT (AGRU)

Natural gas coming from sour gas reservoir contains H2S and CO2 , which are referred to as
acid gases. H2S gas is highly toxic and CO2 reduces heating value of the gas (OLI Systems,
n.d). On top of that, CO2 can form carbonic acid when dissolved in water, which can corrode
pipeline and equipment. Corrosion results in leak, which can be deadly. Thus, it must be
removed to ensure sales gas agreement is met. One of the established method to remove this
acidic compound from natural gas is with Acid Gas Removal Unit (AGRU). This system
utilizes amine to absorb H2S and CO2 from the gas stream. It is able to do so because amine
has a high affinity to these two compounds. The amine given by the problem statement is
diethanolamine (DEA). DEA is a secondary amine, which has lower reactivity and less
corrosive than primary amine. Apart from that, it has a lower vapor pressure and lower heat
of reaction than primary amine. This contributes to lower losses of amine and less energy
intensive for regeneration than primary amine. Its molecular structure is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.0 : DEA molecular structure.

Sweetening of natural gas is crucial in gas processing for following reasons:

• Health hazards: At 0.13 ppm, H2S can be sensed by smell. At 4.6 ppm, the smell is
quite noticeable. As the concentration increases beyond 200 ppm, the sense of smell
fatigues, and the gas can no longer be detected by odor. At 500 ppm, breathing

3
 problems are observed and death can be expected in minutes. At 1000 ppm, death
occurs immediately.
• Sales contracts: Three of the most important natural gas pipeline specification are
related to sulfur content. Such contracts depend on negotiations, but they are quite
strict about H2S content.
• Corrosion problems: If the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds 15 psia, inhibitors
usually can only be used to prevent corrosion. The partial pressure of CO2 depends on
the mole fraction of CO2 in the gas and the natural gas pressure. Corrosion rates will
also depend on temperature. Special metallurgy should be used if CO2 partial
pressure exceeds 15 psia. The presence of H2S will cause metal embrittlement due to
the developed stresses around formed metal sulfides.

1.1.2 Process Description of AGRU by using Diethanolamine (DEA)

Figure 1.1 : Process flow of AGRU Unit

4
DEA reacts with H2S and CO2 as shown below (Ayodele,n.d):

2𝑅2 𝑁𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↔ (𝑅2 𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝑆

(𝑅2 𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝑆 + 𝐻2 𝑆 ↔ 2𝑅2 𝑁𝐻2 𝐻𝑆
2𝑅2 𝑁𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂2 ↔ 𝑅2 𝑁𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻2 𝑅2

Reactions above are reversible and shift to the right in the absorber (low temperature) and
shift to the left in the regenerator column (high temperature). Natural gas is fed at the inlet of
an absorber at high pressure. According to OLI Systems, n.d, the gas is scrubbed by an
approximately 58 weight (wt%) diethanolamine (DEA) solution. The overhead product is
also known as the “sweet gas” or “clean gas” since significant amount of acid gas has been
removed. Sweet gas is then transported via pipeline.

The bottom product of the absorber (rich amine) is then send through a valve to reduce its
pressure. This reduction in pressure reduces the boiling point of the stream. The more volatile
component in the stream is vaporized so any captured light hydrocarbon is removed in the
flash drums. This is essentially a separator where it allows liquid and vapor produced by
pressure reduction to have enough time to reach equilibrium. This process is known as flash
distillation and specifically equilibrium flash since it involves multiple component. The DEA
is now free from hydrocarbon and is send to a regeneration column. In this section, also
known as stripper column, heat is applied to strip acid gases out of the DEA solution. Make
up water and DEA are then added to ensure 58%wt DEA solution is maintained. This
solution known as “lean amine” is then recycled back to the absorber.

5
1.2 CLAUS PLANT PROCESS

Historically, as mentioned by Linde (2018), claus process has been developed in 1883 by an
English Scientiest, Friedrich Claus. The purpose of introducing this claus process plant is to
recover any elemental sulphur that have been generated from previous process of a unit plant.
Usually, the recovery of this sulphur is derived from the Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) containing
gases originating from any gas treating plants such as Alkanolamine units or physical solvent
plants (Jacobs, 2018) which is usually from an acid gas sweetening or removal plant unit. In
industries, it is proven by ChemEngineering (2018) that there are thousands of Claus Sulphur
recovery units in operations worldwide. Thus, this shows that this Claus Sulphur units are
getting common and important in order to convert H2S into elemental suplhur, S. Figure
below shows the general process that took place in a Claus Plant Unit.

Figure 1.2: Schematic Diagram of Claus Sulphur Unit Recovery (Citizendium, 2013)

From figure 1.2 above, it is clearly shown that there are two feed streams that will be directed
into the burner (or furnace) of the clause, which are the feed gas stream (commonly the H2S)
and the air stream. The combustion process between these two streams will then be directed
into the next stages in order to finally produce a tail gas and the elemental sulphur, itself. The
utilization of claus plant process in industries for sulphur recovery is very famous as it can
recover up to 90 to 95 percent of sulphur.

6
According to Netl (n.d.), there are three basis of claus plant, which are as below:

1
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑂2 ↔ 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
2

2𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑂2 ↔ 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑆

1
3𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑂 ↔ 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑆
2 2

As described earlier, the product stream of acid gas removal process from the acid gas
removal unit (AGRU) will become the feed into the Claus plant. It is burned as can be seen
from the reaction mechanisms above in order to produce product for the conversion into
sulphur and water later in the process. There are two main types of Claus Plant that can be
identified as the most common claus process in industries. The first type of Claus plant is
known as the straight through claus plant, whereas the second type is known as split flow
process.

Straight through process is used for the inlet stream (feed) gas that contains more than 50%
amount of hydrogen sulphide. As for the split flow process, it is for the gas feed containing
15 to 50% of hydrogen sulphide. In a general design of a Claus process plant, there are
several stages of process involve during the operation, which are thermal stage and two to
three catalytic stages. In the thermal stage, it usually comprises of a combustion chamber and
waste heat boiler , whereas the catalytic stages focus on the reheater, reactor as well as the
condenser.

7
1.3 WET SULPHURIC ACID (WSA) PLANT

Wet Sulphuric Acid (WSA) Plant is a plant process that is producing concentrated sulphuric
acid based on the compositions of the sulphuric acid obtained at the end of the process. This
WSA process is famously known as a wet gas catalytic process. This process has been
historically introduced by a company named Haldor Topsoe in the early of 1980s. This has
been introduced in order to recover the sulphur waste obtained from any claus plant or other
plant processing. Commonly, the streams that are identified to be suitable for this process are
the hydrigen sulphide gas stream, off-gas stream from rectisol, boiler flue gas and others.
From all these feed streams, they will be directed into different industries that uses WSA
process to produce the sulphuric acid. Example of industries that used this process in their
operation process are refinery and petrochemical industry, power industry as well as the coal-
based industry. WSA is also famous to be installed for the gasification process. Gasification
process is a process of converting feedstock of coal, biomass and many more mixing with
oxidants into carboneacous gas or specifically known as Syngas. In this gasification process,
H2S is also produced. Hence, in order to recover that minor product, WSA process can be
installed together with the reaction.

Figure 1.3: General Process of WSA Process in Industries (Rosenberg, 2006)

Figure above shows the general process in a wet sulphuric acid plant, where the sulphurous
stream will be feed into the process to produce the desired acid product. This process block
diagram is applied to both cases of when the sulphurous feed is received in combustible
compound or as a sulphur dioxide gas that is form from the metallurgical smelter.

8
There are four main reaction mechanisms identified in this WSA process (topsoe, n.d.) which
are as table below:

Process Reaction
Combustion 3
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑂2 ↔ 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
2
Oxidation 1
𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 ↔ 𝑆𝑂3
2
Hydration 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
Condensation 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 0.17𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

The process of WSA is contradict with the conventional sulfuric acid processes. This is
because, WSA process treats the gas feed received with all its water content. Hence, no
cooling or condensation steps needed prior to the SO2 conversion stage. Depending on the
types of process, different WSA process might uses different types of catalyst in order to
enhance the efficiency or purity of the product produced from the operation. In industries, the
common application of this WSA is in the alkylation, flue gas,

9
 CHAPTER 2

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF PLANT

Figure 2.0: Process Flow Diagram of Acid Gas Removal Unit

Figure 2.1: Process Flow Diagram of Claus Plant

11
Figure 2.2: Process Flow Diagram of Wet Sulphuric Acid Process

12
 CHAPTER 3

MASS BALANCE OF PROCESS

In this chapter, the mass balance calculation is performed in order to ensure the inlet and
outlet flow of each unit for streams are balanced with each other. One example has been done
in order to identify the manual calculation of this mass balance.

i) Overall barrier of Process

Stream 7 Stream 10
Mass Flow:
100.10 tonne/hr Mass Flow : 15012.01
tonne/hr
Stream 16
Mass Flow: PROCESS Stream 3
5574.07 tonne/hr
Stream 1 Mass Flow : 24.91
Mass Flow : tonne/hr
17794.31 tonneh
Stream 23

Mass Flow : 1311.71

Stream 8 Stream 19 Stream 22 tonne/hr
Mass Flow : 3.39 Mass Flow : Mass Flow :
tonne/hr 503.48 tonne/hr 6534.41 tonne/hr

Inlet Calculations :

100.10 + 5574.07 + 17794.31 = 23468.48 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒/ℎ𝑟

Outlet Calculations :

3.39 + 503.48 + 6534.41 + 1311.71 + 24.91 + 15012.01 = 23389.91 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒/ℎ𝑟

Differences :
23468.48 − 23389.91 = 78.57 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒/ℎ𝑟 , acceptable

13
 Name 1 2 2A 3 4 4A 5 6 7 8 9 9A 9B 9C 10 11 12 13 13A 14
Vapour 1.0 0.0 0.0 1. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.7 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.7
Fraction 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
60 10 10 10 - -
Temperat 50. 60. 60. 60. 93. 102 102 102 43. 43. 43. 131 147 147
.9 2.1 2.1 2.4 41. 41.
ure [C] 00 35 92 92 33 .14 .46 .97 33 33 41 .51 .66 .66
2 4 4 6 16 16
Pressure 60. 35. 4.8 4. 4.8 4.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 36. 36. 36. 35. 2.4 2.6 4.4 4.4 2.4
[bar] 00 49 3 83 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 18 18 18 35 1 2 6 6 1
Molar
100 238 238 238 238 229 230 230 230 230 229
Flow 1. 0.0 5.5 0.0 919 82. 469 469 58.
0.0 3.9 3.9 2.5 2.5 7.3 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.5 7.3
[kgmole/h 37 0 6 3 .61 95 .25 .25 06
0 0 0 3 3 8 0 0 0 1 8
]
Mass 177 580 580 24 580 580 551 10 552 552 552 552 150 27 551 845 845 194
0.0 3.3
Flow 94. 30. 30. .9 06. 06. 40. 0.1 37. 37. 37. 48. 12. 75. 40. 3.6 3.6 2.6
0 9
[tonne/h] 31 99 99 1 07 07 67 0 38 38 38 69 01 20 67 0 0 4
15 17 18
Name 14A 14B 15 15B 16 17 18 18B 18C 19 20 21 22 23 24 24A 24B
A A A
Vapour 0.7 1.0 0.7 0. 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Fraction 2 0 1 96 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-
- - 13 13 21
Temperat 300 41 400 300 900 80. 80. 80. 130 600 230 230 230 317
43. 41. 0.0 0.0 2.9 317
ure [C] .00 .1 .00 .00 .00 00 00 00 .00 .00 .10 .10 .10 .02
26 16 0 0 6
6
Pressure 2.2 1.5 2.4 2. 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.5 1.5
[bar] 1 0 1 41 1 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 0 9 2 5 2 2 0 0
Molar
24 22 20 20
Flow 58. 58. 24. 24. 174 221 206 206 15. 549 475 73. 47. 428 428 428
.8 1.7 6.0 6.0
[kgmole/h 06 06 88 88 .19 .79 .08 .08 70 .41 .80 60 58 .22 .22 .22
8 9 8 8
]
Mass 194 194 83 557 751 75 70 70 701 701 196 131 65 131 118 118 118
832 832 503
Flow 2.6 2.6 2. 4.0 6.8 16. 13. 13. 3.3 3.3 51. 17. 34. 1.7 05. 05. 05.
.56 .56 .48
[tonne/h] 4 4 56 7 6 86 39 39 9 9 54 12 41 1 41 41 41

14
15
 CHAPTER 4

ENERGY BALANCE OF PROCESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Energy analysis of various process unit in the system is discuss in this section. Fundamental
knowledge of thermodynamics is used extensively in this section. Raw state properties data
are obtained from simulation of Acid Gas Removal Unit (AGRU), Claus and Wet Sulfuric
Acid (WSA) in ASPEN HYSYS V8.8.

4.2 HEAT EXCHANGER E-101

Heat exchanger is a device where two moving fluid exchange heat without mixing, this
enable better heat integration of the plant thus reducing heat waste. Figure below shows the
connecting stream on the heat exchanger E-101.

Figure 4.0: Heat Exchange E-101 Connection

16
The general energy balance for steady flow device with a sum of inlet and outlet is as
following:
̇
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛
̇ + ∑ 𝑚̇Ө = 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∑ 𝑚̇Ө
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉2
Where Ө = ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧
2

From the above heat exchanger we assume that the kinetic and potential energies are
negligible, we also assume that heat only transfer within the boundary of the system that is
between shell and the tube side hence it can be consider adiabatic (no heat exchange with
surrounding). There is now work in heat exchanger.

̇
∑ 𝑚̇Ө = ∑ 𝑚̇Ө
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

The following equation is expanded to produce the following:

𝑚̇ 4 ℎ4 + ̇ 𝑚12̇ℎ12 = 𝑚̇ 4 ℎ4𝐴 +̇ 𝑚12̇ ℎ5

𝑚̇4 (ℎ4 − ℎ4𝐴 ) = 𝑚̇12 (ℎ12 − ℎ5 )

Table 4.0: Inlet E-101

Inlet (E-101)
Stream 4 12
Molar Flowrate
[kmol/hr] 2382.53 2297.38
Molar Enthalpy
[kJ/kmol] 289178.927 289928.1991

Table 4.1: Outlet E-101

Outlet (E-101)
Stream 4A 5
Molar Flowrate [kmol/hr] 2382.5 2297.38
Molar Enthalpy [kJ/kmol] 286383.8 292826.89

17
This result in the following duty by the heat exchanger:

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
2382.5 (289179 − 286384) = 6659087.5
ℎ 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ℎ
𝑘𝐽 1ℎ
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 = 6659087.5 × ( ) = 1849.7 𝑘𝑊
ℎ 3600𝑠

4.3 COMPRESSOR K-100

This section discusses on the derivation and calculation of heat balance of compressor (K-
100).

The general energy balance for steady flow device with a sum of inlet and outlet is as
following:
̇
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛
̇ + ∑ 𝑚̇Ө = 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∑ 𝑚̇Ө
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉2
Where Ө = ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧
2

Assuming the compressor is adiabatic (no heat loss), neglect kinetic energy and potential
energy, the equation reduced to become:
̇ + 𝑚̇ℎ𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑖𝑛
Rearrange,
̇ = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑚̇ℎ𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑖𝑛
From Aspen HYSYS simulation the mass flowrate, enthalpy in and out from both streams
are:

Figure 4.1: Mass Enthalpy of Inlet-Outlet Stream of K-100

18
 Figure 4.2: Other properties of K-100

The work required by the compressor is shown below:

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 ℎ𝑟
̇ = 11810
𝑊𝑖𝑛 (2719 − 2615 ) = 1228240 × = 341.2𝑘𝑊
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠

4.4 REACTOR R-102 (WSA)

Reactor R-102 (WSA)

The following section discuss on the manual calculation WSA reactor. The configuration and
connection of the reactor is as shown in Figure below:

Figure 4.3: WSA Reactor Configuration and Connection

19
The general energy balance for Isothermal Adiabatic Flow Reactor (PFR) assuming 1st order
process is as following:

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ 𝑠 + ∑ 𝐹𝑖0 𝐻𝑖0 − ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝐻𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
Assuming there is no shaft work, we obtain the following
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑄̇ + ∑ 𝐹𝑖0 𝐻𝑖0 − ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝐻𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

Table 4.2: Inlet R-102

Inlet (R-102)
Stream 24B 18C 15B
Molar Flowrate [kmol/hr] 428.2 206.1 24.88
Molar Enthalpy [kJ/kmol] 72080 115200 14790

Table 4.3: Outlet R-102

Outlet (R-102)
Stream 20
Molar Flowrate [kmol/hr] 549.4
Molar Enthalpy [kJ/kmol] 19650

The result of the calculation is as following:

𝑘𝐽 3600𝑠 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 1ℎ
(5033 × ) + [54975351 ] − [65103900 ] = −62298441 ×
𝑠 1ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 3600𝑠

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= −17305.1𝑘𝑊
𝑑𝑡

It can be concluded that the energy release by the WSA reactor is 2219.5 kW. This heat is
significant relative to the process, hence in actual case this heat is generally used to generate
steam for energy capturing purposes.

20
Reactor R-101

The following section discuss on the manual calculation R-101 reactor. The configuration
and connection of the reactor is as shown in Figure below:

Figure 4.4: Claus Reactor R-101 Configuration and Connection

The general energy balance for Isothermal Adiabatic Flow Reactor (PFR) assuming 1 st order
process is as following:

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ 𝑠 + ∑ 𝐹𝑖0 𝐻𝑖0 − ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝐻𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
Assuming there is no shaft work, we obtain the following
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑄̇ + ∑ 𝐹𝑖0 𝐻𝑖0 − ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝐻𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

Table 4.4: Inlet R-102

Inlet (R-101)
Stream 14B 16
Molar Flowrate [kmol/hr] 58.06 174.19
Molar Enthalpy [kJ/kmol] 18790 8390

21
 Table 4.3: Outlet R-101
Outlet (R-101)
Stream 17
Molar Flowrate [kmol/hr] 221.79
Molar Enthalpy [kJ/kmol] 76940

The result of the calculation is as following:

𝑘𝐽 3600𝑠 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 1ℎ
(4843 × ) + [2552401 ] − [17064523 ] = −2922678 ×
𝑠 1ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 3600𝑠

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= −811.9𝑘𝑊
𝑑𝑡

22
 D- E- P- E- R- D- E- D- R-
Process Unit D-102 E-102 E-103 E-105 D-105 K-100
101 101 100 106 101 103 104 104 102
70. 484 14. 173
Energy [kW] - 1850 6330 3577 295.1 2081 96.03 - 124.2 3553 342.7
18 3 05 05
Operating 43 - 60 - -41 - 43 - -43 - 130 - 80 - -41 - 210 - 0.92 -
103 900 130 80 600
Temperature [˚C] 60 132 147 103 300 900 130 400 600 1.5
Operating 35 - 2- 1.5 - 0.9 1.9 - 0.92 - 230 -
2-5 2-5 36 1.5 1 - 1.5 1 0.99 1
Pressure [bar] 60 37 2 9 2 0.95 317

23
 CHAPTER 5

PRESSURE DROP OF STREAMS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Pressure drop is the difference in pressure between two points in a system. This pressure drop
occurrence is usually caused by the resistance or friction inside of the stream’s piping
between the materials (water or any other materials) with the inside lining of the piping.
Specifically, the resistance or friction inside piping is due to the shear stress. In order to
understand the flow properties of the stream for this project, there are two major mechanisms
that should be determined, which are the types of flow as well as the types of fluid inside the
stream.

There are two types of flow exist commonly in industries, which are laminar and turbulent
flow. Laminar flow is a steady flow with fewer disturbances from the materials or between
the materials itself with the inner lining surface of the pipeline. On the other side, turbulent
flow is a regime where, the fluid inside the pipeline experience chaotic change of flow caused
by excessive kinetic energy in parts of fluid flow. As for the types of fluid inside a pipeline, it
can be divided into two types as well. The first type of fluid is the incompressible fluid.
According to Chegg (2018), incompressible fluid refers to fluid that has constant density
throughout the travelling of the fluid inside pipeline. In order for a fluid to remain constant,
hence the volume of the fluid must be controlled at constant volume. On the other hand,
compressible flow is fluid that flow with variation of density

Figure 5.0: Flow differences for incompressible and compressible liquid flow (Chegg, 2018)

24
5.2 PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS

For this project, all the pipelines are assumed to have a length of 10m, each. As for the types
of the fluid, it is assumed that all gases flow will have a compressible fluid flow, whereas all
the liquid streams will have an incompressible fluid flow. The calculations for the pressure
drop will focus on calculating the Reynolds number of each of the stream first before the
pressure drop is determined. This pressure drop calculation can be divided into three parts,
which are for the liquid, gas and multiphase flow pressure drop calculation.

5.2.1 Liquid Phase Flow

In this project, there are 13 liquid streams identified. However, only 2 liquid main streams
will be focused on in this section, which are stream 2 and stream 9c. The pressure drop of
incompressible liquid phase flow is calculated based on the Darcy and Churchill equation. As
mentioned previously, in order to calculate the pressure drop of flow in pipeline, the
Reynolds number of the flow needs to be determined first. Hence, Reynolds number is
calculated by using following equation:

𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Where,
𝜌 = Density of fluid in pipeline, kg/m3
v = Velocity of the fluid flow, m/s
D = Internal Diameter of the pipeline, m
𝜇 = Dynamic Viscosity, kg/m.s

In order to determine the Reynolds number of the flow, the outer diameter of all the pipeline
for the incompressible fluid flow is assumed to be at 10.75 inch = 273.1mm. Based on the
value, the internal diameter is determined based on following figure:

25
 Figure 5.1: Standard Pipe Schedule and Inner DIA Dimensions (iblink, n.d.)

From the table, the pipe’s schedule is selected to be at 30 schedule, hence it gave the internal
diameter value of the pipeline at 10.136 inch = 0.257m = 257.5mm. The stream selected for
this example calculation is stream 2 from the process flow diagram, which is the bottom
product of the Acid Gas Removal Unit (D-101) as shown below :

Figure 5.2 : Stream 2 selected from Acid Gas Removal Unit (D-101)

From the internal diameter value of the pipeline obtained, the cross-sectional area of the
pipeline is calculated as follow:

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

26
Where,
r = radius of the pipeline, m
10.136𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
= 2

= 5.068inch = 0.129m

Hence, the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is calculated as:

𝐴 = 𝜋(0.129)2
= 0.0523𝑚2

The velocity of the flow need to be calculated as well in order for the calculations of
Reynolds number can be preceded. The velocity of the flow is calculated by using following
formula:

𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴
Where,
Q = Volumetric Flow Rate of fluid, m3/hr
A = Cross-sectional area of pipeline, m2

By referring to Hysys, the volumetric flow rate, density and kinematic velocity values of
Stream 2 are 62.3019m3/hr, 931.448kg/m3 and 1.521x10-3 kg/m.s, respectively

Thus, the velocity of the flow is:

𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴

62.3019
=
0.0523

𝑚 𝑚
= 1191.2 = 0.331
ℎ𝑟 𝑠

27
Since all the variables for the Reynolds number calculation has been determined, the
Reynolds number now can be calculated as follows:

𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

931.448 × 0.331 𝑥 0.257

=
1.521 × 10−3

= 52,094.34 > 4000, 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡

After the calculation of Reynolds number, the fanning factor (moody friction) of the flow in
the pipeline is determined. If the flow of the fluid is laminar, hence the formula used is as
below:
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

As for turbulent flow, the fanning factor is calculated by using following formula:

1⁄
12
8 1
𝑓 = 8 × [ ( ) 12 + 3⁄ ]
𝑅𝑒 2
[(𝐴𝑓 + 𝐵𝑓 ) ]

−1 16
7 0.9 𝜀
𝐴𝑓 = { 2.457 𝑙𝑛 [ ( ) + 0.27 ] }
𝑅𝑒 𝑑

37530 16
𝐵𝑓 = ( )
𝑅𝑒
Where,
𝜀 = 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.05mm = 0.00005m

Since the Reynolds number calculated above is 52, 094.34, which categorized as turbulent
flow, hence the second formula is used to calculate the moody friction factor.

28
 −1 16
7 0.9 𝜀
𝐴𝑓 = { 2.457 𝑙𝑛 [ ( ) + 0.27 ] }
𝑅𝑒 𝑑

0.9 −1 16
7 0.00005
= { 2.457 𝑙𝑛 [ ( ) + 0.27 ] }
52,094.34 0.257

= 3.857 × 1020

37530 16
𝐵𝑓 = ( )
𝑅𝑒

37530 16
= ( )
52,094.34

= 5.27 × 10−3

Hence, the moody friction factor is calculated as:

1⁄
12
8 1
𝑓 = 8 × [ ( ) 12 + 3⁄ ]
𝑅𝑒 2
[(𝐴𝑓 + 𝐵𝑓 ) ]
1⁄
12
8 1
= 8 × [( ) 12 + 3
]
52,094.34 [(3.857 × 1020 + 5.27 × 10−3 ) ⁄2 ]

= 0.02137

29
Finally, the pressure drop of this incompressible fluid flow is calculated based on following
formula (Crane, 1977):

𝑓𝐿𝜌𝑣 2
Δ𝑃 = 0.5( )
𝑑

0.02137 × 10 × 931.448 × 0.3312

Δ𝑃 = 0.5( )
0.257

= 42.428𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.42𝑏𝑎𝑟

5.2.2 Vapour Phase Flow

As for the vapour phase flow, there are 18 streams identified. However, only 13 streams that
will be focused on in order to calculate the pressure drop across the pipeline or streams. As
shown in the calculation for liquid phase, the steps of calculating the pressure drop of vapour
phase in pipeline are almost the same as that calculation. However, the volumetric flow rate
of the gas is calculated manually by using formula by Darcy and Charchill. By selecting
stream one (1) as the example of calculation. Hence, below shows the calculation for the
pressure drop of compressible vapour phase flow .

The calculation starts off by determining the volumetric flow rate of the flow by using the
following equation:

𝑄 = 𝐺 × 1000000 × 0.028317 ÷ 23.644 × 𝑀𝑊 × 𝜌

Where,
G = Gas Flow Rate, MMSCFD = 20.04
MW = Molecular Weight = 17.78
𝜌 = Density of Gas = 44.60kg/m3

All the values for variables above are obtained from HYSYS. Hence, the volumetric flow rate
calculated for the gas flow is:

30
 𝑄 = 20.04 × 1000000 × 0.028317 ÷ 23.644 × 17.78 × 44.60
= 9567.99 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

After the volumetric calculation, the diameter of the pipeline for this gas phase flow is
determined by using figure below :

Figure 5.3 : Standard Pipe Schedule and Inner DIA Dimensions (iblink, n.d.)

Since the types of flow this time is a vapour flow, hence smaller outer diameter pipeline is
chosen, which is at 5.56 inch. The internal diameter is at 5.05inch=128.2mm with the
schedule of 40STD / 40S.

After that, the cross-sectional area is calculated by using the area of a circle as follows :

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
Where,
r = radius of the pipeline, m
5.05𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
= 2

= 2.7inch = 0.064m

Hence, the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is calculated as:

𝐴 = 𝜋(0.064)2
= 0.012𝑚2

The velocity of the flow need to be calculated as well in order for the calculations of
Reynolds number can be preceded. The velocity of the flow is calculated by using following
formula:

31
 𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴

Where,
Q = Volumetric Flow Rate of fluid, m3/hr = 9567.99 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 0.111m3/s
A = Cross-sectional area of pipeline, m2 = 0.012m2

Thus, the velocity of the flow is:

𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴

0.111
=
0.012

𝑚
= 9.25
𝑠

Reynolds number can be determined by using following equation:

𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
Where,
𝜇 = Dynamic Viscosity = 0.01349Cp from HYSYS

44.6 × 9.25 × 128.22

=
0.0135 ÷ 10−3

= 3918.31 > 2100, 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡

32
Since the Reynolds number calculated above is 3918.31, which categorized as turbulent flow,
hence the second formula is used to calculate the moody friction factor.

−1 16
7 0.9 𝜀
𝐴𝑓 = { 2.457 𝑙𝑛 [ ( ) + 0.27 ] }
𝑅𝑒 𝑑

0.9 −1 16
7 0.00005
= { 2.457 𝑙𝑛 [ ( ) + 0.27 ] }
3918.3 0.07

= 1.208 × 1018

37530 16
𝐵𝑓 = ( )
𝑅𝑒

37530 16
= ( )
3299

= 7.87 × 1016

Hence, the moody friction factor is calculated as:

1⁄
12
8 1
𝑓 = 8 × [ ( ) 12 + 3⁄ ]
𝑅𝑒 2
[(𝐴𝑓 + 𝐵𝑓 ) ]
1⁄
12
8 1
= 8 × [( ) 12 + 3
]
3299 [(1.208 × 1018 + 7.87 × 1016 ) ⁄2 ]

= 0.0435

33
Finally, the pressure drop of this compressible fluid flow is calculated based on following
formula (Crane, 1977):

𝑓𝐿𝜌𝑣 2
Δ𝑃 = 0.5( )
𝑑

0.0435 × 15 × 44.60 × 7.072

Δ𝑃 = 0.5( )
141.22 × 10−3

= 0.01𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.0001𝑏𝑎𝑟

34
 Name 1 2 10 9C 14B 15B 16 17 18A 18C 20 21 23 24 24B
Vapo Liqu Vapo Liqui Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo Vapo
Phase
ur id ur d ur ur ur ur ur ur ur ur ur ur ur
Reynolds 520 4146
3299 3364 237 88 453 496 581 1165 1628 1489 149 1340 1340
Number 94 8
Outside 273. 141. 141. 141. 141. 141. 141. 141. 141.
141.3 141.3 273.1 141.3 141.3 141.3
Diameter [mm] 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Inner Diameter 128.2 257. 128.2 128.2 128.2 128. 128. 128.2 128. 128. 128. 128. 128. 128.
257.5
[mm] 2 5 2 2 2 22 22 2 22 22 22 22 22 22
Pressure Drop 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
[bar] 01 0.42 02 37 04 02 01 38 45 01 1 05 03 05 05
 CHAPTER 6

CONSTRUCTION OF MATERIALS

Materials used for acidic process have evolved with the design of acid plants over the years
and with the introduction of new materials.

6.1 CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel is by far the most economical material of construction for conveying strong
sulphuric acid but it has its limitations in terms of operating conditions which limits its use to
but a few areas of the plant. Carbon steel in the presence of strong sulphuric acid will
corrode to form a thin film of iron sulphate on the surface of the metal. It is this film of
corrosion product that once formed prevents further corrosion of the underlying material.
However, this protective film is very unstable an is easily disturbed and removed. It is this
reason that the use of carbon steel is limited to handling acid at ambient temperatures and low
velocities such as in product acid transfer and loading lines

Figure 6.0 : Material Selection for Acidic Fluid

36
6.2 STAINLESS STEEL

Steel types made of iron and chromium containing minimum 12% chromium and bal. nickel
come in the stainless steel 300 series. For example stainless steel 304. Molybdenum, titanium
and columbium are included for special objectives. The stainless steels are categorized on the
base of their microstructure such as Austenitic and Ferritic.

Duplex stainless steels offer enhanced resistance to chloride induced stress corrosion
cracking. This attack can be prevented by avoiding choosing rigid wall austenitic stainless
steel for warm and aqueous chloride services such as when need stainless steel, clad steel is
preferred. Stress relieved vessels produced of solid austenitic stainless steel where alternative
is not available.

6.2.1 Steels for Sulfur Derived Acids

Sulfur derived acids cause polythionic acid based stress corrosion cracking. Unlike chloride
induced stress corrosion racking, the steel is sensitized with chromium carbide precipitates
throughout the grain boundaries prior the occurrence of polythionic acid based stress
corrosion cracking. Sensitization is caused from subjecting the stainless steel equipment to
temperatures up to 371˚C. For standard carbon steels such as stainless steel type 304 and
stainless steel grade 316, they are sensitized while welding. The sulfurous and polythionic
acids are not found in process equipments during services. These are generally produced
during shutdowns by oxidation of iron sulfide scale in moisture and oxygen.

In the flue gas condenser, polythionic acid based SCC can be prevented by avoiding contact
between sensitized austenitic stainless steels and sulfur based acids. Steel grade 304 is
sensitized rapidly above 371˚C. The weld heating is sufficient to sensitize the heat affected
region. Additional low carbon steel grades such as stainless steel 304l or 316l are not
sensitized while welding and it can be done through prolong exposure up to 371˚C. Steel
grade 321 is chemically stabilized to reduce sensitization. Polythionic acid cracking is
inhibited by using chemically stabilized or other mild carbon steel types and preventing
deteriorating heat treatments.

37
6.2.2 Stainless steel for use above 204˚C

The high chromium based stainless steels produce sigma phase at high temperature and are
attacked by embrittlement at lower temperature limits. Sigma phase is hard, fragile and non-
magnetic in nature and its chemistry is based on an alloy in which it is produced. It doesn’t
influence the high temperature characteristics of steel however may reduce its ductility at low
temperatures due to which the system may be damaged while commencing or shutting down.

Stainless steel grades with above 13%chromium content that are ferritic and martensitic in
nature are extremely prone to wide sigma phase production. The austenitic steel grades are
not much sensitive due to presence of high nickel magnitude however can produce unwanted
magnitudes of sigma phase when held between 537˚C to 900˚C of for prolong periods.

6.3 ALLOY 230

Alloy 230 is an alloy approved for ASME pressure vessel design for temperatures up to 980
°C. It is an alloy high in nickel, chromium, tungsten, and cobalt. While it has resistance
similar to Alloy 600, it is normally selected for its high strengths at very high temperatures. It
is sometime selected as a bolting material.

6.4 TITANIUM

Titanium is an excellent material for use with oxidizing agents, such as nitric acid, aqua regia
and other mixed acids. It also offers very good resistance to chloride ions. Reducing acids,
such as sulfuric and hydrochloric, which have unacceptably high corrosion rates in their pure
form can have their corrosion rates in titanium reduced to acceptable levels if relatively small
quantities of oxidizing ions, such as cupric, ferric, nickel or even nitric acid are present to act
as corrosion inhibitors.

This phenomenon leads to many successful applications for titanium in the hydrometallurgy
field where acids, particularly sulfuric acid, are used to leach ores. In these operations, the
extracted ions act as corrosion inhibitors.

38
Prospective users must remember that titanium will burn vigorously in the presence of
oxygen at elevated temperatures and pressures. While there have been many successful
applications in hydrometallurgy where oxygen and sulfuric acid are handled in titanium
equipment, the danger of ignition is always present and must be protected against whenever
titanium and oxygen are used together.

Commercially pure titanium is available in several grades. Grade 2 is the material most
commonly used for industrial equipment since it can be fabricated by welding and can be
used to make vessels compliant to the PED & ASME Codes. Grade 4, which has slightly
higher trace levels of iron and oxygen, has higher strength than Grade 2 but it is not suitable
for welding and it is not covered by the PED or ASME Codes..

6.5 ZIRCONIUM

Zirconium offers excellent resistance to hydrochloric and sulfuric acids however, as with
Alloy B-2/B-3, oxidizing ions such as ferric, cupric and fluorides must be avoided.
Zirconium also offers good resistance to phosphoric and nitric acids, and to alkaline solutions
as well. Two different grades are available: Grade 702 which contains hafnium is the
standard commercial grade offering the best resistance to most corrosive agents. Grade 705
contains small amounts of both hafnium and niobium which increases the strength
characteristics and allows for higher maximum working pressures for a vessel. Grade 702
typically offers better corrosion resistance than Grade 705. Grade 702 is also more widely
available from commercial stocks of raw materials.

6.6 TANTALUM

For hot concentrated acid applications including hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), acetic acid, sour gas (H2S), and nitric acid, tantalum offers excellent corrosion
resistance but at a very high price. A more cost effective solution can be found in the
treatment of the reactor with vaporized tantalum, which results in a surface layer with
characteristics of pure tantalum metal. Parr Instrument Company’s preferred vendor for
tantalum treatment is CVD TANTALINE®. We can arrange to have your reactor treated by
this leading producer of tantalum surface alloys.

39
 D- E- P- D- E- E- R- E- D- E- E- R- D- D- K-
Process Unit 101 101 100 102 106 102 101 103 103 104 105 102 105 105 100
Design 133. 191. 133.
Temperature (˚C) 78 172 9 1 9 390 1170 1170 169 169 104 520 780 780 342.7
Design Pressure 1.28 1.28
(bar) 78 6.5 48.1 6.5 46.8 2.6 1.95 1.95 1.3 7 7 2.6 1.3 1.235 412.1
S.S S.S S.S S.S S.S Titani Alloy Alloy S.S S.S S.S Alloy Alloy Alloy Alloy
Material 304 316 316 316 316 um 230 230 316 316 316 230 230 230 230
Melting Point (˚C) 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1668 1800 1800 1400 1400 1400 1800 1800 1800 1800
Corrosion
Allowances (mm) 3 3 - 5 3 3 10 10 10 5 5 10 10 10 -

40