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Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University

Sarmiento Campus
City of San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
1.1. Introduction
Music is a significant product of diverse oral traditions, rituals and interactions of our
ancestors and early human species (Cross and Morley, 2008). It is considered as one of the
fundamental representations of the structure, standards or norms, customs and belief of a
particular society or nation by large. On the historical context, songs were used as an
instrument in order to express one‘s expressions, views and perceptions in various aspects of
our life and have a symbolic significance of what kind of identity that the people have or do.
Furthermore, through decades, music has evolved into different forms and styles depending
upon a songwriter‘s discretion.
Moreover, music or songs have meanings beyond its melody and rhythm. Consequently,
to decode it, one should have the ability to understand its nature and usage. In this research,
the researchers should have a wide understanding and substantive knowledge on the various
aspects of linguistics, the scientific study of language. This field provides variety of
approaches and techniques for thorough investigation and analysis of language usage and its
etymology or origin and meanings. In this research, the researchers seek to conduct a
profound study on the words found in the selected 21st century American music.
The 21st century American music is also an era of revolutionary notions in variety of
musical genres. In addition, there are many inventions and products of science or technology
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that contribute on the advancement of public in accessing songs and music; these are called
internet streaming platforms and social networking sites or media. Hence, this period offered
many amazing new sounds which took influence and inspirations from the music of previous
century and reinvented for the new century in order to create a new wave of music styles and
forms. More importantly, the 21st century music has total conformity on digital streaming and
established a dominance in our musical landscape (Kaitlyn Paradise, 2014)
To support our aim, the researchers confine our research on the field of semantics
and adapt the concepts of Geoffrey Leech‘s (1968) semantics, which is the primary
foundation of our applied research. It includes types of meaning wherein conceptual,
connotative, collocative, stylistic and affective are the parts and parcels of it.
The branch of the study within linguistics that deals with the language and how we
understand meanings is called semantics. This has been an interesting field for the researchers
due to its facets that determine individual‘s reading comprehension; how we understand
others, and even what decisions you make as a result of your interpretations. The researchers
want to examine the essence of word meanings, and what are the phenomena or phenomenon
that affects changes in terms of its uses, then how it was built, how people shared meanings
with others, and how meanings change overtime.
This research focuses on outcomes of meanings change and list types of change.
Semantic change shows that an ordinary word can be transformed into an extraordinary one,
where a specific word has a difference and its meaning depending on the writer‘s life and
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cultural background. It describes relations that are logically inconsistent or paradoxical in
some ways. Also, it can be meant as ―non-sense‖ and ―absurdity‖; however, it conveys poetic
meanings which are part of the song‘s aesthetic and artistic effects. Therefore, in this study,
the researchers present how distinct words change its meaning according to its context.
To pursue this farther, the researchers provide both extensive and elaborative
explanations and background study on the words used in the lyrics of the selected 21st century
American music, specifically on different genres, and how singers, artists, composers or
songwriters broaden in order to make it more poetic which convey their self-expressions,
although the ways of their utilization are covered with irregularities and different from its
apparent meanings.
Thereupon, the prime concerns of this research are as follows: making
comparisons on the denotative or dictionary meanings and semantic change of the words
found in the lyrics of the selected 21st century American music, the phenomena or
phenomenon that affects the semantic change of words, rooting from its etymological nature
or origin of the word meaning s and classifying the type of semantic change occurred on the
words found in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music.
The Origin of Music: An Overview
According to an online article entitled ―The Origin of Music‖ (2013) by John
Black, there are complexities and difficulties in determining the accurate and precise origin of
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music, some believed that it began on clapping and beating hands on different surfaces, but
yet have no archaeological records.
Evolutionary scientists believed that pre-historic men experienced ―cultural
explosion‖ 30,000 0 or 60,000 years ago, wherein they invented new forms of art like
paintings on cave walls, jewelry and ornaments. With this theory, they established a
hypothesis that music was one of these new invented art forms.
Also, they concluded that a musical culture during pre-historic times helped the
early human species to survive; it coordinates emotions, helps important messages to be
delivered or communicated, motivates people to identify with a group, and motivates
individuals to support other group members (2013).
The American Popular Music
There are no definite or exact meanings of American Popular Music, but one
can identify the nature and culture of white‘s music by tracing its historical background.
According to Hugh A. Glauser: School of Music (Kent State University):
On historical context, American popular music from 19th century onwards continues
on creating names and trademarks in different corners of the globe. Some musicologists said
that popular music started from the small town concert halls and streets in various U.S. states,
until the development of media and technology which gives multiple platforms and doors in
music scene. The rise and prominence of American popular music are apparent in artists who
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continuously gaining platinum awards and other accolades, multi-million recording deals and
music competitions such as Pop Idol, American Idol and X-Factor.
Tin Pan Alley, Broadway & Ragtime
Some of the first American pop songs were written in the mid to late 1800s and were
featured primarily as live performance pieces. One of the most recognized and popular songs
of this era would undoubtedly be the 1854 song, ―Oh Susanna.‖
These live performances eventually lead to the rise of both Ragtime and Broadway,
the latter of which still remains immensely popular today. One of the most well-known
composers of the Ragtime genre was Scott Joplin, an African American composer who had a
unique talent of combining classical music with work songs and gospel hymns.
Jazz, Blues & the Development of Early Recorded Music
The phonograph cylinder, invented by the great Thomas Edison, added a new
dimension to America‘s pop music history: recorded music. With the development of
recorded music came record companies who looked to sign and promote musical talent.
Two of the first major record companies in America‘s pop music history include
Paramount Records and OKeh Records. Both of these record companies predominately
targeted jazz and blues artists, the most popular of which include Robert Johnson and Paul
Whiteman.
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The King of Rock
The commercialization of music soon led to massive growth in the interest and
recording of pop music. Some of the first commercial pop stars, such as Tony Bennett and
Frank Sinatra, entered mainstream in the late 1940s, but the first true rock star – The King of
Rock: Elvis Presley – did not arrive for almost a decade after.
Eventually becoming one of most commercialized, best-selling artists in American
pop music history, Elvis had multiple number one hits, including ―Heartbreak Hotel,‖ ―Hound
Dog,‖ and ―Jailhouse Rock.‖
The Countercultural Movement of the 60s
There was a worldwide cultural shift in the 60s that had a massive impact on the
popular music of the time. Thus, the younger generations traded bands that their parents loved
for music that was more experimental, highlighting countercultural themes and lyrics.
One of the most famous artists to come from this era of America‘s pop music history would
certainly be Bob Dylan. Dylan, who many deemed the voice of the countercultural generation,
combined folk and rock with lyrics that were at times quite politically charged. Some of his
popular hits include ―Blowin‘ in the Wind‖ and ―The Times They Are a-Changin‘.‖
Other artists that rose to fame during this era of America‘s pop music history include
Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, Joni Mitchell, Jefferson
Airplane, Janis Joplin and The Doors.
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Funk, Soul & Disco Fever
By the early 70s, the countercultural movement died down, which allowed funk and
soul music to become popular with the mainstream crowd. Artists from this era that solidified
their place in America‘s pop music history include Curtis Mayfield, David Bowie, Marvin
Gaye, Parliament-Funkadelic, James Brown, War, and Earth, Wind and Fire.
Glammin’ It Up in the 80s
In the late 70s, the disco movement found its popularity dwindling as music listeners were
now interested in something a bit less intense than the in-your-face funkiness of that era.
Thus, the more relaxed R&B found itself entering mainstream radio and television as young
pop stars Prince, Madonna and Michael Jackson found fame amongst the younger generation
of listeners.
In the mid to late 80s, hard rock found its place in America‘s pop music history as
bands like Motley Crue, Guns N‘ Roses, and Van Halen became immensely popular.
90s Grunge and the Rise of Hip Hop
By the early 90s, the hard rock craze started to die down with many fans becoming
disinterested in the larger-than-life rock star images that many of these artists portrayed. In an
act of rebellion, both artists and music listeners shunned the traditional idea of a rock-star,
which gave birth to the Grunge Rock era. Popular bands from this time include Nirvana, Pearl
Jam and Sonic Youth.
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Hip hop also became popular around this time as groups like N.W.A and Public
Enemy began using politically charged lyrics and imagery.
The Pop Music of the 2000s and Beyond
By the time 2000 hit, pop music began relying heavily on the idea of girl and boy
groups, particularly the Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears and Nsync. This craze did not last
long though, as many of these groups soon broke up as their main stars began embarking on
solo careers.
By the mid 2000s, there became what was considered a rock revival, as bands like The
White Stripes and The Strokes found success on the radio and mainstream listeners.
―Now, as more music listeners continue to shift from the radio to online streaming, it will
be particularly interesting to see the overall impact that this transition has on America‘s pop
music history. Will pop stars soon rely entirely on streaming services and thus no longer need
major media sources like the radio or television? Only the future will tell.‖
The historical timeline of American Popular music above is appeared on the
official website Hugh A. Glauser: School of Music (Kent State University).
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1.2.Statement of the Problem
The study aims to answer the general problem: ―What are the differences of the
words in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music from its denotative meaning and
to how it is used on the song?‖
1. What are the phenomena that affect semantic change of the words found in the lyrics
of selected 21st century American music?
2. What is the origin or etymology of the words, which undergone semantic change,
found in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music?
3. What type of meaning has occurred on each word in the lyrics of selected 21 st century
American music? (Leech, 1971sss)
3.1 Conceptual Meaning
3.2 Connotative Meaning
3.3 Affective Meaning
3.4 Collocative Meaning
3.5 Stylistic Meaning
1.3.Significance of the Study
a. It will open more opportunities for further linguistic investigation or research on the
language used by the American songwriters, singers and composers in their music
compositions.
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For future language students and researchers of Bulacan State University-
Sarmiento Campus, it will open more doors and outlets for expansive researches and
investigations. Likewise, our applied research will capture the interest to conduct new
studies that will give more avenues how the words change used by the American
songwriters, composers and singers. Also, the future additional researches about
semantic change will help the future language students to explore more about the
various facets of semantic field
b. It will give us a wide understanding about the connection of social context on the
semantic change of words used by the American songwriters, singers and composers.
For all the students in different areas of specialization of Bulacan State
University-Sarmiento Campus, our applied research will give an overview on how
diverse and rich the culture of United States of America has. Additionally, through our
research, it will conduct profound studies about the relationships of social context of
the American songwriters, singers and composers affects the semantic change of
words found in their music compositions.
c. The applied research will be a possible addition to local study of semantic change and
types of meaning.
In the Philippines, there are only few research studies and investigations about
semantic change and semantic per se (e.g. Philippine taboo language and euphemisms
and semantic change of local dialects). The researchers have an initiative in cultivating
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more researches, analyses, theses or dissertations about this linguistic field. It can also
serve as basis and future reference for new language researchers and students.
d. The research will be a basis for future linguistic research on the deviations used on the
Filipino English writings.
As what mentioned above, the applied research can be used as future reference
and basis. It will give more rooms for intensive analyses on the semantic change and
other linguistic changes employed by our prominent Filipino writers, poets, authors
and essayists.
1.4.Theoretical Framework
In this chapter, the researchers present the foundation or basis utilized in the entire study
and investigation. This research employed both linguistic theories and other studies and facts
in order to address all the problems and concerns as a part of our comprehensive analysis. The
proponents of the study organize the whole theoretical framework from the research‘s general
to specific concepts.
1.4.1. Semantics
According to Leech, semantics is the technical term used to refer the study of meaning,
and, since meaning is part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics. He defined
―meaning‖ covers a variety of aspects of language, and there is no general agreement about
the nature of meaning, what aspects of it may properly be included in semantics in semantics,
or the way in which it should be described.
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Semantic is the center of the human mind- thought process, cognition, conceptualization-
these are the way in which we convey and categorize the experiences of the world through
language. Geoffrey Leech also stated that semantic is the central study of communication; and
as communication becomes more critical factor of social organization. The need to understand
it becomes more and more processing. Leech sees semantic as one of the branch of linguistics
which is the study of language and meaning.
If we talk about words, we cannot prohibit ourselves to tackle the study of meaning which
is called semantics. Most words have multiple meanings; the characteristics of words that are
single words may have several meanings; the meanings of words complex having such
component as picture, idea, equality, a relationship and personal feelings and association
(Christofel 2010).
1.4.2. Semantic Change
Bloomfield (1993) and Campbell (1998) defined semantic change as a change in the
concept that where associated with a term and the innovation that change the meaning of
word. Semantic in the former, wider sense can lead us once again into the void from which
Bloomfield retreated with understandable misgivings; the description of all that maybe the
object of human knowledge or belief. (Leech 1983)
According to Eugenio R. Lujan, there were a necessary connection between meaning and
form. He expect that the same word (or, at least, similar ones) were used across languages.
Semantic change can thus occur because the relation between significant and signifie is
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arbitrary. Meaning is at the core of language by its very nature-no language would be possible
if its linguistics units did not have a meaning. In spite of central role, the study of meaning has
been somewhat neglected in some approaches to language. He stated that we expect a
difference of vocabulary and the organization of the meaning of words between societies with
a different level of technological development.
From historical perspective, this mean that a change in the sociocultural or
environmental conditions of the speakers of language may have an impact on this area of
language- new words may be coined or borrowed or new meanings of words may arise.
1.4.3. Sapir Whorf Hypothesis
According to Sapir Hypothesis, language does not reflect reality but actually shapes it to
a large extent. Thus, he recognizes the objective nature of reality; but since the perception of
reality is influenced by our linguistic habits, it follows that language plays an active role in the
process of cognition. Sapir‘s linguistic relativity hypothesis can be stated as follows:
a) The language we speak and think in shapes the way we perceive the world.
b) The existence of the various language systems implies that the people who think in these
different languages must perceive the world differently.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis also stated that ―a man‘s views of his environment may be
conditioned by his language and that society may also have an effect on its language.‖
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We, the researcher, use the said theory to identify the changes that occurs in the meaning
of the selected 21st century—American Songs. In this hypothesis, it is said that the language
affects on how a person perceive the world. Furthermore, the popularity of American songs
has gained global audience. Through this, many people perceive songs differently depending
on how they understand the language.
1.4.5. Philip H. Ennis’s Six Streams of American Popular Music (1992)
According to Philip H. Ennis (1992), there are six (6) streams in American Popular
Music, in which these facets represent the musical culture of the country per se. ―Musical
streams are palpable part of the social reality‖ (Ennis, 1992). In expansion of his notion,
Jennifer C. Lena and Richard A. Peterson (2008) explained that Ennis shows ―some music,
over the course of decades, spawns a number of variants‖, and there are coherences in the
families of music. These sets of Ennis‘s genres are called ―streams‖, through which a certain
genre may flow or give birth to another form related to it. For example, rhythm and blues
(R&B), country music and pop spawned rock n‘ roll which later proved its identity and
prominence in 1954 (Ennis, 1992), in this way, one may conclude that rock n‘roll was the
product of variations of the latter three genres. (Classifications as Culture: Types and
Trajectories of Music Genres, 2008).
On the book entitled ―The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rock n‘ Roll in American
Popular Music (1992)‖ Philip H. Ennis also stated that there are three significant elements
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behind the formation of these so-called six (6) music streams namely: artistic system, an
economic framework and a social movement. (pg. 21-22)
1. Artistic System: these are the creators (artists, composers and songwriters) and
distributors (markets) of music including the audience and critics who patronize and
evaluate the streams, wherein Philip H. Ennis (1992) described it as the basic and
―diamond‖ or precious and valuable structure of American Popular Music. (pg.21)
2. Economic Arrangement or Entity: these are the deliverers of music to the public and
answer all the demands of consumers. Largely, music economic institutions are
interrelated set of enterprises, each offering a particular set of services. As a whole,
this element pertains to the standard or conventional market which operates in a
manner of full, open competition and oligopolistic dominance or limited competition.
(pg.21)
3. Social Movement: music cannot attain its popularity without the support of the
masses. This movement may be concerned on a specific race, class, caste, age group,
gender, or some geographical entity. This is the third and vital component of a musical
stream (Ennis, 1992).
Six Streams of American Popular Music
Philip H. Ennis (1992) provided the characteristics of each music stream including its
origin and historical background.(The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rock n‘ Roll in
American Popular Music, 1992):
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1. Pop
The ―commercial‖ music of the nation: there are ranks of great composers and lyricists
on the development of pop music and from its Golden Age including Jerome Kern, Lorenz
Hart, Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers and Irving Berlin. Pop led all the other
American popular music. Among the six streams, pop gathered the largest audience, domestic
and overseas. Some music institutions contributed to its global prominence (e.g. vaudeville
and Broadway Theater) and the technology or media such as in radio and television.
From its style, pop enjoys a full diversity of musical forms. It emulates the symphony
orchestra, with dance bands that carry choirs of brass, woodwinds, and strings; at the other,
the artist in the pop genre or stream is only carried by a single vocalist. (pg.24). There are
three departments or forms of pop; theater music, movie music and popular songs reach all
across the United States of America.
Popular songs emerged in 1930s in state of Manhattan. The Tin Pan Alley, the old name
for popular music, arose in late 19th century in New York City. It comprised the commercial
music of ballads, dance music, the pluggers or sound of pianos and vaudeville or theatrical
genre composed of burlesque comedy and dance. However, due to the emergence of new
technology, growth of film, radio and television, the Tin Pan Alley was dissolved but some
portions of it are still remain on modern popular songs (dance, ballads and sound of pianos).
After the decline of Tin Pan Alley, popular songs came into the motion pictures; most
branches of the latter shifted to Hollywood which became a pioneer in pop music and film
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arts. Until this modern time, Hollywood is known for its excellence in music, film and theater
and a home of global-renowned artists, actors and actresses.
2. Black Pop
The popular music of black Americans: similar with the pop music, black pop became
commercially domesticated music around the world. The style of black pop includes the
influence of Afro-American forms, blues, dance tunes, work songs, hymns and psalms as well
as the parodies and copies of white popular tunes. Mostly, the songs are embodied with huge
dance orchestra and a lone singer with guitar.
From 1920 to 1948, it was known as ―race music‖ or ―race records‖. ―Folk and Blues‖,
―Rhythm and Blues‖ (R&B) which later called as ―Soul‖ due to the black‘s popularity in
American music; now, the Billboard, a major trade publication of the music industry, used the
terms ―Urban Contemporary‖ and ―Black‖ to designate the African-American music on their
charts.
3. Country Pop
The popular music of the American white South and Southwest: it includes the
indigenous folk music of the South and the music of the Western expansion, railroad and
cowboy. Until 1950s, the country pop was an exclusive form of music by whites to white
audiences. The style of this kind of stream is carried solely by stringed instruments. The genre
reached its peak of popularity inside and outside the U.S. territory, from the Gulf of Mexico to
northern Michigan, from southern California to Connecticut. The first term was called
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―Hillbilly‖, but in 1960s, the term ―Country music‖ was more common, and now championed
as ―The American Music.‖
The next three streams are smaller than the latter three: jazz, folk and gospel. In
comparison, these three have low annual gross in sales than the larger streams. Besides, jazz,
folk and gospels have musical roots from the three major pop streams, but still it belongs on
the important parcels of the American popular music.
4. Jazz
It is a nighttime anthem: it became an identity of New Orleans musicians at the end of
19th century. It composed the sounds of intertwining voices (trombone, cornet or trumpet, and
clarinet) back with the rhythms of drums, piano, banjo string bass or tuba. Nonetheless, jazz
music is still recognized by various music associations across the United States of America.
5. Folk
The music of poor and oppressed- urban or rural, contemporary or ancient: these are the
songs used as a medium of instrument to convey political criticisms and contexts and mainly
for a purpose of protest.
6. Gospel
The stream‘s primordial home is the church: in its popular forms, it is the religious music
of Americans of every kind and condition. The primary institutional focus is the individual
house of worship or faith and belief in God or other higher beings based on one‘s religion.
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Made up of soloist or groups of singers (in one religious belief), gospel is almost entirely a
vocal music.
Wherefore, the focuses of the analysis in this research study are the three major streams
of American Popular music, which defined by Philip H. Ennis (1992), as the genres that
reached larger audiences, popularity and sales.
1.4.5. Types of Meaning
GeoffreyLeech (1971) distinguish types of meaning to show how they all fit into the
total effects of linguistic communication show how method of study is appropriate to one type
may not be appropriate to another. He breakdown meaning in its widest sense into seven
different ingredients to give primary importance to logical meaning or (he prepare to call)
conceptual meaning. The six other types where considered… connotative meaning, social and
affective meaning, collocative meaning, reflected meaning and thematic meaning.
Nevertheless, this research will make use of the four types of meaning which are:
conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning and
collocative meaning to identify the changes occurred on the meaning of the lyrics in the 21st
century American Songs
a. Conceptual Meaning
According to Leech, conceptual meaning (sometimes called ‗denotative or cognitive
meaning) is the most important element of every act of linguistic communication. It is the
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basis propositional meanings that correspond to the primary dictionary. It can be shown to be
integral to essential functioning of language in a way that other types of meaning are not. The
main reason why Leech assigned conceptual meaning as priority is because it has a complex
and sophisticated organization of a kind which maybe compared with, because related to,
similar organization on the syntactical and phonological levels of language.
b. Connotative Meaning
The distinction of the conceptual meaning will be clearly seen when we contrast it
with connotative meaning. Connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression
has by of what virtue it has refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. In talking
about connotation, Leech talks about the ‗real world‘ experience one associate with an
expression when one uses or hears it. Therefore, the boundary between conceptual meaning
and connotative meaning is coincident with ambiguity but crucial in distinction between
‗language‘ and the ‗real world‘. Connotations are relatively unstable: they vary considerably,
according to culture, historical period, and the experience of an individual.
If the word woman defined conceptually by three features (+ h u m a n, — m a l e, + a
d u l t), then the three properties 'human', 'adult', and 'female' must provide a criterion of the
correct use of that word. These contrastive features, translated into 'real world' terms, become
attributes of the referent (that which the word refers to). But there is a multitude of additional,
non-criteria properties that we have learnt to expect a referent of woman to possess. They
include not only physical characteristics ('biped', 'having a womb'), but also psychological and
social properties ('gregarious', 'subject to maternal instinct'), and may extend to features which
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are merely typical rather than invariable concurrent of womanhood ('capable of speech',
'experienced in cookery', 'skirt-or-dress-wearing').
c. Affective Meaning
Affective meaning, as this sort of meaning can be called, is often explicitly conveyed
through the conceptual or connotative content of the words used. It is largely a parasitic
category in the sense that to express our emotions we rely upon the mediation of other
categories of meaning – conceptual, connotative, or stylistic. On the other hand, there are
elements of language (chiefly interjections, like Aha! and Yippie!) whose main function is to
express emotion. With using these, we communicate feelings and attitudes without the
meditation of any other kind of semantic function.
d. Collocative meaning
Collocative meaning, as defined by Leech, consists of the associations where a word
acquires on account of the meanings of the words which tend to occur in its environment.
Pretty and handsome share common ground in the meaning ‗good-looking‘ but differs with
the range of nouns to link with. For example:
pretty handsome
girl boy
woman man
flower car
garden vessel
color overcoat
village airliner
etc. typewriter
etc.
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The ranges may also overlap: handsome woman and pretty woman are both
acceptable, although they suggest a kind of attractiveness because of the collocative
associations of the two adjectives.
e. Social or Stylistics Meaning
Leech stated these as the two aspects of communication which have something to do
with the situation in which an utterance takes place. Social meaning is that a piece of language
conveys about social circumstances of it use. We decode the meaning of a text through our
recognition of different dimensions and levels of style within the same language. (Crystal and
Davy, Investigating English Style) has recognized the following dimensions of socio-stylistics
variation. Leech added examples of the categories of usage, one would distinguish on each
dimensions). Variations according to:
 Dialect (the language of a geographical region or of a social class)
 Time (the language of the eighteenth century, etc.)
 Province (language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.) s
 Status (polite, colloquial, slang, etc., language)
 Modality (language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.)
 Singularity (the style of dickens, of Hemingway, etc.)
We rarely find words that have the same conceptual meaning and the same stylistic
meaning. This observation has frequently led people to declare that ‗true synonyms do not
exist‘. If we understand synonymy as complete equivalence of communicative effect, it is
indeed hard to find an example that will disprove the statement
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This research uses these different types of meaning to characterize the meaning of the
lyrics of the 21st century American Songs. We, the researchers, want to demystify the
meanings in selected American songs that have a diverse array of styles which reflects their
multi-ethnic population. Thus, composers, songwriters and even singers write their songs
which mirror the American life and express their individual‘s sense of personal freedom and
independence.
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1.5.Conceptual Framework
Figure 1
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. The differences of
the words in the lyrics
1. Selecting 21st 1. Characterizing
of selected 21st century
American music from century American the semantic change
its denotative meaning music based on the in the lyrics of 21st
and to how it is used three major streams century American
on the song. of genre (Ennis, popular music.
1992):
2. The phenomena or 2. Analysis and
phenomenon that a. Pop interpretation of the
affects semantic b. BlackPop word meanings.
change of the word/s Comparison from
found on the lyrics of c. Country Pop denotative meaning
selected 21st century to how it is used in
American popular the songs.
3. Examining the
music semantic change of
3. The origin or words in the lyrics of
etymology of the selected 21st
words, which century American
undergone semantic popular music.
change, found in the
lyrics of selected 21st
century American 4. Library Research
music
4. Type/s of meaning
which occurred on the
word/s in the lyrics of
selected 21st century
American music
(Conceptual
Connotative Affective
Meaning
Collocative and
Stylistic Meaning).
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Figure 1.Describe the schematic diagram or structure of the entire research study,
wherein the input composed of the following: The differences of the words in the lyrics of
selected 21st century American music from its denotative meaning and to how it is used on the
song, the phenomena/phenomenon that affects semantic change of the word/s found on the
lyrics of selected 21st century American music, the origin or etymology of the words, which
undergone semantic change, found in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music, and
the type/s of meaning has occurred on the word/s in the lyrics of selected 21st century
American music (Conceptual, Connotative Affective Meaning, Collocative and Stylistic
Meaning).
On the other side, the process of the entire research studies are constructed, it involves
how the data collection and information gathering will be executed. It includes the following:
selecting 21st century American music based on the three major streams provided by Philip H.
Ennis (1992), and examining the semantic change of words in the lyrics of selected
21stcentury American music. Library research; the success of the research are not merely
based on researchers‘ common sense, but through the assistance of scholarly articles, journals,
and books proven by the authorities, who have broad knowledge and expertise in multiple
aspects of linguistic field.
Lastly, the outputs of this comprehensive research are as follows: characterizing the
semantic change in the lyrics of 21st century American music and analysis and interpretation
of the word meanings. Comparison from denotative meaning to how it is used in the song/s.
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Besides, the researches come up with this in depth analyses embodied the whole research
study
1.6.Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study aims to discuss, analyse and scrutinize the original and semantic change of
each distinct word found in the 21st century American Popular Music. In addition, this
research includes the deep study of the theory about the semantic change, linguistic and
language by the well-known linguist Geoffrey Leech and other pertinent linguistic literature,
studies and theories. Also, this study conducts to determine the word meaning of the selected
American songs from 2001 to 2017. Furthermore, the research investigation focalizes on the
three major streams of American Popular Music (Ennis, 1992): Pop, Black Pop, and Country
Pop. There are total of 10 songs among the three streams or genre (2002-2018).
1.7. Definition of Terms
a. Affective Meaning- It is a sort of meaning which an effect the personal feeling of
speakers, including his/her attitude to the listener, or his/her attitude to something
he/she talking about. It refers to the speaker‘s feeling / attitude towards the content or
the ongoing context. It is important to remember that each individual will have a
different affective meaning for a word. As such, only the person using a word will be
aware of the particular affective meaning that they hold with the word. Different use
of stress and intonation also provides a striking contrast in the feelings and attitudes
communicated through an utterance (Geoffrey Leech, 1974).
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b. Black Pop- The popular music of black Americans: similar with the pop music, black
pop became commercially domesticated music around the world. The style of black
pop includes the influence of Afro-American forms, blues, dance tunes, work songs,
hymns and psalms as well as the parodies and copies of white popular tunes. Mostly,
the songs are embodied with huge dance orchestra and a lone singer with guitar. This
is one of the subjects of research analysis
c. Collocative Meaning-This type of meaning usually gets in touch with the use of some
words in the same environment (Leech, 1974:35). Collocative meaning consists of the
associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur
in its environment. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the
words that go before or come after a word in question. Collocative meaning is the
meaning of a word produced in the specific context. Collocative meaning produce
different meanings when collocates with different words.
Conceptual meaning means logical, cognitive or denotative context. It is
usually derives from definitions we find in dictionaries. Therefore, in this research it
helped the researcher to identify the semantic change. As denotative or conceptual
meaning, it is said that the aim of this type of meaning is to provide, for any given
interpretation of a sentence, a configuration of abstract symbols, in which shows
exactly what we need to know if we are to distinguish that meaning from all other
possible sentence meaning in the language (Christofel, 2010).
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d. Conceptual Meaning- Sometimes called denotative meaning or cognitive meaning, it
is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication. Larson noted
that denotative meaning is also called as primary meaning, that is the meaning
suggested by the word when it used alone. It is the first meaning or usage which a
word will suggest to most people when the word is said in isolation. It is the
meaning learned early in life and likely to have reference to a physical situation
(Larson, 1984: 100).
e. Connotative Meaning- According to Leech (1974: 40-41) connotative meaning is the
communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above
its purely conceptual content. It will be clear if we are talking about connotation, we
are in fact talking about the ―real word experience‖. Someone associates with an
expression when someone uses and hears it. The fact that if we compared connotative
meaning with denotative meaning is that connotations are relatively unstable; that is
they vary considerably we have seen, according to culture, historical period, and the
experience of the individual. Although all the speaker of particular language speaks
the language exactly the same conceptual framework, actually each of them has
individual perception of words.
Connotative meaning is indeterminate and open in the same way as our
knowledge and belief about the universe are opened-ended. Connotations play a major
role in the language of literature, of politics, of advertising, and a greeting card. This is
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one of the bases in this research to review the changes in meaning in the language
used in 21st century American music.
f. Country Pop- The popular music of the American white South and Southwest: it
includes the indigenous folk music of the South and the music of the Western
expansion, railroad and cowboy. Until 1950s, the country pop was an exclusive form
of music by whites to white audiences. The style of this kind of stream is carried
solely by stringed instruments. This is one of the subjects of research analysis.
g. Genre- It is an expressive style of music; a category of artistic composition, as in
music or literature, characterized by similarities in form, style, or subject matter
(Music Genre List, 2015). This genre is a particular type of literature, painting, music,
film, or other art form which people consider as a class because it has special
characteristics (Collins English Dictionary). It was used in this research as different
categories of 21st century American music that was under the study of semantic
change. This tool conveys the understanding of a different style of a writer to give
his/her interpretation in a particular music.
Halliday (1985: XVII) states that the term ―semantics‖ does not simply refers
to the meaning of words; it is the entire system of meanings of a language, expressed
by grammar as well as by vocabulary. Semantics brings in symbol using and symbol
system outside language, but the central place of language in human symbol systems
makes language its primary concern. In semantics, one is trying to make explicit, the
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ways in which words, and sentences of various grammatical construction are used and
understood by native or fluent speakers of a language.
h. Music- It is an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or
vocal tones in a structured and continuous manner. It is what comes out of the
speakers when we play a CD on our stereo. It is what we hear on the radio. Music is
singers singing and musicians playing. Music is a sound that we enjoy hearing (Philip
Dorrell, 2005). In addition, Dorrell (2005) states that music is something what people
create and something that people respond to. Therefore, it was not just a poem with
melody or rhythm we commonly heard. It has a relation on the language used in a
certain place that attempt to understand its essence. It is used as the general term for
the population and samples of the entire study.
i. Pop- The ―commercial‖ music of the nation: Among the six streams, pop gathered the
largest audience, domestic and overseas. Some music institutions contributed to its
global prominence (e.g. vaudeville and Broadway Theater) and the technology or
media such as in radio and television. This is one of the subjects of research analysis.
j. Semantic Change – It usually defined as change in meaning over the time. The
alteration of meaning occurs because words are constantly used and what is intended
by speakers is not exactly the same each time. If a different intention for a word is
shared by the speech community and becomes established in usage then a semantic
change has occurred (Stockwell, Robert and DonkaMinkova, 2001).
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Semantic change was used in the study as an instrument to scrutinize the
changes in meaning in the 21st century American music. Therefore, it aims to
recognize if the language or words used increases its range of meaning over time or it
was narrowed its range of meaning. Further, the changes in meaning in language or
words were based on how it was applied in a particular community or place.
k. Semantic- The word ‗semantics‘ which comes from Greece ―sema‖ (noun) which
means ‗symbol‘ or ‗sign‘. The verb is Semaino which means ‗signify‘. The symbol of
the synonymy of sema is linguistic sign (France: sine linguistique) (Chaer, 1995: 2).
Saussure (1996) states that linguistic sign consists of (1) the signifier, component, in
sort of sounds and (2) the signified, the referent outside of language. Semantic is a
term which is used in linguistics, which studies relation between linguistic sign and
signified thing. In other words, semantic is a branch of studies about the meaning.
l. Streams- According to Philip H. Ennis (1992), there are six (6) streams in American
Popular Music, in which these facets represent the musical culture of the country per
se. ―Musical streams are palpable part of the social reality‖ (Ennis, 1992). In
expansion of his notion, Jennifer C. Lena and Richard A. Peterson (2008) explained
that Ennis shows ―some music, over the course of decades, spawns a number of
variants‖, and there are coherences in the families of music. These sets of Ennis‘s
genres are called ―streams‖, through which a certain genre may flow or give birth to
another form related to it. These are the vital concerns of the research study.
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m. Stylistic Meaning-Stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about
the circumstances of its use. A recent account of English has recognized some main
dimensions of stylistic variation. For instance: (1) they chucked a stone at the cops,
and then did a bunk with the loot. (2) After casting a stone at the police, they
absconded with the money. Sentence (1) could be said by the two criminals, talking
casually about the crime afterwards; sentence (2) might be said by the chief of the
police in making the official report; both could describe the same happening (Leech,
1974: 15)
This is used to study the word meaning in the lyrics of the songs used by the
21st century American music. In addition, this is the linguistic basis for further
investigation of the etymology or origin of meaning in the language used in order to
have profound view in the meaning of the words or language
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
In this chapter, the researchers provided related linguistic studies and literatures about
the application of semantic change in various aspects of human communication and the
concept of semantics as provided by different authorities or linguists in order to support the
analysis and study of the present research. Moreover, the related literature and studies
presented below are taken from different library and online resources with proper citations of
selected materials. The chapter is divided into two: Local Literature and Studies -are the
research materials and articles focusing on the semantic studies of music and Filipino
language and local dialects conducted by the researchers of the Philippines, while the Foreign
Literature and Studies - are the research materials about musical genre, American music,
songs analysis, semantics and semantic changes.
2.1. Local Literature and Studies
a. A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis of Tud-Om as a Cultural Text (Trexie O. Alawi,
2016) Asian Journal of Social Sciences Arts and Humanities
As a part of thorough analysis of words, the researchers also trace the nature and
origin in order to determine the changes undergone into a particular word. The study
conducted by Alawi entitled ―A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis of Tud-Om as a Cultural
Text (2016)‖ has a correlation on the present research, as these both researches focus on
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tracing the etymology of the words found in the verses and lyrics of the songs or largely, the
music of two different ethnicities and races.
According to Alawi (2016), chants with the accompaniment of dance and other forms
of rituals, have been one of the indigenous people‘s vital means to represent human emotions
and ideas. On her research analysis of Manobo society of the Philippines, chants have been
passed on from generation to generation in order to preserve the traditional way of life and
ritual speech is characterized by ―a certain degree of ceremonial formality and seriousness. It
is sung to a text with phonic, syntactic and semantic parallelisms. Singers extemporaneously
set their improvised verses to set tones (2003). The term ―‖Manobo‖ or ―‖Manuvu‖ may be
used to refer to a person or people.
The research study of Alawi (2016) is anchored on the theory of cultural linguistics,
which was theorized by Gary Palmer. In his book, ―Toward a Theory of Cultural Linguistics‖,
he argued that cognitive linguistics can be directly applied to the study of language and
culture. Central to Palmer‘s proposal is the idea that language is the play of verbal symbols
that are based in imagery and this imagery is culturally constructed. He advances that
culturally defined imagery governs narrative, figurative language, semantics, grammar,
discourse and even phonology.
b. Linguistic Changes in the Lyrics of Contemporary OPM Songs (Angeline De Vera
Mislang, 1998) Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines- National Library of
the Philippines
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The semantic field includes the types of meaning and how a specific group of people of
individuals formulates new meaning of words based on different sociological and
psychological phenomena or phenomenon and factors. Relatively, the study conducted
belowutilized the concept of Geoffrey Leech (1971) ―Types of Meaning‖ similar with the
present research on the analysis of semantic change in the lyrics of 21st century American
popular music.
In this thesis study, Mislang (1998) presented the changes that have occurred in the lyrics
of OPM songs in Philippine context. The analyses were conducted in different types of songs
existing in the Philippines namely: Pinoy Rap, Pop, Folk, Ballad, Rock, Protest, Novelty, and
Alternative songs.
The linguistic changes in the surface structures of OPM songs were in the form of code-
switching, reversals, simplification and reduction, filipinized words (English words spelled
the Filipino way, Synonymy (Filipino words with denotative and cultural meanings), created
and cultured words, those which have been derived from Filipino culture and which exist only
in the Philippines; thus, they are linguistically intelligible among Filipinos only.
On her research findings, `linguistic changes are evident in all types of songs
aforementioned above, and that changes may either or both semantics or morphology.
Most taboo and vulgar words are found in compositions or songs of male-dominated
bands or groups.
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Furthermore, linguistic changes in different types of songs studied come in form lexical
changes whereby the change in the morphology of the words with the addition of affixes, or a
change in meaning: connotative, conceptual, stylistic, affective, or collocative.
Semantic Change of the Selected Cebuano Words (Rowanne Marie R. Maxilom, Ph.D,
2008)22nd Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation
Aside from the concept of Geoffrey Leech on the classifications of meaning, Bloomfield
(1993) and Campbell (1998) also expanded the latter‘s idea of semantic change, these two
linguists provided expansive classifications of semantic change including the influences and
factors on the occurrence of semantic changes. On the study below, Maxilom (2008)
presented her analysis on the semantic change of selected Cebuano words and classified it
according to Bloomfield (1993) and Campbell (1998) semantic change idea. Similarly, the
present research adapts the linguistic concepts of Geoffrey Leech (1971) and Bloomfield
(1993) and Campbell (1998).
Thirty percent of the Filipinos could speak in English after the Philippines had
been colonized by the Americans for forty eight years. In this manner, the colonization by the
Spaniards and Americans could possibly account for the semantic change that was undergone
by some Cebuano words. Bloomfield (1933) and Campbell (1998) defined semantic change as
a change in the concepts that were associated with a term and the innovations that change the
meaning of words.
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With regard to the types of semantic change, Campbell (1998) and Crowley (1997) have
the following classifications: First, widening or broadening refers to the increase of the
meaning of words (Campbell, 1998) and a change in meaning which could result in a word
processing additional meanings while retaining the original meaning (Crowley, 1997). For
example, the English word ‗dog‘ had a specific meaning of ‗a powerful breed of dog‘ which
has a broader meaning that includes ‗all breeds of dog‘.
Second, narrowing involves the change of meaning that decreases its range of reference
into a fewer context (Campbell, 1998) and occurs when a word refers to only part of the
original meaning (Crowley, 1997). For instance, the word ‗starve‘ (i.e. to suffer or perish from
hunger) came from the Old English word ‗steorfan‘ (i.e. to die).
Third, metaphor is a type of semantic change that involves one kind of thing in relation
to another kind of thing that is somehow similar to the previous thing (Campbell, 1997). For
example, the Cebuano word ‗higante‘ which is similar to the concept ‗big‘ is used in
describing a great writer.
Fourth, litotes is another type of semantic change that refers to exaggeration through
understatement (Campbell, 1998). For instance, the phrase ‗of no small importance‘ is
mentioned that would mean ‗something that is too important‘.
Other types of semantic change that were identified by Campbell (1998) are metonymy,
synecdoche, degeneration or pejoration, and elevation or amelioration. Metonymy occurs
when there is a change of meaning of a word which includes other senses that are not
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originally present but are closely associated with the word‘s previous meaning. An example
of metonymy is the Spanish word ‗plata‘ (i.e. silver) that has been elaborated to mean
‗money‘.
Another type of semantic change is synecdoche (i.e. a part-to-whole relationship). For
instance, the word ‗tongue‘ means ‗language‘. In addition, degeneration or pejoration takes
place when the sense of the word has a negative assessment in the minds of the users. For
instance, the word ‗spinster‘ has a negative connotation of an unmarried older woman.
Elevation or amelioration (i.e. a shift of meaning which has an increasingly positive value
judgment) is also another type of semantic change. An example of this type of semantic
change is the Spanish word ‗casa‘ (i.e. house) which had a previous meaning in Latin that is
‗hut‘ or ‗cottage‘.
The other types of semantic change are taboo replacement and avoidance of obscenity
which can also be called euphemism, hyperbole or exaggeration (i.e. shifts in meaning
because of exaggeration through overstatement), and bifurcation or semantic split classified
by Crowley (1997) (i.e. when a term acquires another meaning that relates to the original
meaning). To provide a concrete example of taboo replacement is the use of the term ‗rooster‘
instead of ‗cock‘ to avoid obscene association of ‗cock‘ with ‗penis‘. In addition, an example
of hyperbole is the use of word ‗terribly‘ that means little more compared to ‗very‘.
Lastly, an illustration of bifurcation is the English word ‗silly‘ which had a cognate in
German word ‗selig‘ (i.e. blessed) and is derived from Seele ‗soul‘. Semantic shift takes place
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when the meaning ‗blessed‘ changes its meaning into ‗stupid‘ or ‗reckless‘ in Modern
English.
Moreover, Campbell (1998) and Crowley (1997) argued that there were various causes
of language change:
First, climate and geography could account for language change. Thelanguages of
mountainous areas as pointed out by Crowley (1997) tended to change swiftly than the
languages spoken closer to the sea level due to higher altitude.
Second, foreign influence or substratum is also one of the causes of language change.
According to Campbell (1998), the substratum theory of linguistic change involves the idea
that if people migrate into an area and their language is acquired by the original inhabitants of
the area, then any changes in the language can be put down to the influence of the original
language. For example, the colonization Spaniards to the Philippines has influenced the
Cebuano language, especially the counting system.
Third, simplification is another cause of language change. In this cause, the production
of sounds in one language (e.g. Spanish /v/) in the word verde would be simplified into
Cebuano berde which means ‗green‘.
Here are the findings of Maxilom (2008) research analysis on the semantic change of
selected Cebuano words:
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In determining the types of semantic change of the selected words in Cebuano, the
results revealed that in the written text, metaphor was frequently used while broadening was
the predominant type of semantic change in the spoken language.
Metaphor was predominantly used by the Cebuano writers to clearly express the ideas,
let the readers clearly understand their points, and raise the readers‘ thinking into a higher
level.
Broadening was usually used in the spoken data due to various reasons such as language
contact, social conventions, technology, religion, and expressive use of language.
However, this study only used the twenty (20) selected Cebuano words as the data for
the analysis. A replication of this study is recommended using discourse analysis of the
spontaneous speech of the Cebuano speakers who interact with their fellow native speakers of
Cebuano to validate the results of this study.
Hence, this study is consistent with Campbell (1998) and Crowley (1997) studies that
metaphor and broadening are the common types of semantic change. However, this study did
not provide evidence of the other types of semantic change due to the limited number of
Cebuano words.
c. A Semantic Look At Feminine Sex and Gender Terms in Philippine Gay Lingo
(Cynthia Grace B. Suguitan, 2005) University of the Philippines
In our diverse culture, meanings and language usage have been undergoneinto many
dynamic processes, in simpler terms, changing. In the Philippines, some words have different
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interpretations based on how a particular social group utilized it. On the research below by
Suguitan (2005), she scrutinized the etymology and semantic change of utterances of the
LGBT community or lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transgender who gives their own identity
by establishing their own languages, which are deviating from its standard linguistic form.
In connection on the present research, the researchers seek to enhance the analysis through
tracing the etymology, nature and origin of the words found in the lyrics of the 21 st century
American popular music, and providing comprehensive explications on how the words
perceived in the songs of various America artists, composers or writers.
Both researches believed on the Sapir Whorf Hypothesis which stated that language does
not reflect reality but actually shapes it to a large extent. Thus, he recognizes the objective
nature of reality; but since the perception of reality is influenced by our linguistic habits, it
follows that language plays an active role in the process of cognition:
a) The language we speak and think in shapes the way we perceive the world.
b) The existence of the various language systems implies that the people who think in these
different languages must perceive the world differently.
From Suguitan (2005):
III. Language as a Reflection and Proponent of Culture:
It is common knowledge that language mirrors culture. To illustrate, the Filipino people
have many different words for rice because rice is a staple in our country: bigas (uncooked
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rice), tutong (burnt rice), sinangag (fried rice) to name a few. But a language does not merely
reflect culture; it also perpetuatesit. The Whorf Hypothesis or the hypothesis of linguistic
relativism states that―the worldview of a culture is subtly conditioned by the structure of
itslanguage‖ (Jannedy 1994: 414).
Sagarin comments on this dual nature of language:
―Language is both a reflection of how we look at the world and at the same time
determineshow we shall look at the world. The universe around us is there for each of us to
see, but differentindividuals and peoples will see this universe in divergent ways. Not only
will thisdetermine the development of language, but the latterwill itself determine how
peoples look atthe world; that is to say, howthey structure reality in their own minds (20).‖
Here is the excerpt from her analysis.
It is not the dictionary that determines the meaning of a word, but the people who use that
word. This semantic principle is, perhaps, more obvious in gay lingo than in anyother
language. This is because gayspeak uses words that are part of a mainstreamlanguage (e.g.
Filipino or English), but applies them metaphorically. As a result, thewords acquire core or
sense meanings very different from that of their roots. Here arejust a few examples:
Anaconda (n.): In English, this is a term for a huge snake but in gayspeak, it literally
refers to women and gays who deliberately seduce committed men. This meaning stems from
the Filipino idiom mang-ahas which means the same thing.
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Nowadays, the shortened version ana is the more common term. Burol, Hidden Valley,
Sierra Madre (n.): These different terms for landforms areused to describe the female
mammary glands. Burol, a Filipino word for hill, refers tobreasts that are small; sierra madre
stands for bigbreasts; and hidden valley describesbreasts that are just about to develop. Any
word that denotes mountains can literallymean breasts in the gay language. Twin Peaks, for
example, can stand for breasts ingeneral.
Magic (n.): This is a word that refers to female homosexuals. According tosources,
lesbians call themselves such because they are like ―magicians with wands‘ (i.e. fingers) that
they use in giving pleasure to their sexual partner.
Manicure (n): In English, a manicure means getting one‘s nails cleaned, shaped,
and painted. When one speaks of a manicure in Philippine gay lingo, it still hassomething to
dowith the hands but only because it stands for female masturbation.
Pechay (n.): The local name of a green, leafy vegetable, this is a play on the
Filipino word for female genitalia (pekpek). In gay lingo, it can stand for both the vaginaand
women in general. Some derivatives of pechay are kepyas, kipchi, kipay, and kepsbut these
refer solely to the female sexual organ.
Thunderbelle (n.): This doesn‘t really mean anything in English or Filipino but it
has its roots in the 80s cartoon series Thunder Cats. In gayspeak, a thunder cat (also tanders)
is a general term for old people. It is a play on the Filipino word ―tanda‖meaning old. The
suffix belle can be added to a word to make it feminine. Thunderbellemeans old
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woman.Another characteristic of meaning is although mental images may representmeaning;
these images vary from person to person. Thus one person might think of asparrow when
asked to picture a ―bird‖ while another might think of a parrot. This semantic principle also
lends itself well to the study of gay lingo. This is because themental representations that
certain words bring to mind among speakers of a mainstream language are very different from
the images that are thought of in gayspeak.
d. Contemporary Philippine Music: A Creative Project on a New Movement of Music in
the Philippines by Marvin Joseph D. Sayson (2009)
In the study of Philippine music it has a big influence in the present generation. According
to Sayson (2009), "Philippine music has nurtured in a nation trying to build its identity". He
added that over time Original Philippine Music or OPM has garnered enough recognition for
the Philippine masses to identify itself with the music and lyrics. In studying American music
in relation with its influence in Philippine music, by default it is hard to find text and archives
about Philippine music in the 20th-21st century. The academe pays little attention to the
subject, thus only a handful of information regarding Philippine music after the country‘s
colonization is available (Sayson, 2009). He used the OPM in studying more avenues of self-
expression and innovation with the help of western music influence.
According to his study there are many perspectives that affect ones interpretation in the
meaning of the lyric/s of the song. OPM is just a view in some part of this study on how the
meanings of the words understand by the readers of the line/s or lyric/s in the song. In
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addition, 21st century American music is the focus of our study to scrutinize the semantic
change in the each song lines.
e. Genre Classification of OPM Songs Through the Use of Musical Features, College of
Computer Studies (2016) De La Salle University, Manila Philippines
According to Jordan Aiko Deja, Kim Blanquera, Carlo Eliczar Carabeo and Jo Rupert
Copiaco (2016), the task of classifying music into its respective genre with the use of their
respective features have been done before on a wide array of types and sources of music.
However, more studies have yet to be done on the analysis of musical features specific for
Original Pinoy Music (OPM). Generally, music of the Philippines which is referred to as
OPM includes performances, and compositions in various genre and styles done by Filipinos.
The study of genre revolves around enabling machines who understand signals and numbers
to be able to classify specifically OPM into a certain genre, data of which are of auditory
nature. With the right conversion process, music of such format can be loosed, transformed
into a readable format such as a way file.
This study used one particularly genre which is ―Pop‖ or what we so called popular aong
in the 21st century. The researchers classify the focus genre by considering the heart of the
generation or simply the most popular song in the modern days. In choosing the songs, the
researchers used the sub-genre of the Pop song considering the year, history of the songs,
awards and the artists of the songs for the clearer and better understanding of the song which
have a semantic change in every distinct meaning in the lyrics of the song.
f. Rojek‘s Pop Music, Pop Culture (2011)
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According to Rojek‘s Pop Music, Pop Culture (2011) pop music is situated in the
field of culture, media and communication and production. Rojek states that, ―The aim here is
to draw on a much wider range of resources in the social sciences and cultural and
communication studies that is normal in the analysis of pop music.‖ (Bonayon, 2012) In
relation to this study, the researchers characterize the words that undergone semantic change.
In interpreting the words, the researchers make use of the different kinds of meaning proposed
by Leech which includes the social meaning.
In the study of Philippine music it has a big influence in the present generation.
According to Sayson, "Philippine music has nurtured in a nation trying to build its identity".
In studying American music in relation with its influence in Philippine music, by default it is
hard to find text and archives about Philippine music in the 20th-21st century. The academe
pays little attention to the subject, thus only a handful of information regarding Philippine
music after the country‘s colonization is available (Sayson, 2009).
He used the OPM in studying more avenues of self-expression and innovation with
the help of western music influence. According to his study there are many perspectives that
affect ones interpretation in the meaning of the lyric/s of the song. OPM is just a view in some
part of this study on how the meanings of the word/s understand by the readers of the line/s or
lyric/s in the song. In addition, 21st century American music is the focus of our study to
scrutinize the semantic change in the line/s of each song.
g. Evangeline Alvarez Encabo: Filipinizing English Songs (2010)
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In Evangeline Alvarez Encabo research, ―Filipinizing English Songs‖ stated that the
meaning of translated songs is somehow different from its origin. Regardless the meaning, the
songs are certified hit in the Philippines because Filipino culture and interests were considered
in the translation. In the 20‘s and 30‘s folk songs which are written up in the regional
languages became very popular. The song followed western staff notation and mostly were
arranged for a choir presentation. The popular music during that time was the Pinoy Rock,
Manila Sound, Pinoy Disco, Pinoy folk, Pinoy rap, Ethnic Rap and Novelty Songs.
The year 2000 is a time for novelty, revival and tagalized/Filipinized songs. At
present, there is a boom of music translated from English to Filipino. According to Nida, the
meaning cannot be divorced from personal experience and the conceptual framework of the
person receiving the message. He further stated that the ideas ―must be modified‖. Thus,
Filipino- based song adoptions, particularly their residing meaning have; in some cases,
appeared nonsensically funny since ―forced‖ yet artistically Filipino translations are in an
attempt to copy and maintain the textual and semantic features of the message of the songs
written up in English.
This research explains that through the translation of the songs the meaning itself
changed as well as the words used in translating the song. Moreover, the words used in the
song can be in the same or different meaning. Also in translating the song composer tends to
change the word to come up with a new one. However, some composers instead of changing
the word they will look another word that has same meaning. The translation of the song
affects the meaning and its choices of words. (2010).
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h. ―Philpop 2013‖: Make Great Music!‖ (Rappler, 2013)
According to Ryan Cayabyab from the article of Rappler ―Philpop 2013‖: Make Great
Music! Philippine popular music is at its most propitious platform today. The wide acceptance
of current Filipino tunes indicates that local audiences have finally come to appreciate and
recognize the merits of original Filipino compositions. This growth of nationalism, so to
speak, signifies a reaction against foreign dominance of the local music industry, and the
realization of the need to establish a musical identity of our own. In addition to Pancare‘s―The
influence of Pop Music on Teens in the United States‖, the dominance of the influence of
American pop music have gone way further that it reached the Philippines. Through this
research,the researchers distinguish how the differences in word meanings influence its
listeners.
2.2. Foreign Literature and Studies
2.2.1. Foreign Literature
Stefan Koelsch: Neural Substrates of Processing Syntax and Semantics (Current
Opinion in Neurobiology 2005, 15:1-6)
According to Stefan Koelsh, "Growing evidence includes that syntax and semantics
are basic aspect of music". He added, "Music is one of the older, and most basic, socio-
cognitive domains of the human species". His book focused on basic dimensions of music
perception: the processing of syntax and semantic in music. 'Neural substrates of processing
syntax and semantics in music' book emphasize that the brain is one of the aspect in
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understanding the meaning of words not only by reading some line/s or lyrics, but also he
includes the hearing aspect. The sound or pitch a particular song has a semantic change.
"Results indicate that the human brain processes music and language overlapping cognitive
mechanism, in over lapping cerebral structure" (Stefan Koelsch, 2005)
According to Rachel Pancare‘s ―The influence of Pop Music on Teens in the United
States‖ (2013), recent American pop songs contain references like sex, drugs, alcohol or
violence. Most of the songs elevate rebellion against authority, the declination of women or
self-destructive behaviors. Over time, the subject matter can negatively influence young,
impressionable listeners, affecting their moods, opinions and how they think about the world.
On the other hand, Pancare also stated the positive effects of pop music. There were certain
pop music that can positively influence the teens, triggering happiness and excitement,
instilling confidence or even helping them complete tasks such as household chores or
homework. Through this research, by characterizing the semantic change on the word usage
of the 21st century American pop music, the researchers identify how the meaning of such
words affect the meaning of the whole song and how this certain pop music affect its listeners
According to Lewis‘ ―Americanist Musicology and Nomadic Noise‖ he stated that in
recent years Americanist musicology has created its own version of the turn from political
history to social and cultural history, the frontier, the maverick, democracy, exceptionalism,
human rights, class, race, sexuality, as well as the peculiar workings out of mobility in the
U.S. context. In relation to this study, the researchers identify how these different aspects
stated from the journal affect the word usage in a certain song. (Garrett & Oja, 2011)
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According to Magee‘s ―Rethinking Social Class and American Music‖ from the same
journal above, he stated that Historical studies in American music have last behind other
disciplines in investigating the implications of social class, which the sociologist Dalton
Conley recently dubbed ―that dirty word of American society.‖ In this study, the researchers
identify how society affects the change in meaning of the word usage on the 21st century
American pop music.(Garrett & Oja, 2011)
According to Anwar‘s ―Semantic Change in Urdu: A Socio Linguistic Impact on
Lexical Borrowing from Arabic to Urdu‖ (2017), in a journey of a language, ‗words‘ usually
migrate from a place to another with cultures, the users of language. There are many halts,
situations and environments that affect the linguistic achievement. In other words, there are so
many linguistic, social, cultural and political variables that attribute to the process of linguistic
borrowing. Word borrowed from Arabic when came to Urdu had a semantic change and either
there meanings have shift or they are used in the same way as they are. Many examples can be
seen of Arabic borrowed word and when they come to Urdu there is Semantic change. In
relation to this study, Semantic change does not only occur in lyrics of the song but also in the
language itself. Language is one of the factors that affect the change in meaning of words
being used in song lyrics, specifically in American pop music.
According to Jackendoff and Ndimele (2015), they define semantics as the subfield
that is devoted to the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels of words, phrases, sentences,
and larger units of discourse (termed texts, or narratives). Ndimele states that the word
semantic (from French Semantique) was ―invented‖ by MichealBreal in the 19th century.
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Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used for understanding human expression
through language. It is also a deep study of every word in the lyrics of the song which have a
different meaning in the original meaning of the word.
According to Chukwuma (2012), scholars from different disciplines like philosophy,
logic, anthropology, psychology and linguistics are interested in exploring the nature of
meaning. He says that linguistics is different from disciplines since it investigates meaning in
a systematic and objective pattern. In the field of choral music as an art form, exploring the
meaning of the text has not been very popular. As people‘s experiences and world view
change, so do the meanings they associate to world change? We agree with Chukwuma
(2012) that meaning is a concept usually influenced by different factors. Lyrics can be
interpreted in diverse ways depending on the emotional disposition of the singer at the time of
making the song. As a result of this, the intended meaning of lyrics may be different from the
meaning perceived by the listeners of the song.
In NovitaHusnaNasution and Sri HeryaniNasution research journal ―Semantic
Emotion in Maher Zain‘s lyric of Songs: Semantic analysis‖ (2015) stated that knowing the
semantics emotions of a song people could be more understand about the meaning and the
purpose conveyed by the song. When one is talking about emotion in one‘s own language, it
is very easy to feel that such concepts must exist universally. Music is said to be language of
emotions and the activity of listening to music is indeed a part of everyday life. The theory of
emotions that motivates the semantic analysis has been presented elsewhere (Oatley and
Johnson-Laired 1987). This study explains that every song have different emotions, which
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tells that emotions may vary through the meaning of the word. Emotion can depend on how
we label ourselves in terms of anger, happiness, and so on. So not all feeling is expressed by
one emotion and shows it directly. We can show it by another word and by describing the
feeling. In relation to this research, the researchers identify how emotions affect the change in
word meanings used in the lyrics of the 21st century.
According to Lerdahl (2017), who compared the meaning of music to a journey
through tonal pitch space: a slightly different view is that music has semantics, but that it
pertains to objects that are themselves musical in nature -on what we will call an "internal
semantics‖. He emphasize that semantic in music is based on the tone that is directly point out
the internal semantic. ‗Internal semantic‘ means deeper meaning in every line/s of a particular
song. In this research, its objective is to analyze the meaning or semantic change in the lyric/s.
Further, semantic for music has diverse emotional effects in the readers that Lerdahl wants to
emphasize
In Bennet, Andy Journal ―Towards a cultural Sociology of Popular Music‖ (2008)
stated that the array of concepts and theories applied in the study of popular music, questions
pertaining to the relationship between music and culture and of popular music itself as a
cultural form have conventionally been addressed by cultural studies rather than sociologist.
However the potential fields of work in which cultural sociologist of popular music could
know involve themselves have expanded immeasurably. Popular music‘s ever-growing status
as a multimedia, global industry and pushed increasingly into the everyday cultural
soundscape. This research explains that culture affects the popularity of music. Culture is
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regarded as a motor-force in the everyday world that there is no denying that culture plays a
considerable role in shaping a person‘s everyday life experience. So as this research, the
researcher interpret how culture becomes as one of the factors that affect semantic change.
2.2.2. Foreign Studies
In Debi RatnaWati‘s ―A Deixis Analysis of Song Lyrics in Taylor Swift‘s ‗Red‘
Album‖ (2014) — she stated that song lyrics vary in terms of textual meaning. She
generalized that listeners of the song have different interpretation to understand the meaning
of the song. Furthermore, Wati explained that in order for a listener to understand the meaning
of a text, people must have semantic skills. In Wati‘s deixis analysis of the song lyrics in
Taylor Swift‘s ―Red‖ Album, she explained that a listener will not understand the text
meanings in the song because the physical context of the song lyrics is not clear, where many
of the words in the lyrics are not obvious with regards to whom, where and when the text is
situated. This research explains that a listener will not be able to understand the meaning of a
song through reading the lyrics. With the use of semantic skills, one will be able to
comprehend the message or the meaning of the song.
In Hariyanto‘s research ―Analysis of Figurative Language Used in the Lyric of
Firework by Katy Perry‖ (2017) stated that figurative language is a part of semantic. The
songs usually consist of figurative language. Whereas, it is a kind language that the speaker
say less than what he means. We know, that song is part of literature where in people find
difficulties to understand the mean of the song, because what conventionally says is not
always the same as what it intends to means. With the use of Leech‘s seven types of meaning,
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the researchers interpret the song by characterizing the semantic change in the word meanings
of the 21st century American pop music.
In the study of MihailoAntovic‘s ―Towards the Semantics of Music: The 20th
Century‖ (2009), he discusses the problem of musical meaning from the perspective of some
20th century approaches to linguistic semantics. His text briefly covers the issue as it was
viewed in the first half of the previous century, and then reviews some studies of musical
meaning within the structural, generative, and cognitive frameworks. For him, it is the
succession of major and minor thirds in a chord that may be used almost as a catalogue from
which a composer would select and trigger a desired emotion in the listener. In relation to this
study, the researchers prove that understanding the word meanings being used in pop music
will also affect the desired emotion that a composer wanted a listener to have.
In Andrew Kositsky, Beth Logan and Pedro Moreno research ―Semantic Analysis of
Song Lyrics‖ (2014)stated that the quantity of music available ubiquitously growing rapidly,
that there is a need for automatic analysis techniques to organize repositories. Many automatic
techniques to determine song or artist similarity have been proposed. Lyrics have a
meaningful way of interpreting a song. It is rich in information, experiences and message that
the author conveys towards the listeners; they are non- subjective, there is only one ‗true‘
transcription for a song. Lyrics provide a much richer description of the song than simple
forms of metadata such as title, artist and year and arguably contain the true ‗content‘ for
many songs. Through this research, the researcher make use of Leech‘s seven types of
meaning to interpret the words that undergone semantic change.
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In RifkiMaulana and Malikatul Laila study ―A Semantic Analysis of Metaphor Found
in Selected Lyrics of The Script Katy Perry and Michael Buble‖ (2017) stated that the
meaning of word, phrase and sentence is very important to be analyzed because it can make
something more understandable to be communicated to the others. According to Yule (2006)
the study of meaning is in the work of semantic analysis. It needs to be analyzed semantically
for more understanding. Oxford (2008) defined song as ―short piece of music with words that
you sing‖. Lyric is word of a song. Every single song has different meaning and the writer
usually uses an implicit and explicit meaning in the lyric. The writers choose some lyrics from
their songs that make lyrics more complicated and colorful by combining some metaphor
expressions (Maulana& Laila). In relation to this research, through characterizing the
semantic change of the words usage in the lyrics of the 21st century American pop music, the
researchers provide mediums in order to make listeners understand the song they are listening
to.
In Daniel Lassiter research ―Semantic Externalism, Language Variation and
Sociolinguistics Accommodation‖ (2008)stated that a language belongs to a community of
language users, and that common languages exist above and beyond individual. It may be
represented as a partial theory of what the correct theory of meaning for language. As
Dummett makes clear, it is possible for speakers to be simply wrong in their use of language
because a language exists independently of its speaker. Also the side we choose will
determine where we locate crucial semantic notions such as reference and meaning. In
Wittgenstein that rule-following and meaning cannot be explicated by mere description of
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what an individual is doing: to say that an individual is following a particular rule. (Lassiter,
2008) Through this research, the researchers identify how language affects the change on the
word usage in the lyrics of the 21st Century American Pop Music.
In relation to the studies to the related local and foreign literature and studies stated
above, the present research of semantics and the occurrence of semantic change in the lyrics
of 21st century American popular music through the abet of Geoffrey Leech (1971) Types of
Meaning namely: conceptual, connotative, collocative, affective and social or stylistic
meaning. Furthermore, the researchers provide various factors that affect the changes of word
usages and meanings. It includes historical, social, political, cultural and personal phenomena
or phenomenon.
On the contrary, the related literatures and studies presented in this chapter are
insufficient of theoretical and conceptual framework in accordance with their works. Majority
of the previous researches and studies of semantics and semantic change were based from the
opinion of the researchers, who have semantic skills. In addition, the studies of semantics of
the songs were focused on the structure of the music in terms of its tone and rhythm.
However, the presence hypotheses, linguistic theories, disciplines and concepts on the local
and foreign literature and studies are reinforced in the present research.
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CHAPTER III
METHODS OF RESEARCH
In this chapter, the researchers extensively elaborated the process of interpreting and
analyzing data in order to address all the questions or problems embodied on the entire
research study. Moreover, the chapter is divided into six sections namely: Method and
Techniques of the Study, Unit of Analysis, Data and Data Sources, The Population, Sample
and Sampling Technique, Method of Collecting Data and Method of Analyzing Data.
a. Methods and Techniques of the Study
The method utilized in the research is descriptive research. Through this method, the
researchers describe the data systematically and accurately (Isaac and Michael 1971:42).
According to the book ―Community-Based Research: A Handbook for Native Americans‖
(1983), the purpose of descriptive research is to describe accurately the situations or events,
such as the characteristics of a population, a social condition, or a particular topic. In the
process of descriptive research, data are collected and summarized, and presents a picture of
the specific details of a social setting, situation or relationship (Serapio, 2015). Hence, in this
research study, the researchers describe the words that are semantically changed from the
lyrics of selected 21st century American popular music.
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Additionally, the researchers also employed qualitative method; since the analyses do not
depend on numerical data or value instead the focalizations of the researchers are words in the
lyrics of 21st century American popular music.
Descriptive qualitative method describes the population and evidence of the data
systematically, factually and accurately (Isaac, et.al. 1981:46). The procedure of qualitative
research produces a vast descriptive data in the form of written words about the object that is
observed; ―Qualitative data are collected in the form of words or pictures rather than
numbers‖ (Frankael and Wallen, 1993:381). The researchers thoroughly examine the words
in the lyrics of selected 21stcentury American popular music and classify it according to the
types of meaning as provided by the research‘s related literature, theories and studies from
linguistic authorities.
Lastly, for data collection, library method is also employed, as the data, literature, studies,
research theories and the lyrics of the songs are taken from the internet websites and some
books from different library institutions (such as The National Library of the Philippines).
b. Unit of Analysis
The Pell Institute and Pathways to College Network defines unit analysis as ―unit of
analysis is the ―who‖ or ―what‖ that you are analyzing for your study, it could be an
individual student, a group, or even an entire program (Trochim, 2006).‖
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The unit of analysis of this research is the songs of the 21st century American music
from various prominent U.S. artists which are distinguished into three (3) genres or streams
namely: Pop, Black Pop, and Country Pop songs.
c. Data and Data Sources
Based on Sudaryanto (1988:10) from a thesis paper entitled ―Semantic Change and
Meaning Shift Analysis on Film Making Terms‖ by Septika S. Tobing (2010), data are the
research object along with the context, it is where the researchers apply analysis,
interpretation or investigation. In this research study, the data are the words found in the lyrics
of selected 21st century American popular music, wherein the researchers examine the
occurrence of semantic change.
On the other side, the data sources are divided into two: the primary data and secondary
data sources. Primary data are the first-hand data that are collected by the researchers
themselves, and considered as original and unique, due to the researchers‘ direct and personal
involvements on the process of collecting and gathering it. Although, it requires expanded
manpower and financial capabilities, the researchers have higher possibility to get all the raw
data, needs and answers related to their specific study. Primary data collection is done through
various ways or sources (e.g. surveys, questionnaires, personal interviews, observation and
experiments).
Secondary data are those data collected by someone else or another researcher of earlier
studies. These are the past data such as government publications, websites, books, journal
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articles and internal records. In contrast on the primary data, secondary data are second-hand
information which is already collected and recorded by any person and it is readily available
form of data compiled or reserved from various library or academic institutions and online
scholarly archives.
In congruence of these concepts, the researchers confine on the primary data source,
which are the words found in the songs of selected 21st century American music. The data
collection is personally conducted and scrutinized by the researchers.
On the process of selecting words which undergone semantic changes, the criteria
below will be followed by the researchers.
The songs which possessed any of the following:
1. Slangs, idioms, taboo and vulgar language or words.
2. Unusual associations of words or combined words (e.g. Sour Girl)
3. Unusual or strange words
4. Interjections or words that express strong feelings or sudden emotion (e.g. Oh,
Yippee!)
5. Words that have symbolisms or figurative meanings (e.g. Fire- Desire/Passion)
d. Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
On the website ―Statistic Solutions (2018)‖, population refers to a larger or general group and
collection of individuals or data to which a researcher focuses with. It depends upon the scope
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of the research study. Thereupon, the population of this research study is the selected songs of
21st century American popular music.
In analogous on the population, sample is simply a subset of the population
(Exploarable.com, 2009), and a single part that becomes the objects of the research. The
researchers examine the songs of 21st century American popular music into three major
streams or genre (Ennis, 1992) namely: Pop, Black Pop and Country Pop.
The sampling technique utilized by the researchers is purposive sampling technique or
also known as judgment, selective, or subjective sampling, is a sampling technique in which
the researchers relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of population
(Research Methodology). The research selects songs from 21st century American popular
music as based on the criteria provided by the researchers.
Criteria on the selection of the research samples:
 American songs which gained immense domestic and global popularity from 2001-
2017.
 Pop stream: Best Pop Solo Performance from 2002-2018 (Grammy Awards).
 Country Pop Stream: Best Country Song from 2002-2018 (Grammy Awards).
Grammy Awards is an award presented by The Recording Academy of United States
of America, the selection of nominees and winners are done by the registered members of
National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS), eligibility and
qualifications of the awards are based from the institutions standards and discretions.
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The eligibility of the musicians, artists and albums accomplishments runs from
October 1and September 30 of the latter and former year. For example, 2002 Grammy
Awards honored the musical achievements of 2001 in which albums were released from
October 1, 2000 through September 30, 2001.
 Black Pop stream: Song of the Year or Best R&B/Soul Single from 2001-2017 (Soul
Train Music Awards)
Soul Train Music Awards is an only music awards which gives recognitions and
honors on the achievement of Black Americans in the field of music, artistry and
entertainment.
In addition, the Song of the Year award was only included in the year 2010, however
the selection of Black Pop from 2001 to 2009 depends upon the nominee which won the
Best R&B/Soul Single, due to the fact that the award giving body mainly recognizes the
artist in the field or genre of Rhythm and Blues (R&B) and Soul.
e. Method of Collecting Data
The researchers adapted the methods utilized in the thesis entitled ―Semantic Change and
Meaning Shift Analysis on Film Making Terms‖ by Septika S. Tobing (2010), as both studies
focus on conducting investigations of the words which are semantically changed.
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Documentation Method: the researchers gather the data which are the copies of the songs
of 21st century American music from different online music streaming sites. The data are
compiled and distinguished according to the type/s of music/genre.
Note-Taking Method: the researchers list the words from the lyrics of selected 21st century
American music which are considered as semantically changed, classify it according to type/s
of meaning, and provide expansive explanations and interpretations that will support its new
meaning. However, to organize the words properly, the researchers construct a table that
shows the differences of word meaning from the dictionary and how it is used in the lyrics
(semantic change).
The format below has followed by the researchers:
Word Denotative/Dictionary New Meaning
Meaning Semantic Change: Type of
Origin or Etymology Meaning
Meaning:
1. Type of Meaning:
(Name of the Source)
No. of Times:
Origin or Etymology:
(Name of the Source)
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Based on the figure above, the researchers organize the analyses and interpretation of
data into tabular and narrative form. The tabular form shows the comparison between the
word‘s denotative or dictionary meaning and to how it is employed or utilized in a particular
song. Then, the narrative analyses or interpretations elaborate the content of the table from its
etymology, the changes and the different phenomena or phenomenon, factors and influence
on the semantic change found in the lyrics of 21st century American popular music.
f. Method of Analyzing Data
In this research study, descriptive and qualitative methods are utilized. Descriptive method
is also called as explanatory research; the researchers provide interpretations and analyses
about the background of the words which undergone into semantic change, what are the
causes of the changes, what are the phenomena or phenomenon on the formation of its new
meanings and what is/are the symbolic significance of the words on the artist or composers of
a particular American song.
Then, qualitative method, the research focuses on the words instead of numerical
values or data. This method centers on the practice and process of how people establish new
meanings around their environment. It also includes observation and researchers ‗own
impressions or outlook (Serapio, 2015). Thereupon, the researchers investigate word
meanings with abet of academic or scholarly journals, books, studies and related theses or
dissertations from respective linguistic authorities and academicians.
The processes of analyzing data are divided into four (4) stages:
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I. Selecting songs from 21st century American music and classifying it according
to music genre.
In this stage, the researchers conduct an internet search/browse for the 21st century
American music in different musical genres or stream by Philip H. Ennis (1992): Pop, Black
Pop, and Country Pop. The researchers also group the songs according to its classification in
order to have an organization of data analyses, interpretations, and results.
II. Examining the semantic change of words in the lyrics of selected 21st century
American music.
In this stage, the researchers deal on the thorough examinations of the usage of words
in the lyrics of the selected 21st century American popular music. The examination includes:
investigating how a particular word used in the context of the song, how the artist/s perceives
the words based on its utilization and what is/are the connection of the word/s on the overall
meaning of the song. These questions are addressed through paragraph form which appears in
the Chapter Four (4) of the study.
III. Analysis and interpretation of the word meanings. Comparison from
denotative/dictionary meaning to how it is used in the songs.
As mentioned above, the researchers provide an organization of data: construct a table
that shows the meaning differences of a certain word in the lyrics of a specific 21st century
American song, from its denotative/dictionary meaning to its new meaning which is
semantically changed. The purpose of this comparison is to give the readers a wide
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understanding on how American artists, singers, songwriters and composers form unorthodox
or unconventional meanings of the words based upon their own conceived notions.
IV. Characterizing the semantic change in the lyrics of 21st century American
music.
In this stage, it deals with the important part of the study as the researchers
distinguish the types of meaning occurred on the words in the lyrics of 21 st century American
music. These are conceptual, connotative, affective, collocative, and stylistic meaning. In
addition, the researchers elaborate various background facts and study that supports our
assumptions and analyses.
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CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
(QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS)
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the researchers discussed and presented the data analysis and
findings from 17 American songs from the three genres or streams (Ennis, 1992) namely:
Pop, Black Pop and Country. The analyses and interpretations are supported by various
researches, studies, authorities and other online or library resources.
The objectives of the research are as follows:
 Characterize the semantic change in the lyrics of selected 21st century American
popular music.
 Elaborate the phenomenon or phenomena, factors and influence on the semantic
change of words, and;
 Compare and contrast the meaning of a particular word from its denotative or
dictionary meaning and to its utilization in the song.
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Genre: Pop Title: Bad Romance
Year: 2010 Artist: Lady Gaga
About the Song:
Bad Romance is one of the singles by American singer Lady Gaga from her extended
play, The Fame Monster (2009). The song received breakthrough success, from its domestic
to international release. Rolling Stone, an American biweekly magazine that focuses on
popular culture, and Pitchfork Media, an American online magazine, commended and
included ―Bad Romance‖ on their own best-lists due to its unique rhythm and song elements.
Upon its released, the song peaked at number two (2) on the Billboard Hot 100 and
gathered accolades from different music award-giving bodies including two (2) Grammy
Awards (2011) for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Short Form Music Video,
and bagged seven (7) nominations at 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. Bad Romance was
considered as one of the most successful hits of Lady Gaga, which sold over 5.8 million
digital downloads and 12 million physical copies worldwide, later declared as one of the best-
selling singles of all time.
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Lyrics:
[Verse 2]
I want your horror, I want your design
'Cause you‘re a criminal as long as you‘re mine
I want your love
Love, love, love, I want your love
I want your psycho, your vertigo shtick
Want you in my rear window, baby, it's sick
I want your love
Love, love, love, I want your love
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Meaning:
1. Horror A bad or mischievous
Noun. A strong feeling of
person‖ or a disgusting or
fear, shock or disgust, or an
embarrassing person, thing
event that produces such as a
or situation.
feeling.
Type of Meaning:
(Cambridge Essential
Social or Stylistic Meaning
American Dictionary).
No of Times: 1
12 century. Thing which
excites horror.
14 century. ―horribility,‖and
―horribleness‖
Late 14 century. ―Feeling of
disgust‖ or ―emotion of
horror or dread‖.
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1530s. A symptom of disease
or in reaction with sour or
bitter taste.
1610s. ―horridness‖
1620s. ―horridity‖
1630s. ―A ruffling as of water
surface‖
1650s. ―Erection of the hairs
on the skin‖
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
The word ―horror‖ refers to a strong feeling of fear, shock or disgust, or an event that
produces such as a feeling (Cambridge Essential American Dictionary). In the field of
psychology, certain individuals have physical and emotional release that follows scary
situations (Tricia Hussung, 2016), and it is a negative emotion that comes about when people
are under siege or threat (Glenn Sparks, 2016).
However, on the song, the speaker utilized the word as the facet of someone whom she
has a desire to, which is beyond what the dictionary dictates. To pursue this further, the origin
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of the word comes into different variations before how people perceived it in the present times
(Online Etymology Dictionary):
12 century. ―Thing which excites horror,‖ from Old French ―horror‖ and Modern
French ―horreur‖
14 century. Noun forms. ―horribility,‖ now rare or disused and ―horribleness‖
Late 14 century. ―Feeling of disgust‖ or ―emotion of horror or dread‖.
Latin. Horror ―dread, veneration, religious awe,‖ a figurative use, literally ―a shaking,
trembling (as with cold or fear), shudder, chill,‖ from ―horrere‖ ―to bristle with fear, shudder,‖
The word also has some variations in Sanskrit ―harsate‖ ―bristles,‖ Avestan
―Zarshayamma‖ ―ruffling one‘s feathers‖
1530s. (Formerly) English. ―a shivering,‖ especially as a symptom of disease or in
reaction to a sour or bitter taste.
1610s. Noun form. ―horridness‖
1620s. Noun form. ―horridity‖
As aforementioned above, the historical background of the word ―horror‖
undergone into many changes and variations. But, on the song, Bad Romance, of Lady Gaga,
the word may be referred to another aspect or feature. According to Deritt Mason (2010),
Professor, Department of English -University of Calgary, the words and imagery on Lady
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Gaga‘s ―Bad Romance‖ are used to convey her own sexual feminism side. Mason (2010)
cited the writings of Sandra M. Gilbert ―Helene Cixous and Catherine Clement‘s The Newly
Born Woman‖, that the words in the lyrics of ―Bad Romance‖ are mere products of so-called
hysterical expressions of Lady Gaga, wherein Lady Gaga manifested her desire, pleasure and
femininity to love and sex.
Derritt Mason (2010) also added that these are the parcels of the songs which
produced some elements of dancing and lyrical movements; it is an innate ability of Lady
Gaga to create and write songs with artistic appeal that will catch the attentions of the
listeners.
“…I want your horror, I want your design
'Cause you’re a criminal as long as you’re mine…”
On the lyric lines above, the word ―horror‖ may be referred to the personality or traits
of an individual or someone whom the speaker pertained to, due to the inclusion of the
possessive pronoun ―your‖. As based on the Oxford English Living Dictionary, the latter is
not only confined on one‘s emotional aspect either classification or type of a material such as
film genre but can also define informally to ―a bad or mischievous person‖. Similarly,
Green‘s Dictionary of Slang connotes the word ―horror‖ as a disgusting or embarrassing
person, thing or situation, which has been used by the Americans since 1950s.
Social or Stylistic Meaning: according to Geoffrey Leech (1971), social or stylistic
meaning are the information that the linguistic expression conveys about certain social
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characteristics or structures, wherein certain group of individuals or people construct the
meaning of a particular word or expression depending upon their environment or society.
There are many variations of social and stylistic meaning as plotted by Leech (1981) and one
of those is the status, which includes slangs, idioms and other informal usage of language.
Hence, the word ―horror‖ belongs to the social or stylistic meaning due to the fact
that the latter is solely used by the Americans into their communicative expressions, as
pertains to ―a bad or mischievous person‖ (Oxford English Living Dictionary) or ―a
disgusting or embarrassing person, thing or situation‖ (Green‘s Dictionary of Slang), and it
does not have any similar usage with other ethnicities, nationalities or other societal groups.
Lyrics:
[Verse 2]
…I want your psycho, your vertigo shtick
Want you in my rear window, baby, it's sick
I want your love
Love, love, love, I want your love…
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Meaning:
2. Shtick A male genitalia or penis
Noun. The type of humor
Type of Meaning:
typical of a comedian. A
particular ability or behavior
No of Times: 1
that someone has and that
they are well known for.
1959. From Middle High
German literally means ―a
piece, slice‖ and Yiddish shtik
―an act, gimmick‖
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
17 century and 1960s. In
sexual senses.
17 century to 19 century. In
extortion.
Middle 18 century- Middle 19
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century. To attack
Middle 18 century- Late 19
century and 1940s. To pierce
the flesh.
Middle and Late 19century.
To render or immobile..
Late 19 century. To tolerate,
to put up with.
1940s and 1960s. (drugs) To
supply or use marijuana
1940s. To dump something in
the rubbish, to throw it away.
1950s. To give to, to pass
over.
1950s. To link one to.
1950s. A personal habit or
trait; a specialty. An act, a
performance.
Late 19 century. The penis
and testes.
(Green‘s Dictionary of Slang)
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Analysis:
The word ―shtick‖ means the type of humor typical of a comedian or a particular
ability or behavior that someone has and that they are well known for (Cambridge Essential
First, on its etymological context (Online etymology Dictionary):
―Shtick‖ (1959) from Middle High German literally means ―a piece, slice‖ and
Yiddish shtik ―an act, gimmick‖ (Online Etymology Dictionary).
On the etymological context of the word as slang (Green‘s Dictionary of Slang):
Show business jargon. Shtick, one‘s stage specialty, especially of a comedian‘s
monologue; ult. German ―stuck‖ a piece.
1950s. A personal habit or trait; a specialty. An act, a performance.
1. In sexual senses:
(a) 17 century. (also stick up) of a man, to have heterosexual sexual intercourse; thus
sticking n. and adj.
(b) 1960s. To sodomize another man.
2. In the context of extortion.
(a) Late 17 century. To cheat or swindle, esp. to overcharge; thus stuck.
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(b) Middle-19 century. To take in, to impose upon; thus stuck.
(c) Late 19 century. (Also stick for) to demand money from.
` As mentioned above, the word ―shtick‖ has been transformed into a euphemistic
expression, wherein it becomes a substitute for a particular word which is considered to be too
harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant, explicit, rude or vulgar. In Carol
Vernalli‘s theory of Hollywood continuity (2001), the song, Bad Romance, by Lady Gaga is a
typical romantic narrative which features sex, corruption and aggression. It is a complete
narrative about the character of Lady Gaga on her hyperbolic view on sexual facet of life and
how extreme and powerful the women are today.
From the lyric lines:
―…I want your psycho, your vertigo shtick‖
With her frequent used of verb ―want‖ (means to have something) and possessive
pronoun ―your‖ entails pleasure and desirable tone in the part of the speaker to someone that
she is referring with.
Hence, the word ―shtick‖, which refers to a male genitalia or penis, is still part of the
hysterical or sexual expression of Lady Gaga towards her desire of man (Mason, 2010).
Social or Stylistic Meaning: social or stylistic meaning varies between age groups,
sex, social class and cultures. Dialects, euphemisms and slangs can be good examples. It is a
piece of language that conveys about the social circumstances of its use.
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The word ―shtick‖ has been continuously use as a substitution for a male genitalia or
penis by the American community or society, late 19 century up to present ―the penis and
testes‖ (Green‘s Dictionary of Slang).
Lyrics:
[Post-Chorus]
…Roma-roma-ma
Gaga, "Oh la-la"
Want your bad romance
Walk, walk, passion, baby
Work it, I'm a free bitch, baby…
…Walk, walk fashion baby, work it move that bitch crazy
Walk-walk fashion baby, work it move that bitch crazy
Walk-walk fashion baby, work it move that bitch crazy
Walk-walk passion baby, work it I'm a free bitch baby…
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Meaning:
3. Bitch Derogatory term for a
Noun. An offensive name for
woman, usually to judge an
unpleasant woman.
unpleasant one.
Type of Meaning:
American Dictionary)
No of Times: 5
1400s. of a man,
c. 1500, playfully, in the
sense of "dog."
1930s. Used among male
homosexuals.
1990s, originally African-
American vernacular) slang,
its use with reference to a
man is sexually
contemptuous, from the
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"woman" insult.
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
The original use implied
disapproval of the woman‘s
sexuality.
(Green‘s Dictionary of Slang)
Analysis:
The word ―bitch‖ is originally refers to a female dog, but later became a slang word
for a person, usually a woman who is uneducated, malicious, rudely intrusive and aggressive.
The Cambridge Essential American Dictionary defines the latter as ―an offensive name for
unpleasant woman.‖
On its etymological context (Online Etymology Dictionary):
Old English ―bicce‖ "female dog," probably from Old Norse ―bikkjuna‖ "female of the
dog" (also of the fox, wolf, and occasionally other beasts), which is of unknown origin.
Grimm derives the Old Norse word from ―Lapp pittja‖, but Old English Dictionary notes that
"the converse is equally possible." As a term of contempt applied to women, it dates from c.
1400; of a man, c. 1500, playfully, in the sense of "dog." Used among male homosexuals from
1930s.
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In modern 1990s, originally African-American vernacular) slang, its use with
reference to a man is sexually contemptuous, from the "woman" insult.
Bitch. A she dog, or doggess; the most offensive appellation that can be given to an
English woman, even more provoking than that of whore (Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue,
1811). Bitch goddess coined 1906 by William James; the original one was success.
The etymological context of the word as slang (Green‘s Dictionary of Slang):
Bitch dates to early 17 century, before which it had been Standard English. By 18
century it was seen, according to Grose, as ‗the most offensive appellation that can be given
to an English woman, even more provoking than that of whore‘, and he cites the
‗Billingsgate‘ rejoinder: ‗I may be a whore, but can‘t be a bitch‘.
The original use implied disapproval of the woman‘s sexuality, e.g. bitch in heat;
today‘s use focuses on her personality:
1. of women.
(a) Late 14 century. A derogatory term for a woman, usu. judged an unpleasant one.
(b) attrib. use of sense
(c) 18 century. A general derogatory term of address to a woman; or female creature.
(d) Late 17 century. A prostitute.
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Based on the historical background or etymology of the word ―bitch‖, it started from a
classification or type of animal until it was reinforced as derogatory or offensive term mainly
associated with the sexual preferences, homosexuality and sex, and other explicit ideas.
On the song, Bad Romance, the speaker expressed the word into the lyric lines ―Work
it, I'm a free bitch, baby‖; the word ―free‖ (means enjoying personal choices and freedom)
linked into the word ―bitch‖ pointing out to someone ( from the word ―baby‖), which
signifies submissiveness and openness to a man, without thinking her own integrity and image
as a woman, based on the first meaning conceptualized in 14 century and has been
continuously present until today, ―a derogatory term for a woman, usually judged an
unpleasant one. (Online Etymology Dictionary)‖
Therefore, the word ―bitch‖ is a slang term which is widely used as an offensive or
derogatory term to any women, who are not giving themselves an integrity and preserving
dignity for the sake of quenching the thirst of pleasure and sexual necessities.
Social or Stylistic Meaning: Social meaning is that a piece of language conveys about
social circumstances of it use. We decode the meaning of a text through our recognition of
different dimensions and levels of style within the same language. (Crystal and Davy,
Investigating English Style) has recognized the following dimensions of socio-stylistics
variation. Leech added examples of the categories of usage, one would distinguish on each
dimensions.
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One of those so called dimensions is the status, which means the particular styles and
techniques or uniqueness of language in a particular community or society. This can be
defined through variations such as slang. Thus, the word ―bitch‖ classified as slang, due to
the fact, that the latter has been widely used and known across the world as an offensive and
vulgar term about women and homosexuality
Genre: Black Pop Title: Blurred Lines
Year: 2013 Artist: Robin Thick featuring T.I. and
Pharell Williams
About the Song:
Blurred Lines is a song written by Robin Thick featuring T.I. and Pharell Williams
and released on March 26, 2013 as a lead single from Robin Thicke‘s album of the same
name. The song received negative feedbacks and criticisms upon its official released, the
University College London Student Union (UCLU) protested on the banning of the song due
to its explicit content such as nudity, alleged promoting of date rape, topless women, and
misogyny or sex discrimination or prejudice among women and girls. Amid of these
controversies, the song still garnered multiple achievements, including number one (1) across
25 countries, a sales of 14.8 million, making it as one of the best-selling singles of all time.
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Lyrics:
[Hook]
Good girl
I know you want it
I know you want it
I know you want it
You're a good girl
Can't let it get past me
You're far from plastic
Talk about getting blasted
I hate these blurred lines
I know you want it
I know you want it
I know you want it
But you're a good girl
The way you grab me
Must wanna get nasty
Go ahead, get at me
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Meaning Semantic Change: Type
Origin or Etymology of Meaning
Meaning:
1. Blurred ―Blurred Lines‖
Adjective. Not clear:
Refers to the hindrance,
If your sight is blurred, you
hesitation or fear of
cannot see clearly.
expressing one‘s affection
or desire to someone.
Refers to the person‘s
[See analysis below]
interest to have sex with
(Online Etymology
someone.
Dictionary)
Type of Meaning:
Collocative Meaning
2. Lines Meaning:
No. of Times: 3
Noun. A long, thin mark: a
row of words on a page, for
example in a song or poem.
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[See analysis below]
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
The words ―blurred‖ and ―lines‖ are combined as a title and included in the lyrics of
the song. First, the word ―blurred‖ means ―not clear: If your sight is blurred, you cannot see
clearly‖ (Cambridge Essential American Dictionary), while the word ―lines‖ means ―a long,
thin mark: a row of words on a page, for example in a song or poem‖ (Cambridge Essential
On the words‘ etymological context (Online Etymology Dictionary):
The word ―blurred‖
1540s. ―a moral stain‖
1600s. ―a smear on the surface of writing;‖ perhaps similar with the ―blear‖ (dim).
1860. Extended sense of ―a confused dimness.‖
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The word ―Lines‖
1560s. ―any short piece of writing‖ (especially poetry), in the sense ―row of verse‖
attested since Old English (Latin ―versus‖, Greek ―stikhos‖)
1640s. ―a few words in writing, a short letter‖
1670s. ―as outlines, plans‖ (of a building, ship, etc.)
The following historical timelines of the two words above undergone into meaning additions,
variation and changes; however, on the song, Blurred Lines, the latter and former words
are associated, wherein it resulted into new meaning. On the lyric lines below:
―You're far from plastic
Talk about getting blasted
I hate these blurred lines
I know you want it
I know you want it
I know you want it‖
According to the songwriter, Robin Thicke, as appeared on the website ―Genius
Lyrics‖, ―Robin hates when girls act like they don‘t want him, even when he knows for sure
that they do (―I hate these blurred lines I know you want it‖). They just want to blur the line
that separates them‖. It means that the speaker on the song wants to remove the hesitation of
the girl on expressing affection or desire on him.
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The term ―blurred lines‖ refers to girls being interested in casual and dirty sex but
having to maintain the good girl, it can also pertains to the moral ambiguity of flirting with a
girl that the speaker knows that the latter has in a committed relationship with someone.
These concepts from the song received criticism from different feministic movements and
groups due to its portrayal of woman‘s strong submission to sex.
According to critic Tricia Romano, a lifestyle reporter for Seattle Times,‖ the song is
about how a girl really wants crazy wild sex but hesitant to say it‖. She also added that the
song encourage the woman to make the first move towards man (―The way you grab me Must
wanna get nasty Go ahead, get at me‖).
Collocative Meaning: according to Geoffrey Leech (1971), collocative meanings
consists an association of words acquires a new meaning which tend occur on a particular
environment. Therefore, the combined or associated word ―blurred lines‖ produced a new
meaning or interpretation as a resulted of the personal psyche or emotion of the speaker or
song writer about sex and women.
Genre: Black Pop Title: Uptown Funk
Year: 2015 Artist: Mark Ronson featuring Bruno
Mars
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About the Song:
Uptown Funk is a song recorded b British record producer Mark Ronson and
Americna singer and song writer, Bruno Mars for the latter‘s fourth studio album, Uptown
Special which was released as lead single on November 2014. The song went into major
success and became a worldwide phenomenon with its major impact on pop culture.
Among its achievements and accolades, it spend at number one (1) for fourteen (14)
consecutive weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, seven (7) non-consecutive weeks at number one
(1) on the UK Singles chart, and topped various music charts in different countries across the
world. The song won two Grammy Awards, including Record of the Year. In addition, the
official music video accumulated 3.0 billion views on YouTube.
Lyrics:
[Chorus]
Girls hit your hallelujah (Woo!)
Cause Uptown funk gon‘ give it to you
Saturday night and we in the spot
Don‘t believe me, just watch (come on)
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Don‘t believe me, just watch
Hey, hey, hey, oh!
Meaning:
1. Uptown ―Uptown Funk‖
Adjective. In or towards the
High class music.
northern part of a city or
Type of Meaning:
town.
No. of Times:
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
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Meaning:
2. Funk
Noun. A style of music,
usually for dancing to, with a
strong rhythm based on jazz
and a tune that repeats.
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
On the song, the words ―Uptown‖ and ―Funk‖ are combined which resulted into a
new meaning. The latter means ―in or towards the northern part of a city or town‖ (Cambridge
Essential American Dictionary), and the former means ―a style of music, usually for dancing
to, with a strong rhythm based on jazz and a tune that repeats‖ (Cambridge Essential
On the etymological context of the word ―Uptown‖ (Online Etymology Dictionary):
1802. ―to or in the higher or upper portion of a town,‖ from up + town.
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1838. As an adjective, as this usually was the residential portion of a town, the word
had overtones of ―residential quarter‖ as opposed to ―commercial and industrial district.‖
1946. As a noun, more prosperous area of town.
On the historical background of United States of America, the terms downtown and
uptown have been coined in New York City, where it was used by the 1830s in order to
classify and distinguish the societal classes on the island of Manhattan. Customarily, the
original north of the town became known as ―uptown‖ (Upper Manhattan), and was generally
a residential area, while the original south of the town became known as ―downtown‖ (Lower
Manhattan), which considered as the center of business, commerce, markets and industries.
According to Songfacts.com, the word ―Uptown‖ implies high class music, or the
combination of pop, urban contemporary and soul music.
The latter word has been associated with the word ―funk‖ which means a style of
music derived from 1960s soul music, with the elements of rock and other styles,
characterized by a prominent bass guitar, dance-friendly sound (Wiktionary), wherein Mark
Ronson and Bruno Mars are using it as their music genre identity.
According to the song writers and artists of Uptown Funk, the song is a reflection on
the kind of music that inspired the rhythm and melody of urban cities and regions of United
States of America including Canada. Some uptown places or cities are mentioned in the lyric
lines of the song:
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―This hit, that ice cold
Michelle Pfeiffer, that white gold
This one, for them hood girls
Them good girls, straight masterpieces
Stylin', wilin'
Livin’ it up in the city
Got Chucks on with Saint Laurent
Gotta kiss myself I’m so pretty‖
Saint Laurent, highlighted above, is a borough or large city in Quebec, Canada which
has greater household populations, community facilities, and other infrastructures than on its
counterpart, downtown Montreal.
―Stop
Wait a minute
Fill my cup put some liquor in it
Take a sip, sign the check
Julio! Get the stretch!
Ride to Harlem, Hollywood, Jackson, Mississippi
If we show up, we gon’ show out
Smoother than a fresh jar of Skippy‖
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The three cities, highlighted above, are found in different states of America; ―Harlem‖,
is a large neighborhood in the northern section of the New York City borough of Manhattan,
and has been known as a major African American residential, cultural and business center
since 1920s. ―Hollywood‖, is popular for its neighborhood of the U.S. most notable artists,
actors and actresses and other major film and music studios, located in the central region of
Los Angeles, California while ―Jackson, Mississippi‖, is the capital and largest urban city of
U.S. state of Mississippi. These three urbanized neighborhood states or regions in America
are considered as uptown.
Collocative Meaning: according to Leech (1971), collocative meaning occurs on
when two different words combined and associated in order to produce a new meaning. The
combined words ―Uptown Funk‖, pertains to high class music or songs from the urbanized
areas, the songwriter used this words in parallel on the lyric lines and content of the song on
the same title.
Genre: Black Pop Title: Hold On, We‘re Going Home
Year: 2014 Artist: Drake
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About the Song:
Hold On, We‘re Going Home is a song from a Canadian recording Artist Drake from
his third studio album, Nothing Was the Same, and was released for digital downloads on
August 7, 2013 and the official physical copies were released on August 13, 2013. Among the
achievements of the song, it peaked at number four (4) on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the
UK chart and other positive reviews and feedbacks from various music critics and was listed
on number ten (10) as ―Best Tracks of the Decades‖ list (Pitchfork Media).
Lyrics:
[Refrain]
I got my eyes on you
You're everything that I see
I want your hot love and emotion endlessly
I can't get over you
You left your mark on me
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Meaning:
1. Mark A trace or impression left by
Noun. A small area on the
someone (a personal image
surface of something that is
or attitude)
damaged, dirty, or different in
Type of Meaning:
some way.
Conceptual Meaning
No. of Times:
"Trace, impression," Old
English ―mearc‖
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
The word ―mark‖ denotes ―a small area on the surface of something that is damaged,
dirty, or different in some way. (Cambridge Essential American Dictionary).
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On the etymological context of the word ―mark‖ (Online Etymology Dictionary):
"trace, impression," Old English ―mearc‖ (West Saxon), ―merc‖ (Mercian)
"boundary, sign, limit, mark. Old Norse ―merki "boundary, sign," mörk "forest," which often
marked a frontier; Old Frisian merke, Gothic marka "boundary, frontier," Dutch merk "mark,
brand,"
The primary sense is probably "boundary," which had evolved by Old English through
"sign of a boundary," through "sign in general," then to "impression or trace forming a sign."
Meaning "any visible trace or impression" first recorded c. 1200. Sense of "line drawn to
indicate starting point of a race" first attested 1887. The Middle English sense of "target" (c.
1200) is the notion in marksman and slang sense "victim of a swindle" (1883). The notion of
"sign, token" is behind the meaning "numerical award given by a teacher" (1829), influenced
by Scandinavian.
Based on the historical etymology of the word ―mark‖, it is conventionally used in
pertaining any traces, or impressions.
On the song, the latter is used to refer to the speaker‘s desire to the woman, as
appeared on the lyric lines below:
―I want your hot love and emotion endlessly
I want your hot love and emotion endlessly‖

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The phrase ―You left your mark on me‖ reflected on the kind or content of music that
Drake has, which focuses about the woman who left her a ―mark‖ or impression. This
particular theme is evident on his previous songs and music videos such as ―Find Your Love‖
and ―Best I Ever Had‖, which both tackles about lingering or longing for woman‘s attention.
Other lyric lines on the song contain the tone or mode of loneliness:
―Just hold on, we're going home (going home)
Just hold on, we're going home (going home)
It's hard to do these things alone (things alone)
Just hold on, we're going home (going home)‖
On his musical style, Drake is known for his egotistical lyrics, or self-centered
concept, and integration of personal back story when dealing with relationships with women.
Lyrically, the song is all about reminiscing on the woman‘s body, sex, love and attitude:
―Cause you're a good girl and you know it
You act so different around me
'Cause you're a good girl and you know it
I know exactly who you could be‖
―I got my eyes on you
You're everything that I see
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I want your hot love and emotion endlessly‖
Conceptual Meaning: according to Richard Nordquist on his article ―Conceptual
Meaning‖ (2017), in semantics, conceptual meaning is the literal or core sense of a word, also
called denotation, or cognitive meaning. It may be defined as logical meaning used to convey
ideas in order to describe the world (Andre Goatly, Meaning and Humor. Cambridge
University Press, 2012). The word ―mark‖ has multiple meanings, and on the song, the
speaker connected it to his personal emotion, still in accordance on the latter‘s standard
dictionary meaning.
Genre: Pop Title: Set Fire to the Rain
Year: 2012 Artist: Adele
About the Song:
Set Fire to the Rain is a song by British singer Adele from her studio album, 21. Upon
the released of the song, it peaked at number one (1) on the Billboard Hot 100, which was her
third consecutive number-one single from her second major studio album, 21. Similar with the
success of her previous singles, Someone like You and Rolling in the Deep, the song logged
on the said
chart for fourteen (14) weeks atop. Additionally, Set Fire to the Rain was sold ten (10) million
copies worldwide, making it as one of the best-selling singles of all time. Adele‘s live rendi
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tion of the song at the Royal Albert Hall won her second Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo
Performance at the 2013 Grammy Awards.
The song, ―Set Fire to the Rain‖, has congruence on the theme of her previous song,
Someone like You, which talks about her heartbreaking recovery from past intimate
relationships. According to Songfacts.com, Adele interprets her personal romantic story
through her singles from her album, 21. Hence, the words in the lyrics convey and reflect on
the different circumstances and events of the speaker on her past romantic relationship.
Lyrics:
(Chorus 1)
…But I set fire to the rain
Watched it pour as I touched your face
Well, it burned while I cried
'Cause I heard it screaming Out your name,
Your name…
Meaning
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1. Fire Meaning: Symbolizes destruction
Noun. The state of burning, or Type of Meaning:
a burning mass of material. Connotative Meaning
(Cambridge Essential No. of Times: 5
1200s. Old English ―fyr‖
―fire, a fire‖, the current
spelling is attested.
1600s. Middle English ―fier‖
(preserved in fiery).
Middle 14 century. English
―fire‖ was applied to ―ardent,
burning‖ passions or feelings.
1580s. Meaning. ―discharge
of firearms, action of guns,
etc.‖
1861. Used as a figurative
sense, ―risk disaster, meddle
carelessly or ignorantly with a
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dangerous matter‖ from
common warning to children.
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
2. Rain Meaning: Represents unhappiness,
Noun. Drops of water that fall misery and loneliness of
from the clouds, or can also situation or circumstances.
mean to fall in a large Type of Meaning:
amount. Connotative Meaning
(Cambridge Essential No. of Times: 5
Old English ―renscur‖ and
―regn‖
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
The word ―fire‖ literally means ―a state of burning mass of material‖ (Cambridge
Essential American Dictionary). The origin or etymology of the latter are as follows (Online
Etymology Dictionary):
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1200s. Old English ―fyr‖ ―fire, a fire‖, the current spelling is attested.
1600s. Middle English ―fier‖ (preserved in fiery).
Middle 14 century. English ―fire‖ was applied to ―ardent, burning‖ passions or
feelings.
1580s. Meaning. ―discharge of firearms, action of guns, etc.‖
1861. Used as a figurative sense, ―risk disaster, meddle carelessly or ignorantly with a
dangerous matter‖ from common warning to children.
The origin or etymology of the word ―rain‖ (literally means as drops of water that
falls from the clouds, Cambridge Essential American Dictionary):
Rain shower is Old English ―renscur‖
Old English ―regn‖ "rain," and variations in Proto-Germanic ―regna‖ (source also of
Old Saxon ―regan‖ , Old Frisian ―rein‖, Middle Dutch ―reghen‖, Dutch ―regen‖, German
―regen‖ , Old Norse ―regn‖, Gothic ―rign‖ "rain"
"Moist, wet," which may be the source of Latin ―rigare‖ "to wet, moisten"
Similar with the previous words, ―fire‖ and ―rain‖ undergone into many dynamic
changes as the time passes by and from it literal meaning, certain individuals found various
ways and means to establish the latter and former into human psyche and circumstances.
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According to Northrop Frye, a symbol is any unit of any work of literature
(Manopriya, 20150, it conveys an insight on the psyche of the characters or individuals
involved in any forms of literature. Additionally, an image, a symbol or a cluster of images
occur in the artistic creation to give suitable backdrop of the literature.
On the archetypes, these are the paradigms or models of a certain behaviors or a
representation of beings, or the recurring themes, images, and any other techniques, which are
repeatedly appeared in some sorts of literary pieces both prose and poetry (Carl G. Jung) or
symbols; the word ―fire‖ is considered as a symbolic archetypes which represents the notion
of knowledge, life, light and rebirth, in parallel with blood, which symbolizes emotion and
fire.
On the song, Set Fire to the Rain, the word ―fire‖ is used as a metaphorical expression.
The lyric lines:
―But I set fire to the rain
Watched it pour as I touched your face
Well, it burned while I cried…‖
The speaker or writer of the song used a classical element of ―fire‖ (freemasonry),
wherein its primary aim is to destroy someone or something. Adele‘s narrated her fateful
experiences to her previous relationship, as the ―fire‖ destroyed the ―rain‖ which represents a
symbol of ongoing misery, a sign of being alone or left out, as appeared on Ernest
Hemingway‘s ―A Farewell to Arms‖, rain appears throughout the novel and symbolizes the
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unhappiness that the characters experience due to inevitable events in their lives
(PsychologyToday.com).
In understandable manner, the speaker wants to end her miserable relationship with
someone, even though her action might bring some pains and heartaches on her end.
Connotative Meaning: according to a website ―English Textual Concepts‖, there are
existing connections between the connotation, imagery and symbol, which ultimately aims to
enrich a text by making words and images mean more than one thing. It invites the readers,
students, listeners to consider the habitual in terms of the new and important in developing
creative and critical though.
Therefore, these are interrelated figurative languages or concepts which have social
consequences as it influences the ways we conceptualize people, information or ideas. The
word ―fire‖ and ―rain‖ have been given other interpretations, beyond what the layman‘s
perceptions think, based on the discretion and psyche of a songwriter or the speaker.
Genre: Pop Title: Someone like You
Year: 2011 Artist: Adele
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About the Song:
Someone like You is a single of British singer Adele from her second major studio
album, 21. The song received positive reviews and critical acclaims from different music
critics. Following its released, the song garnered different awards from Great Britain to
United States of America; it also became number one (1) single in the entire United Kingdom
and number two (2) on Billboard Hot 100, making Adele the first British singer in the history
to reach high on the said chart. Due to song‘s critical success, it was the first recipient of
Grammy Award Best Pop Solo Performance, since the award-giving body combined the
previous Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance into
one, at the 2012 Grammy Awards.
Lyrics:
(Pre -Chorus)
…I hate to turn up out of the blue uninvited but I
Couldn't stay away I couldn't fight it
I had hoped you'd see my face
And that you be reminded that for me it isn't over…
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Meaning
1. Out of the Blue Meaning: Any unexpected events or
Idiom. If something happens circumstances of someone
unexpectedly. that may bring positive and
(Cambridge Essential negative changes to his or
American Dictionary) her life.
Origin or Etymology: Type of Meaning:
Derived as translations of the Social or Stylistic Meaning
work of the Roman lyric poet, No. of Times: 2
Quintus Horatius Flaccus,
better known as Horace. A
translation from the Latin
Horace‘s Ode 34
(The Online Slang
Dictionary)
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Analysis:
The song follows a heartbreaking narration of a woman who suffered in a broken
relationship. This unifying theme of the song is noticeable on the choices and usage of the
words by the speaker or songwriter. The first phrase ―out of the blue‖ as appeared on the pre-
chorus of the song:
―…I hate to turn up out of the blue uninvited but I
Couldn't stay away I couldn't fight it
I had hoped you'd see my face
And that you be reminded that for me it isn't over…‖
According to Jakub Marian on the online article ―Out of the Blue- Meaning and Origin
of the English Idiom‖, it is an English idiom meaning ―suddenly and unexpectedly‖. You can
use it when you are surprised by something that was not expected to happen.
The idiomatic expression can be traced through the earlier writings of William
Shakespeare, which was originally form as ―bolt of the blue‖ as also appeared on Thomas
Carlyle in the French Revolution, 1837. The English versions of this idiomatic expression
probably derive as translations of the work of the Roman lyric poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus,
better known as Horace. A translation from the Latin Horace‘s Ode 34:
―…For lo! The Sire of heaven on high,
By whose fierce bolts the clouds are riven,
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To-day through an unclouded sky…‖
It reveals that the meaning of the idiom is what comes out of a clear blue sky or in
man‘s literal perspective ,what are the unexpected events or circumstances that person might
experience on his or her everyday existence , like the occurrence of ―thunderbolt‖ which
cannot be predicted by anyone.
The idiom ―out of the blue‖ on the lyric lines above means that speaker is afraid to
discover or find (turn up) that someday she will be unexpectedly left alone by his man, and
experience the misery, depression and fateful solidarity of deep loneliness.
Social or Stylistic Meaning: idiom is an informal use of language and expressions
that have a meaning from what the meanings of the individual words mean. They are similar
to metaphors which create an image. It is also set of terms distinctive to a people or to a
district, community or social class: they are peculiar but socially acceptable.
Thus, the phrase or idiomatic expression ―out of the blue‖ is a being used in an
English-speaking society as ―an unexpected even or circumstances‖, wherein certain groups
of people or individuals may not take it literally but figuratively in various ways. According
to Geoffrey Leech (1971), there are multiple facets or variations of social and stylistic
meaning; one of those so-called variations and categories is the ―status‖, which includes
politeness and impoliteness of conversation, slang and other forms of informal language. Still,
the use of this idiomatic expression depends upon the user on how he or she interprets and
utilizes it on different mediums of human communications.
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Genre: Country Pop Title: The Lucky One
Year: 2001 Artist: Alison Krauss and Union Station
Lyrics:
You're the lucky one
So I've been told
As free as the wind
Blowing down the road
Loved by many, hated by none…
Meaning:
1. Wind Noun. Represents freedom and
The movement of air outside, independence of someone
especially against any restrictions or
when strong enough to be felt: prohibitions to a certain
breath or the ability to breathe circumstance or situation
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(Cambridge Essential Type of Meaning:
American Dictionary) Connotative Meaning
Origin or Etymology: No. of Times: 1
13 century. Symbolic of
emptiness and vanity.
Early 14 century. Old English
―wind‖ ―breath in speaking‖
also ―easy or regular
breathing‖
1400s. Figurative phrase,
―current state of affairs‖
1809. To take the wind of
―receive information about‖
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Analysis:
The word ―wind‖ means any movement or motion of the air (Cambridge Essential
American Dictionary) . On its etymological context‖
13 century. Symbolic of emptiness and vanity.
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Early 14 century. Old English ―wind‖ ―breath in speaking‖ also ―easy or regular
breathing‖
1400s. Figurative phrase, ―current state of affairs‖
1809. To take the wind of ―receive information about‖
Based on the historical background or etymology, the word ―wind‖ undergone into
some variations and interpretations: on the present day, the latter has been used in different
literary symbolisms in writing and speaking for artistic and figurative purposes, on the lyric
lines:
―…You're the lucky one
So I've been told
As free as the wind…‖
According to John Fraim (2001), there are two faces of the wind, as a symbolism, it
can be active and violent in aspects. It represents the spirit, the vital breath of the universe. He
also cited J.C. Cooper, who points out that the word is an image of power in spirit, sustaining
life and holding it together. Hence, the symbolic association of wind with cords ropes and
threads.
On the song, The Lucky One, the word ―wind‖ is reinforced in a positive way or
connotation. The speaker wrote a comparison on her personal emotion that she had on the
song (from the word ―as‖), the lyric lines above ―As free as the wind…‖ composed of a
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literary device, simile; this literary device makes a likeness, draws resemblance, showing
similar connection between two different things, with the help of the words ―like‖ or ―as‖.
Furthermore, on the context of the song, it talks about how blissful the relationship of
the speaker with someone is, regardless of any circumstances and painful situations in life.
The word ―wind‖ symbolizes freedom, as it free to move in space, without the restriction or
prohibition by anyone. Other lyric lines from the song expressed the independence and
liberty of affection and affinity of the speaker to someone she is referring to:
―Loved by many, hated by none
I'd say you're lucky 'cause I know what you've done
Not a care in the world
Not a worry in sight‖
Connotative Meaning: according to literarydevices.com, connotation refers to a
meaning that is implied by a word apart from its standard or literal meaning, which it
describes, explicit. Connotative words carry cultural or emotional associations or meaning.
Thus, the word ―wind‖ is used as a symbolism of freedom and independence as based on the
personal emotive tone and psyche of the speaker.
Genre: Country Pop Title: Where Were You (When the World
Stop Turning)
Year: 2002
Artist: Alan Jackson
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Lyrics:
[Verse 1]
Where were you when the world stopped turning on that September day?
Were you in the yard with your wife and children
Or working on some stage in L.A.?
[Verse 2]
Where were you when the world stopped turning on that September day?
Were you teaching a class full of innocent children
Or driving down some cold interstate?
Meaning:
1. September Noun. The ninth month of the ―September day‖
year, after August and before A day of terrorist event or
October. series of attacks happened in
(Cambridge Essential September 11 at the United
American Dictionary) States of America.
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Late Old English, from Collocative Meaning
Latin ―September‖ (also No. of Times: 3
source of Old
French ―Septembre‖,
Spanish ―Setiembre‖,
Italian ―Settembre‖,
German ―September‖.
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
Meaning:
2. Day Noun. A period in the life of
a person or in history is a
particular time during that life
or history: a length of time.
Old English dæg "day," also
"lifetime"
(Online Etymology
Dictionary)
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Analysis:
The word ―September‖ literally means ―the ninth month of the year, after August and
before October‖ (Cambridge Essential American Dictionary). On its etymological context
(Online Etymology Dictionary):
Late Old English, from Latin ―September‖ (also source of Old French ―Septembre‖,
Spanish ―Setiembre‖, Italian ―Settembre‖, German ―September‖), from ―septem ― "seven" So
called because it was the seventh month of the old Roman calendar, which began the year in
March; Julian calendar reform (46 B.C.E.) shifted the new year back two months: Replaced
Old English ―hærfestmonað‖,‖ haligmonað‖, ―Septembral‖.
The second word ―day‖ means ―a period in the life of a person or in history is a
particular time during that life or history: a length of time‖ (Cambridge Essential American
Dictionary).
On its etymological context of the word ―day‖ (Online Etymology Dictionary):
Old English dæg "day," also "lifetime," from Proto-Germanic *dagaz "day" (source
also of Old Saxon, Middle Dutch, Dutch dag, Old Frisian dei, Old High German tag,
German Tag, Old Norse dagr, Gothic dags):
Meaning originally, in English, "the daylight hours;" expanded to mean "the 24-hour
period" in late Anglo-Saxon times. The day formerly began at sunset; hence Old
English Wodnesniht was what we would call "Tuesday night." Names of the weekdays were not
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regularly capitalized in English until 17c. Day off first recorded 1883; day-tripper first recorded
1897. The days in nowadays, etc. is a relic of the Old English and Middle English.
The word ―September‖ is associated into the word ―day‖, ―September Day‖.
According to the background of the song, it is based on the series of four coordinated terrorist
attacks happened on the United States popularly known as the 9/11 attacks, which was
planned and done by the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda.
The song is a commemoration of the tragic event resulted into over 2,000 casualties
and other massive infrastructure destructions or damage. Alan Jackson, the artist and
songwriter, personally witnessed the event in the news of attacks in the television: "And I
didn't want it to be vengeful, either. But I didn't want to forget about how I felt and how I
knew other people felt that day" (Alan Jackson).
Based on the analysis of the song, Where Were You (When the World Stopped
Turning), of Linda Own, Alan Jackson vividly recalls the events of September 11 attacks and
these artistic interpretations are noticeable on the following lyric lines of the song:
―Or working on some stage in L.A.?
Did you stand there in shock at the sight of that black smoke
Rising against that blue sky?
Did you shout out in anger in fear for your neighbor
Or did you just sit down and cry?‖
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This part shows the actual events and dramatic scenes during the September 11 attacks
in creative and figurative way and sense, and Alan Jackson, extensively narrates the heroism
and bravery of the individuals who lent their hands during the time of the said attacks.
―I'm just a singer of simple songs
I'm not a real political man
I watch CNN but I'm not sure I can tell
You the difference in Iraq and Iran
But I know Jesus and I talk to God
And I remember this from when I was young
Faith, hope and love are some good things he gave us
And the greatest is love‖
On the last chorus of the song, Alan Jackson emphasized that love and unity are the
two key elements in establishing new hope or beginning, as what God has given to us though
different circumstances, on the aftermath of tragedy and faith and belief in him should prevail
in this kind of challenging and tough times or situations. Lyrically, the songwriter enunciated
these images of the 9/11 attacks in a poetic and artistic medium.
Hence, the word ―September Day‖ is a representation of the tragic event happened
during the September 11 attacks or 9/11 attacks and it reminds the people particularly the
American citizens about this dark chapter of the United States history.
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Collocative Meaning: Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word
acquires on account of the meanings of the words, which tends to occur in its environment.
The association of the word ―September‖ and ―day‖ are formed through the own discretion
of the songwriter, wherein Alan Jackson used the combined or collocated words in order to
create a mental image or a piece of remembrance about the painful event in happened in
September 11. Furthermore, the words are associated for the purpose of giving the sense of
understanding in the part of the listeners and providing insights and overviews of the
situations and what kind of prevailing emotions that the people felt during the day of terror
attacks.
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Genre: Country Pop Title: It‘s Five O‘ Clock Somewhere
Year: 2003 Artist: Alan Jackson and Jimmy Buffet
Lyrics:
[Hook]
Pour me somethin' tall an' strong
Make it a "Hurricane" before I go insane
It's only half-past twelve but I don't care
It's five o'clock somewhere
[Outro]
What time zone am I on? What country am I in?
It doesn't matter, it's five o'clock somewhere
It's always on five in Margaritaville, come to think of it
Yeah, I heard that
You been there haven't you
Yes sir
I seen your boat there
I've been to Margaritaville a few times
All right, that's good
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Meaning:
1. Five o'clock Noun. The start of the sixth Refers to the end period in
hour of the day in both the traditional nine-to-five
12-hour and the 24-hour workers employed in dull
clock; 5:00 and non-satisfying jobs
(Your Dictionary) (U.S.)
―five o’clock shadow‖ Social or Stylistic Meaning
defines facial stubble or a No. of Times: 2
man‘s beard at the end of the
day
Analysis:
The phrase ―five o’clock‖ literally means ―the start of the sixth hour of the day in both
the 12-hour and the 24-hour clock; 5:00‖ (Cambridge Essential American Dictionary).
Historically, the latter was used as slang during the Old English society; according to the
website ―English Daily‖, it defines facial stubble or a man‘s beard at the end of the day. On
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the definition‘s etymology, ―the typical American workday ends at five o‘clock in the
afternoon. A ―shadow‖ is a patch of darkness, or a hint of presence of something. After
spending full day at work for eight hours, many men have a noticeable growth of facial hair,
which is dark like a ―shadow‖ and hints at the beard that would grow if left unshaven.‖ Thus,
the original version of phrase that was used by the local American community during the
earlier times ―five o‘clock shadow.‖
Furthermore, based on the historical evidences provided by the website
―Phrase.Org.UK.‖, the ―five o’clock‖ coinage was based on the 19th century upper-crust
English habit of taking tea at five o‘clock. The phrase or slang was reportedly appeared in
Edwin Hodder‘s biography, 1886, as saying:
―Five o‘clock tea, that pernicious, unprincipled and stomach-running habit‖
Besides, in earlier historical archives and records, it was Portuguese princess that
popularized the famous ―five o‘clock tea‖ in England. Catherine of Braganza, daughter of
Duke John IV and Duchess Luisa de Gusmao, married Charles II of England in 1661 and
came to London a year later. Educated and devoted, Princess Catherine became respected in
the London court where she would impose, and became the most British of all the habits of
the country- the ritual of drinking tea. The upper classes followed the fashion, due to its high
fees; tea was a luxury that was not within the reach of everyone, and of today, the famous
―five o‘clock tea‖ is alongside the figures of monarchy, sophistication and elegance of United
Kingdom society.
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As based on the factual evidences and stories, the teas became prominent with the
middle-classes and known as ―five o’clock‖ and, when the habit travelled or influenced the
Atlantic to the United States of America, light late-afternoon meals were renamed ―five
o‘clock dinners‖ or simply ―five o‘clock dinner‖.
On the song, It‘s Five O‘ Clock Somewhere‖, the phrase or slang expression ―five
o’clock‖ refers to the end period in traditional nine-to-five workers. ―The nine-to-five workers
define as any normal work schedule for most jobs‖ (U.S.) or ―normal or routine jobs, the term
is often used to describe boring or unfulfilling jobs‖ (Your Dictionary). As appeared on the
lyric lines below:
[Hook]
―Pour me somethin' tall an' strong
Make it a "Hurricane" before I go insane
It's only half-past twelve but I don't care
It's five o'clock somewhere‖
[Outro]
―What time zone am I on? What country am I in?
It doesn't matter, it's five o'clock somewhere
It's always on five in Margaritaville, come to think of it
Yeah, I heard that
You been there haven't you
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Yes sir
I seen your boat there
I've been to Margaritaville a few times
All right, that's good‖
According to Songfacts.com, the content of the song merely focuses on the pleasures
on not working. On its context, the main character or speaker is frustrated at work, and states
that the way to relieve stress and pressure of work is by drinking an alcoholic beverage,
―Hurricane‖. In addition, the lyric line ―It's always on five in Margaritaville, come to think of
it‖ pertains to the American restaurant chain (Maragaritaville) owned by his co-artist, Jimmy
Buffet, which composed of a casual dining places, casinos and hotels.
Social or Stylistic Meaning: the phrase or slang expression ―five o’clock‖ falls under
the social or stylistic meaning, due to the fact that American people or citizens exclusively use
the particular expression in their everyday lives, specifically on work. Based on Geoffrey
Leech (1971), social meaning takes place in different social circumstances, setting and
environment; wherein certain groups of individuals create their own language usage, structure
and system depending upon their preferences or identity.
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Genre: Country Pop Title: Either Way
Year: 2017 Artist: Chris Stapleton
Lyrics:
[Verse 2]
It‘s been so long since I‘ve felt
Anything inside these walls
You can‘t hate and you can‘t hurt
When you don‘t feel at all
Meaning:
1. Wall Noun. A vertical structure, It is the person‘s emotional
often made of stone or brick, exhaustion and resignation
that divides or surrounds
something Type of Meaning:
(Cambridge Essential Connotative Meaning
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American Dictionary) No. of Times:1
Old English weall, Angalian
wall ―rampart, dike,
earthwork‖ (natural as well as
manmade), ―dam, cliff, rocky
shore,‖ also ―defensive
fortification around a city,
side of a building. (Online
Etymology Dictionary)
Analysis:
According to Genius Lyrics.com the word ―wall‖ implies people‘s emotional
exhaustion and resignation and simply because the songwriter decision. According to him,
there‘s not changing it (help or hurt) until he feels more of a sense that she cares at all about
him. It used to convey songwriter decision that cannot be replaceable and change by the
people surrounds him. In the lyric line ―Anything inside these walls‖ the songwriter used a
wall to represents a problem that hinders his decision in life whether he get hurt or hate.
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Connotative Meaning: The word ―wall‖ falls in the connotative type of meaning.
According to Leech, talks about the ‗real world ‗experience one associate with an expression
when uses or hears it. The song-writer used the word ―wall‖ for his freely expression of his
emotional exhaustion. He used to describe the wall as the barriers that affect one of the factors
in changing new meaning.
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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the researchers presented the summary of findings, conclusion of the
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data in the previous chapter and the
recommendations for future researches and studies.
5.2.Findings
Semantic change of words and different types of meaning: connotative, conceptual,
stylistic, affective or collocative (Leech, 1971) are evident in the three major streams of
genres of 21st century American popular music, the researchers categorized the results of the
analyses and interpretations into the following features:
5.3.Etymological Contexts and Meanings of the Words
Based on the data, American songwriters and artists resorted to vulgar words, slangs,
taboos, idioms, and sexual or explicit expressions in order to employ aesthetic and artistic
appeal or effects on their songs. Most of the taboo, slangs and sexual euphemisms are utilized
by Black American due to their Ebonics language in nature. According to John R. Rickford on
his article entitled ―What is Ebonics (African American English)?‖ Ebonics means ―black
speech‖ which is commonly prominent among rap, hip hop and other black music. In
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addition, Ebonics language often has negative connotations particularly the content of sex and
women.
On the other hand, the words reinforced on the 21st century pop songs are combinations of
sexual, idioms, personal and love context. Lady Gaga‘s ―Bad Romance‖ often noticed of
different taboo, vulgar language and also sexual euphemism to reduce the negative impact to
the part of the listeners. Furthermore, the utilization of idiomatic expressions serves as a
reflection on the influence of English and British language to America. Nonetheless, 21 st
century American popular music in pop genre or stream focalized on the theme of intimacy,
love and personal relationships.
To further extent the findings, the words usages and idiomatic expressions in the 21st
century country songs are embodied with themes of relationship to God, love, relevant events
in the U.S. history (such as 9/11 terror attacks) and authentic American lifestyle. According to
Jeffrey Marlow (2015), these themes of country songs, authentic lyrics and words preserve the
social structure, sense of traditional music, and novelty of longstanding American music
genre.
Therefore, the words and other expressions in the lyrics of 21st century American
popular music are diverse in context. These words and other forms of expressions found in the
lyrics of the three major streams or genres are symbolical and meaningful: symbolical, the
words, terms and expressions are attributed on the personal experiences or ideas of the
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songwriters and artists on their songs, while meaningful, these facets create clues and insights
to the listeners about the internal context and nature of the American songwriters and artists.
5.4.Prevailing Types of Meaning
The present research studied various songs in three major streams or genre (Ennis, 1992):
Pop, Black Pop and Country Pop. Geoffrey Leech‘s Types of Meaning are all operated in the
songs. However, connotative and social or stylistic meanings are the most used types of
meaning in the words, expressions and terms in the lyrics 21st century American popular
music. The implications of these results of data analysis are:
There are two major factors that influence the semantic change of words:
Phenomena or Factors
a. Sociological factor
The language structure, systems, settings, culture and tradition of a particular states,
society or country influenced the usage words, expressions and other terms of the American
songwriters. These are apparent on the slangs, idiomatic expressions and other euphemistic or
taboo languages in the lyrics of 21st century American music, in which the people particularly
the listeners recognize the identity of the American artists, songwriters and the country per se
through these various features of their words and expressions. In addition, social or stylistic
meaning conveys a piece of language which belongs to a specific environment. Hence, slangs,
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idiomatic and euphemistic expressions mirror the culture of American English language
organization.
b. Psychological Factor
According to Karl W. Riebs and Kalinda Reeves on the web article entitled ―Expanding
Your Vocabulary for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery Exam‖ (2005),
―language is symbolic in that we use it to represent ideas, objects, and feelings‖. On the
present research, connotative meaning also predominated in the data analysis; it means
American songwriters and artists chose to conceptualize a figurative sense and way of
delivering the contents and meanings of their songs. ―Connotation refers to the emotional or
psychological associations of a word carries with it, and the connotation of a word goes
beyond its strict meaning to express feelings, thoughts, and images the word suggests or
evokes‖ (Riebs and Reeves, 2015).
In congruence of this notion, the American songwriters and artists composed of subjective
nature of language. They have the power to create psychological responses and some of their
connotations are personal, deriving from particular experiences, wherefore others carry
emotional substance by virtue of presenting it through creative and symbolic words.
Moreover, there are different forms of connotations found in the lyrics of 21st century
American music: positive and negative connotations. Positive connotations, there some words
in the lyrics of three major streams which define their pleasure, goodness and brightness of
their personal memories, love and experiences. Negative connotations, words from the lyrics
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of 21stcentury American songs that provoke revenge, anger, and other disastrous and tragic
events, experiences, dilemmas and emotional responses of the American songwriters and
artists.
Therefore, the American songwriter and artists convey their experiences, emotions and
behaviors through the use of symbolical words and representations.
5.4.1. Recurring Themes
The majority of American Pop and Country songs which received awards given by
Grammys from 2001-2017 has a recurring theme of love, sex, political, revenge, happiness
and portrayal of American culture, society, people and lifestyle embodied on the songs written
and interpreted by White Americans.
5.5.Summary of the Findings
In parallel on the results of findings in the previous chapter, Geoffrey Leech (1971)
Types of Meaning are all executed in the selected fifty-one (51) songs into three major genres
or streams, Pop, Black Pop and Country Pop, (Ennis, 1992).
5.6.Conclusion
Whereas, there are various phenomena or phenomenon, factors, internal and external
influences on the semantic change of words found in lyrics of 21st century American popular
music. These facets on the occurrence of semantic change or meaning transformations are
pivotal components in order to determine the context and nature of songs in different genres.
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5.7. Recommendations
Based on the data analyses and findings in the previous chapter, the researchers
provided the following recommendations for future language researchers, educators, students
and other related professions:
For Students and Academes:
1. The inclusion of American popular music on the study of English American
literature.
American popular music divided into three genres or streams (Pop, Black Pop and
Country Pop) reflects the values, society, culture and traditions in different regions, states and
ethnicities of the well-known western country. Songs can be a window for thorough
understanding and insights of the language system and organization of America.
2. The utilization of American music in second language teaching and instruction.
Songs can be an effective instrument to teach the Filipino second language learners in
order to acquire new vocabulary or words and word meanings. However, educators and
academes should also set criteria to avoid possible influence of negative terms and sexual
words.
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For the Filipino Citizens:
3. Filipino songwriters and music organizations should have a set of criteria on the
selection of American music.
Filipino songwriters and other music organizations should prioritize the creation of
systematic criteria on the selection of American music in order to prevent the dominance
and influence of vulgar, taboos, sexual euphemisms and terms on the OPM (Original
Philippine Music) music. Due to this rationale, nationalistic mode and identity will be
maintained in the Philippine music without the corruption of explicit content.
For Future Language Researchers:
4. Expanding the study of semantic change into the songs of Asian and Western
countries.
The future language researchers and students should learn to seek expansive
investigations and researches on the occurrence of semantic change in the traditional and
new music of Asian and Western countries. These outlets and opportunities will open
wide overviews on the diverse culture and society of different countries across the world.
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Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

fundamental representations of the structure, standards or norms, customs and belief of a

upon a songwriter‘s discretion.

established a dominance in our musical landscape (Kaitlyn Paradise, 2014)

foundation of our applied research. It includes types of meaning wherein conceptual,

with others, and how meanings change overtime.

cultural background. It describes relations that are logically inconsistent or paradoxical in

Thereupon, the prime concerns of this research are as follows: making

words found in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music.

The Origin of Music: An Overview

According to an online article entitled ―The Origin of Music‖ (2013) by John

yet have no archaeological records.

Evolutionary scientists believed that pre-historic men experienced ―cultural

early human species to survive; it coordinates emotions, helps important messages to be

delivered or communicated, motivates people to identify with a group, and motivates

individuals to support other group members (2013).

The American Popular Music

According to Hugh A. Glauser: School of Music (Kent State University):

music competitions such as Pop Idol, American Idol and X-Factor.

Tin Pan Alley, Broadway & Ragtime

of this era would undoubtedly be the 1854 song, ―Oh Susanna.‖

Jazz, Blues & the Development of Early Recorded Music

The King of Rock

Eventually becoming one of most commercialized, best-selling artists in American

Dog,‖ and ―Jailhouse Rock.‖

The Countercultural Movement of the 60s

Airplane, Janis Joplin and The Doors.

Funk, Soul & Disco Fever

Glammin’ It Up in the 80s

90s Grunge and the Rise of Hip Hop

Jam and Sonic Youth.

Enemy began using politically charged lyrics and imagery.

The Pop Music of the 2000s and Beyond

The historical timeline of American Popular music above is appeared on the

official website Hugh A. Glauser: School of Music (Kent State University).

1.2.Statement of the Problem

to how it is used on the song?‖

of selected 21st century American music?

found in the lyrics of selected 21st century American music?

American music? (Leech, 1971sss)

3.1 Conceptual Meaning

3.2 Connotative Meaning

3.3 Affective Meaning

3.4 Collocative Meaning

3.5 Stylistic Meaning

1.3.Significance of the Study

For future language students and researchers of Bulacan State University-

various facets of semantic field

For all the students in different areas of specialization of Bulacan State

University-Sarmiento Campus, our applied research will give an overview on how

words found in their music compositions.

Filipino English writings.

and, since meaning is part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics. He defined

or the way in which it should be described.

which is the study of language and meaning.

1.4.2. Semantic Change

object of human knowledge or belief. (Leech 1983)

been somewhat neglected in some approaches to language. He stated that we expect a

a different level of technological development.

From historical perspective, this mean that a change in the sociocultural or