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IEEE OF ROBOTICS
AUTOMATION,
AND VOL.
NO. RA-3, FEBRUARY 1987 43
Abstract-A framework for the analysis and control of manipulator forces. The magnitude of these dynamic forces cannot be
systems with respect to the dynamic behavior of their end-effectors is ignored when large accelerations and fast motions are consid-
developed. First, issues related to the description of end-effector tasks ered. Controlling the end-effector contact forces in some
that involve constrained motion and active force control are discussed.
Thefundamentals of the operational space formulation are thenpre- direction can be strongly affected by the forces of coupling
sented, andthe unified approach for motion and force control is created by the end-effector motion that can take place in the
developed. The extension of this formulation to redundant manipulator subspace orthogonal to that direction. The description of the
systems is also presented,constructing the end-effector equations of dynamic interaction between end-effector motions and the
motion and describing their behavior with respect to joint forces. These effects of these motions on the end-effector’s behavior in the
results are used in thedevelopment of a new and systematic approachfor
dealing with the problems arising at kinematic singularities.
At a singular direction of force control are basic requirements for the
configuration, the manipulator is treated as a mechanismthat is analysis and design of high-performance manipulator control
redundant with respect to the motion of the end-effector in the subspace systems. Obviously, these characteristics cannot be found in
of operational space orthogonal to the singular direction. the manipulator joint space dynamic model, whichonly
provides a description of the interaction between joint mo-
I. INTRODUCTION tions. High-performance control of end-effector motion and
contact forces requires the description of how motions along
R ESEARCH in dynamics of robot mechanisms has largely
focused on developing the equations of joint motions.
These joint space dynamic models have been the basis for
different axes are interacting, andhow the apparent or
equivalent inertia or mass of the end-effector varies with
configurations and directions.
various approaches to dynamic control of .manipulators.
The description, analysis, and control of manipulator sys-
However, task specification for motion and contact forces,
tems with respect to the dynamic characteristics of their end-
dynamics, and force sensing feedback are closely linked to the
effectors has been the basic motivation in the research and
end-effector. The dynamic behavior of the end-effector is one
development of the operational space formulation. The end-
of the most significant characteristics in evaluating the
effector equations of motion 131, 141 are a fundamental tool
performance of robot manipulator systems. The problem of
for the analysis, control, and dynamic characterization 181 of
end-effector motion control has been investigated, and al-
manipulator systems. In this paper, we will discuss, from the
gorithms resolving end-effector accelerations have been devel-
perspective of end-effector control, the issue of task descrip-
oped V I , [111, 1221, [3Ol, 1331.
tion, where constrained motions and contact forces are
The issue of end-effector dynamic modeling and control is
involved. The fundamentals of the operational space formula-
yet more acute for tasks that involve combined motion and
contact forces of the end-effector. Precise control of applied tion are presented, and the unified approach for the control of
end-effector forces is crucial to accomplishing advanced robot end-effector motion and contact forces is developed.
Treated within the framework of joint space control
assembly tasks. This is reflected by the research effort that has
been devoted to the study of manipulator force control. systems, redundahcy of manipulator mechanisms has been
Accommodation [35], joint compliance [26], active stiffness generally viewed as a problem of resolving the end-effector
desired motion into joint motions with respect to some criteria.
[311, impedance control [9], and hybrid position/force control
[28] are among the various methods that have been proposed. Manipulator redundancy has been aimed at achieving goals
such as the minimization of a quadratic criterion [29], [34], the
Force control has been generally based on kinematic and
avoidance of joint limits [5], [21] the avoidance of obstacles
static considerations. While in motion, however, a manipula-
[4], [6], [20], kinematic singularities [23], or the minimization
tor end-effector is subject to inertial, centrifugal, and Coriolis
of actuator joint forces [8]. The end-effector equations of
motion for a redundant manipulator are established and its
Manuscript receivedAugust 6 , 1985; revised May 29, 1986. This work was behavior with respect to generalized joint forces is described.
supportedinpart by the NationalScienceFoundation and inpart by the The unified approach for motion and active force control is
Systems Development Foundation. then extended to these systems.
The authoris with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Computer Science
Department, Cedar Hall, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. Kinematic singularities is another area that has been
IEEE Log Number 8610323. considered within the framework of joint space control and
.00@1987 IEEE
0882-4967/87/0200-0043$01
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44 IEEE JOURKAL OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. RA-3, NO. FEBRUARY 1987
formulated in terms of resolution of the task specifications into lated object forms, with the fixture or constrained object, a
joint motions. Generalized inverses and pseudo-inverses have pair of two rigid bodies linked through a joint. A constrained
been used, and recently an interesting solution based on the motiontask can be described, for instance, by a spherical,
singularity robust inverse has been proposed Inthis planar, cylindrical, prismatic, or revolute joint.
paper, a new approach for dealing with the problem of However, whenviewed from the perspective of end-
kinematic singularities within the operational space framework effector control, two elements of information are required for
is presented. In the neighborhood of a singular configuration a complete description of the task. These are the vectors of
the manipulator is treated as a redundant mechanismwith total force and moment that are to be applied to maintain the
respect to the motion of the end-effector in the subspace of imposed constraints, and the specification of the end-effector
operational space orthogonal to its singular direction. Control motion degrees of freedom and their directions.
of the end-effector for motions along the singular direction is Let f d be a unite vector, in the frame of reference (Ro((3,
based onthe use of the kinematic characteristic of the Jacobian yo, along the direction of the force that is to be applied by
matrix. the end-effector. The positional freedom, if any, of the
constrained end-effector will therefore lie inthe subspace
11. GENERALIZED TASKSPECIFICATION MATRICES orthogonal to f d .
The end-effector motion and contact forces are among the A convenient coordinate frame for the description of tasks
most important components in the planning, description, and involving constrained motion operations is a coordinate frame
control of assembly operations of robot manipulators. The 6if(0,xf, y f , z f ) obtained from Gio by a rotation transforma-
end-effector configuration is represented by a setof m tion described by Sf such that zf is aligned with fd. For tasks
parameters, X I , xz, x,, specifying its positionand where the freedom of motion (displacement) is restricted to a
orientation in some reference frame. In free motion opera- single direction orthogonal to f d , one of the axes Oxf or Oyf
tions, the number of end-effector degrees of freedom mo is will be selected in alignment with that direction, as shown for
defined as the number of independent parameters required the task in Fig. 2.
to specify completely, in a frame of reference (Ro, its position Let us define, in the coordinate @if,the position specifica-
and orientation. A set ofsuch independent configuration tion matrix
parameters forms a system of operational coordinates.
In constrained motion operations, the displacement and
rotations of the end-effector are subjected to a set of geometric
0 0
(1) =f=(T 2
constraints. These constraints restrict the freedom of motion where ox, o;, and a, are binary numbers assigned the value 1
(displacements and rotations) of the end-effector. Clearly, when a free motion is specified along the axes Ox,, Oyf, and
geometric constraints will affect only the freedom of motion of (3zf, respectively, and zero otherwise. A nonzero value of a,
the end-effector, since static forces andmoments at these implies a full freedom of the end-effector position. This case
constraints can still be applied. The number of degrees of of unconstrained end-effector position is integrated here for
freedom of the constrained end-effector is given by the completeness. The coordinate frame ( R f in this case is assumed
difference between mo and the number of independent to be identical to and the matrix Sf is the identity matrix.
equations specifying the geometric constraints, assumed to be The directions of force control are described by the force
holonomic. Examples of five-, four-, and three-degree-of- specification matrix associated with Cf and defined by
freedom constrained end-effectors are shown in Fig. 1.
zf
An interesting description of the characteristics ofend- cf=I-cf (2)
effectors and their constraints uses a mechanical linkage
representation 1241. The end-effector, tool, or manipu- where I designates the 3 3 identity matrix.
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MOTION KHATIB: CONTROL OF ROBOT
FORCE MANIPULATORS 45
a
The task specification matrices Q and can be constant,
configuration-varying, or time-varying matrices. Nonconstant
generalized task specification matrices correspond to specifi-
cations that involve changes in the direction of the applied
force vector and/or moment vector, e.g., moving the end-
effector while maintaining a normal force to a nonplanar
surface. Cl and have been expressed here with respect to the
frame of reference For control systems implemented for
tasks specified with respect to the end-effector coordinate
frame, these matrices will be specified with respect to that
coordinate frame as well.
EQUATIONS
111. END-EFFECTOR OF MOTION
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46 IEEE JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS
AUTOMATION,
AND VOL.
NO. RA-3, FEBRUARY 1987
domain 9, of the operational space given by where p ( x , is the vector of end-effector centrifugal and
Coriolis forces given by
pj(x,
X)=X~rIj(x)X, i= 1, mo. (15)
is not one-to-one.
Different configurations of the manipulator links can, in The components of the mo mo matrices rIj(x) are the
fact, be found for a given configuration of the end-effector. Christoffel symbols a i , j k given as a function of the partial
The restriction to a domain where G is one-to-one is therefore derivatives of A(x) with respect to the generalized coordinates
necessary to construct, with the operational coordinates, a x by
system of generalized coordinates for the manipulator mecha-
axjk
nism.
In addition, for some configurations of the manipulator, the
end-effector motion is restricted by the linkage constraints and
The equations ofmotion
1 ah,
aj,jk=-
2 axk
ahik
axj axi 1.
(14) establish the relationships
its freedom of motionlocally decreases. These are the singular
between positions, velocities, and accelerations of the end-
configurations, which can be found by considering the
effector and the generalized operational forces acting on it.
differentiability characteristics of the geometric model G .
The dynamic parameters in these equations are related to the
Singular configurations E are those where the Jacobian
parameters involved in the manipulator joint space dynamic
matrix J ( q ) involved in the variational or kinematicmodel
model. The manipulator equations of motion injoint space are
associated with G ,
given by
J(q)Aq, (8)
q)+g(q)=r (17)
is singular. The end-effector behavior at singular configura-
where b(q, and r represent, respectively, the
tions is treated in Section VIII.
Let 5, be the domain obtained from 9, by excluding the Coriolis and centrifugal, gravity, and generalized forces in
joint space. A ( q ) is the n n joint space kinetic energy
manipulator singular configurations and such that the vector
matrix. The relationship between the kinetic energy matrices
function G of (5) is one-to-one. Let a),designate the domain
A and A(x) corresponding, respectively, to the joint space
S,= (9) and operational space dynamic models can be established 131,
[14] by exploiting the identity between the expressions of the
The independent parameters X I , x2, xmoform a complete quadratic forms of the mechanism kinetic energy with respect
set of configuration parameters for a nonredundant manipula- to the generalized joint. and operational velocities,
tor, in the domain a),of operational space and thus constitute a
system of generalized coordinates for the manipulator system. A(x)=J-*(q)A(q)J-’(q). (18)
The kinetic energy of the holonomic articulated mechanism
is a quadratic form of the generalized operational velocities The relationship between the centrifugal and Coriolis forces
b(q, and p ( x , X) can be established by the expansion of the
1 expression of p(x, X) that results from (1 l),
“(X, X) XTA(x)X (10)
2
p(x, X) h(x)X V T ( x , X ) . (19)
where A(x) designates the mo mo symmetric matrix of the
quadratic form, i.e., the kinetic energy matrix. Using the Using the expression of A(x) in (18), the components of p(x,
Lagrangian formalism, the end-effector equations of motion in (19) can be written as
are given by
A(x)X=J-T(q)A A(q)h(q, 4 ) j - T ( Q ) A ( q ) 4
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KHATIB: MOTION AND FORCE CONTROL OF ROBOT MANIPULATORS 47
where is the domain resulting from a ),of (6) by excluding where and are the desired position, velocity, and
the kinematic singular configurations. acceleration, respectively, of the end-effector. is the mo
Finally, let us establish the relationship between generalized mo identity matrix. kp and k, are the position and velocitygain
forces, i.e., F and r. Using (18), (24), and (25) the end- matrices.
effector equations of motion (14) can be rewritten as An interesting approach for tasks that involve large motion
to a goal position, where a particular path is not required, is
J - T(q)rA +g(q)l= F. (27) based on the selection of the decoupled end-effector command
Substituting (17) yields vector F; as
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48 JOURNAL
IEEE OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. RA-3, NO. I , FEBRUARY 1987
force vector To simplify the notation, A has also been This approach has also been proposed [lo] for real-time
used here to designate the kinetic energy matrix when dynamic control of manipulators in joint space.
expressed as a function of the joint coordinate vector
4 ) is distinct from the vector of centrifugal and Coriolis forces V. CONSTRAINED MOTION OPERATIONS
b(q, in(17)that arises whenviewingthe manipulator The matrix s2 defined earlier specifies, with respect to the
motion in joint space. These vectors are related by frame of reference 030, the directions of motion (displacement
and rotations) of the end-effector. Forces and moments are to
4) 4 ) J T ( q ) A ( q ) h ( q ,4 ) . (35) be applied in or about directions that are orthogonal to these
A useful form of for real-time control and dynamic motion directions. These are specified by the matrix 8.
analysis can be obtained by a separation of its dependency on An important issue related to the specification of axes of
position and velocity. rotation and applied moments is concerned with the compati-
The joint space centrifugal and Coriolis force vector b(q, bility between these specifications and the type of representa-
of (17) can, in fact, be developed in the form tion used for the description of the end-effector orientation. In
fact, the specification of axes of rotations and applied moments
b(q7 4 ) =B(q)[441+ c(q)[q21 (36) in the matrices and 2, are only compatible with descriptions
of the orientation using instantaneous angular rotations.
where B ( q ) and are, respectively, the n n(n 1)/2 However, instantaneous angular rotations are not quantities
and n n matrices of the joint space Coriolis and centrifugal that can be used as a set of configuration parameters for the
forces associated with b(q, 4 ) . [qq] and [q2]are the symbolic orientation. Representations of the end-effector orientation
notations for the n(n 1)/2 1 and n 1 column matrices such as Euler angles, direction cosines, or Euler parameters,
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KHATIB: MOTION AND FORCE CONTROL OF ROBOT MANIPULATORS 49
VI. REDUNDANT
MANIPULATORS ~i(4)=A-'(s)JT(4)A,((I).
The configuration of a redundant manipulator cannot be J ( q ) actually a generalized inverse of the Jacobian matrix
specified by a set of parameters that only describes the end- corresponding to the solution that minimizes the manipulator's
effector position and orientation. An independent set of end- instantaneous kinetic energy.
effector configuration parameters, therefore, does not consti- Equation (50) describes the dynamic behavior of the end-
tute a generalized coordinate system for a redundant effector when the manipulator is submitted to a generalized
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50 IEEE JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL.
NO. RA-3, FEBRUARY 1987
joint force vector of the form (28). The m m matrix Stability Analysis
can be interpreted as a pseudo-kinetic energy matrix corres- In the command vector and with the assumption of a
pending to the end-effector motion in Operational 'pace* "perfect" compensation (or noncompensation) ofthe centrifu-
0)represents the and forces acting On the gal and Coriolis forces, the manipulator can be consideredas a
end-effector and p r ( q )the gravity force vector.
conservative system subjected to the dissipative forces due to
The effect on the end-effector of the application of arbitrary the velocity damping term kui) in F.+. These forces are
joint forces, can be determined by (50) which can berewritten
rs=
(64)
-ku,A(q)4,
If, for any ro,the end-effector is only subjected to F, (56) the vector r,, becomes
yields
rns=rs+JT(q)Ar(q)Frs
(65)
. I ( q ) A - ' ( q ) = [ J ( q ) A - ' ( q ) J T ( q ) 1 P T ( q(57)
)
with
which implies the equivalence of P ( q ) and J ( q ) . (66)
Fr, kuqi.
VII. CONTROL
OF REDUNDANT
MANIPULATORS Finally, the joint force command vector can be written as
As in the case of nonredundant manipulators, the dynamic
decoupling and control of the end-effector can be achieved by r=J'(q)ar(q)(F.+.+Fr,)+r,+b;(q, q ) + g ( q ) -( 6 7 )
selecting an operational command vector of the form of (29),
(30): The corresponding joint forces are Under this form, the evaluation of the generalized inverse of
the Jacobian matrix is avoided. The matrix D ( q ) correspond-
ing to the new expression for the dissipativejoint forces rdis
in
the command vector (67) becomes
where is defined similarly to 4). D ( q ) = - [ ( k , - k u , ) J T ( q ) A , ( q ) J ( q ) + k u , A ( q ) l (68)
.
The manipulator joint motions produced by this command
vector are those that minimize the instantaneous kinetic energy Now, the matrix D ( q ) is negative definite and the system is
of the mechanism. asymptotically stable. Fig. 4(b) shows the effects of this
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KHATIB: MOTION AND FORCE CONTROL OF ROBOT MANIPULATORS 51
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Stabilization of redundant manipulator.
stabilization on the previous example of a simulated three- hood of a given type of singularity 9, can be defined as
degree-of-freedom manipulator.
Constrained Motion Control
as=~ ~ 1 1 s ( q ) l ~ ~ o l (70)
presents infinite inertial mass for displacements or infinite A methodology for the description of end-effector con-
inertia for rotations. Its movements remain free in the strained motion tasks based on the construction of generalized
subspace orthogonal to this direction. This behavior extends, task specification matrices has been proposed. For such tasks
in reality, to a neighborhood of the singular configuration. The where both motion and active force control are involved, a
extentof this neighborhood canbe characterized by the unified approach for end-effector dynamic control within the
particular expression in the determinant of the Jacobian operational space framework has been presented. The use of
matrix that vanishes at this specific singularity. The neighbor- the generalized task specification matrix has provided a more
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52 IEEE JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. RA-3, NO. I , FEBRUARY 1987
efficient control structure for real-time implementations, alternative to resolving end-effector motions intojoint motions
further enhanced by a two-level control architecture. generally used in joint space based control systems.
Results of the implementation of this approach have shown
the operational space formulation to be an effective means of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
achieving high dynamic performance in real-time motion The author would like to thank Brian Armstrong, Harlyn
control and active force control of robot manipulator systems. Baker, Joel Burdick, Bradley Chen, John Craig, Ron Fearing,
This approach has beenimplementedin an experimental Jean Ponce, and Shashank Shekhar for the discussions,
manipulator programming system COSMOS (Control in Oper- comments, and help during the preparation of the manuscript.
ational Space of a Manipulator-with-ObstaclesSystem): Using
a PUMA 560 and wrist and finger sensing, basic assembly REFERENCES
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KHPrTIB: MOTION AND FORCE CONTROL OF ROBOT MANIPULATORS 53
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