Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2

2.0 Methods .................................................................................................................... 4

3.1 Materials .................................................................................................................... 6

3.2 Machineries employed .............................................................................................. 7

4.0 Construction Process ................................................................................................ 8

5.0 Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures ................................................... 9

6.0 Cost ......................................................................................................................... 12

7.0 Individual Conclusion .............................................................................................. 14

7.1 Name: ONG JIT YEONG (17WVD03446) ............................................................ 14

7.2 Name: NG KIM FAI (17WVD02376) .................................................................... 15

7.3 Name: KONG XIN CHING (17WVD03540) .......................................................... 16

7.4 Name: YAP RONG JING (17WVD04712) ............................................................ 17

8.0 References .............................................................................................................. 18

1
1.0 Introduction
A steel structure is a metal structure that is interconnected by structural steel members

to carry loads and provide complete rigidity. Due to the high strength grade of steel, this

structure is reliable and requires less raw material than other types of structures such as

concrete structures and wood structures. In modern buildings, almost all types of

buildings use steel structures, including heavy industrial buildings, multi-story buildings,

equipment support systems, and so on. Structural steel is a steel structural material that

is manufactured in a specific shape and chemical composition to suit the applicable

specifications of the project. According to the applicable specifications of each item, the

steel part may have various shapes, sizes and specifications, and may be formed by hot

rolling or cold rolling, and other parts may be made by welding flat plates or bending plates

together. Common shapes include I-beam, HSS, Channels, Angles and Plate. For

example, frame structure has beams and columns. The steel structure is constructed by

connecting the available standard parts appropriately. The connection is an important part

of the steel structure and its design is more traditional than any individual member. There

have few type connections which is rivets, bolts and welding. Bolts is a metal pin with one

end forming a head and the other end is threaded so that it can receive the nut. Rivets is

made up of round ductile steel bar which is called as ‘shank’ and with a head at the one

end. It is made up of mild steel or high tensile steel. And welding is the process of joining

two pieces of metal by creating a strong metallurgical bond between them by heating or

pressure or both.

2
Passive fire protection materials protect steel structures from the high temperatures that

can occur in a fire. They can be divided into two categories, non-reactive, the most

common of which are plates and sprays and are reactive, with thin film intumescent

coatings being the best example. Thin film intumescent coatings can be applied on site

or off site. Case study that we choose is steel warehouse which is located No.86, Jalan

Kenangan 2, Taman Kenangan, 45200 Sabak Bernam,Selangor Darul Ehsan and the

dimension is 30.48m x 15.50m x 10.00m.

3
2.0 Methods
For our group assignment, the case study which is steel warehouse is constructed by

the bolts and nuts method. Bolted Steel Construction occurs when steel fabricators

produce finished and painted steel components, which are then shipped to the site

and simply bolted in place. This is the preferred method of steel construction, as the

bulk of the fabrication can be done in workshops, with the right machinery, lighting,

and work conditions. In addition, there are several types of bolts such as track bolt,

square bolt, plow bolt, round bolt, aircraft bolt, lag bolt, flanged bolt, elevator bolt, black

bolt, turned bolt, high strength friction grip bolt (HSFG) and so on. Bolts are commonly

use fasteners to hold machine parts together. Bolts are the basic hardware

components needed for any machine, whether it's a simple household product or a

high-end machine in a complex industry. During hoisting, connectors will install a

minimum of two bolts per connection. The rest of the bolts are installed and tightened

after the structure is plumbed. A systematic pattern must be followed when tightening

bolts so that a joint is drawn together and all fasteners are properly installed. Bolts

may be loaded in tension, shear or both. Then, threads of bolts under shear force will

increased strength when it’s excluded and decreased strength when included. For the

beam-to-column connections, there are different types are used such as fin plates,

end plates, web of flange cheats and hunched connections. For our case study, the

back side of the column is fix with stiffened steel plate and install with pre-tensioned

HSFG bolts to connect with the beam. While the other side of the column which

connect to the beam, the stiffened steel angle is used and install with bolts.

4
Other than that, we also found out that the top of the column will cover with cap so

that the beam can connect to the column with larger area which can increase the

structure’s stability. For beam splice connection, a beam splice there is a small gap

between the two beam ends. For small beam sections, single cover plates may be

adequate for the flanges and web. For symmetric cross sections, a symmetric

arrangement of cover plates is normally used, irrespective of the relative magnitudes

of the design forces in the flanges. Column splices can be either of bearing or non-

bearing type. Design guidance for bearing type column splices is given in SCI P358.

Non-bearing column splices may be arranged and designed as for beam splices. The

base column connection of a steel warehouse is joined to the foundation by holding-

down bolts, which must be designed to resist the uplift and tendency of the column to

overturn. To allow the for fixing tolerances, the bolts are initially housed in void or

pocket, which is filled with grout at the same time as the base is grouted onto the

foundation. The steel wedges are inserted between the underside of the base plate

and the top of the foundation. Besides, the steel purlins and the steel rafters of the

roof are bolts together and then connected to the beam.

Figure 1: Types of connections

5
3.1 Materials
After found the information about steel structure materials that use to construct warehouse, there

have few type that choose to use. First material that used is rolled steel. Rolling is a key process in

metal processing, which can lead to improved strength and grain orientation required for different

manufacturing techniques and applications. The basic metal rolling process involves passing the

metal through a pair of heavy rollers to give the metal the desired shape and thickness. They have

two types of rolling which is hot rolled steel and cold rolled steel. In this case study, they use the

hot rolled steel. The recrystallization temperature of the steel is 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. Therefore,

the temperature must exceed this level during hot rolling. This makes the steel easier to form and

results in an easy-to-use product. However, this is high cost for this equipment compared to cold

rolled steel. I beam also taken in this case study. I beam is commonly in construction, many

columns and beams of different lengths and sizes are formed. Most of I beams use structural steel,

but some are made of aluminum. They are often used as key supporting trusses or main frames in

buildings. The tremendous strength of I-beams reduces the need to include numerous support

structures, saving time and money, and making the structure more stable. The shape of the I-beam

makes it ideal for unidirectional bending parallel to the web. Bolts are commonly used fasteners

to hold machine parts together. Bolts are the basic hardware components needed for any machine,

whether it's a simple household product or a high-end machine in a complex industry. Bolts are

manufactured in a wide range of application from ordinary steel to titanium, plastics and other

special materials. Furthermore, some materials may use for various coatings to prevent corrosion

or change the appearances of bolts. There are a lot of type materials used to make a bolt such as

steel, stainless steel, silicon bronze and nylon. And steel is the most common fastener material.

6
3.2 Machineries employed
Modern machinery supplies a variety of structural steel manufacturing equipment. First type of

machineries for steel is peddinghaus Structural Steel Fabrication. Peddinghaus is the most

innovative structural steel fabrication equipment in the metal working industry. Peddinghaus is

used to drilling lines, sheet processing machines, thermal cutting machines, hydraulic forging

presses and material handling machines for the manufacture of structural steels. Another

machineries are Ocean Machinery Structural Steel Fabrication. Ocean machinery represents a

large number of structural steel manufacturing machines, including the Marine Avengers beam

line - a unique beam manufacturing solution built by Peddinghaus. This superb beamline has

forever changed the way that small and medium-sized manufacturers make steel profiles. For

example, Ocean Blaster. Second is mobile crane. It is a basic crane. It has a steel truss or telescopic

boom that can be hinged to the base and use cables or hydraulic cylinders to raise or lower the

boom. Magnetic Drilling Machine also is one of the machine that need to use. It is a machine tool

for drilling holes in various metals. It also a portable drilling machine with a base or a permanent

magnet base. Magnetic drills drill holes with the help of cutting tools such as ring cutters

(broaching tools) or twist drills. For the bolt connection, the machine is hydraulic bolt tensioners.

Bolt tensioners are suitable for top and subsea applications. Another machine is nut runners. It is

used to fasten nuts. Nut runners are pneumatic, electric or hydraulic power tools. The large nut

runner system is designed to be mounted in a fixed position, usually on the assembly line. For

extra information, some of the warehouse is using welding method. The machinery for welding

method is oxyacetylene welding. Oxyacetylene is portable and easy to use. It includes oxygen and

acetylene gas stored in cylinders. The cylinder contains regulators and flexible hoses leading to

the blowpipe.

7
4.0 Construction Process
We choose steel warehouse as our group’s case study and its construction processes

are slightly different with other buildings and the first step is to set the truss legs and

attach all those girts as secondary framing. The foundations are installed with anchor

bolts which filled by concrete. The base is joined to the foundation by holding-down bolts.

Therefore, the wind bracing is installed, each truss leg requires 4 anchor bolts to increase

the stability and the wind bracing adjustable with slide plate. After that, roof trusses are

bolting to truss legs. First truss held in place with tie lines and the second truss connected

to first truss connected with stiffener purlins. Roof trusses, stiffener purlins and purlins

shall be balance installed. The next step is to install wind bracing at roof, eave track and

gable track. Furthermore, the end wall columns are installed to carry the load of roof

trusses and each end wall columns require 2 anchor bolts. Then, the end walls columns

are adjusted with slide plate and the end wall girts are installed. Besides, frame the

overhead doors while frame and install wall doors and also windows. Trim fix for all

openings and install base trim. Afterward, start installing sheet metal on the side walls,

finish installing sheet metal on all walls and install eave trim. All those roof sheet metal,

ridge cap, corner trim and gable trim are then installed. For the last step, install peak sign

and overhead doors and the steel warehouse is ready to be used.

8
5.0 Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures
The connection of steel structures that we considered is bolts and nuts method and we

also found some of the steel warehouse including welding for some of their connections.

Advantages of bolt

As we mentioned about the bolt using on connection, they are design similar as fastener

that joins other parts of structure and they can disassemble without difficulties. If found

any defective bolt, it can be replaced or retightened when it connects incorrect. By the

way, the bolts are easy as there is skill less fabrication by using simple tools and unskilled

labour, where there is no heating is required, the safety of the workers are increased.

Besides, they can be designed used to bear the tension loads, which means the strength

of steel structures will fatigue if cyclic stresses added, but sometimes cyclic loading will

not cause the structure deformation but the structure may crack it is because the forces

keep changing repetitively over time makes it cracks. The bolt became the point of support

due to the clamping action and it reduces the fatigue between the joined components.

Moreover, bolt has the better quality than a screw, mostly because the threads are more

tightly to produce. Thus, it has more resistance, when force applied it can hold the

members tightly. Lastly, the tightening of the bolts is considering noiseless and quicker,

because it only requires wrenches to tighten.

9
Disadvantages of bolting

There are some disadvantages of bolting, when connecting both components it requires

holes, drilling the holes may create cracks at the structure. When the stresses applied on

the structural, the force will be more concentrate on the bolts connection which means

the stress it should bear of the area of the hole will increase. Thus, if there are any minor

cracks, it will grow over the time to cause the structure fail. Besides, it increases the

difficulties to measure the preload of the structure, it is due to the method of tightening

may affect the used of its yield strength. For instants, the connection can be tight up by

torque technique, but the result of the yield strength will lose 30% due to torsional stresses,

and it has the critical problem which is less accurate. Otherwise, it can be use the method

of hydraulic tensioning which has the high accuracy but result in less yield strength. Bolted

joints are always facing loosening of joints due to the loads and require relock. Lastly,

unfinished bolts have lower load-carrying capacity because non uniform in diameter, this

is because that threads may be in the shear planes.

10
Advantages of welding

A welded joint can distribute the strength equally as the parts had been assembled as

one united piece. Where there is require no hole, hence the components no need to

connect with the bolt or rivet that will slightly increase the structures weight. Thus, the

structures can efficiently bear the loads because there is no hole that will concentrate the

stresses. Besides, welding is economical because it requires less labour and less material.

By the way, the welding process is quicker than other process because it only requires

heating which only needs less time. Various shapes of components can be joined

together by welding including dissimilar metals but needs extra precautions.

Disadvantages of welding

Although welding process is simple but requires skilled labour to execute. The failure of

welding may cause the labour in danger, sometimes may cause fire. Otherwise,

unbalanced of heat output may cause the structure cracking, or the welder performs bad

skill is able to cause the members won’t penetrate to each other. Therefore, their load

bearing capacity will harshly fell. Besides, because it requires skilled labour, as the

fabrication is execute manually and capital equipment is expensive. Thus, the contractor

should bear the high cost. Lastly, where the joints are permanent, it requires to break the

detail part to disassemble.

11
6.0 Cost
After we found some of the information about the market price of the materials used in

steel warehouse. The code and the type of the i-beam used is IPE140 and it has 12.90kg

for 1m. For 8m long of the beam owns 103.20kg and each meter cost RM3.00 and the

price for one beam is RM309.60. So, the total cost of nine beams required is RM2786.40.

Therefore, the code and the type of the columns used is UC10014 and it has 14.80kg per

meter. The height of the warehouse is 10m so one column owns 148.00kg and the price

per meter is exactly same as i-beam. One column cost RM444.00 and for ten columns,

the total price is RM4440.00. The tables below are the identification for i-beam and h-

column.

Identification Nominal Nominal dimensions Cross- Dimensions for detailing

weight section
1m
kg/m mm A h1 d Ø pmin pmax
b h t1 t2 R1 cm2 mm mm mm mm
IPE 80 6,0 46 80 3,8 5,2 5,0 7,64 69,6 59,6 - - -
IPE 100 8,1 55 100 4,1 5,7 7,0 10,30 88,6 74,6 - - -
IPE 120 10,4 64 120 4,4 6,3 7,0 13,20 107,4 93,4 - - -
IPE 140 12,9 73 140 4,7 6,9 7,0 16,40 126,2 112,2 - - -
Table 1: The type and the description for i-beam

Designation kg/m h b tf tw r
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

UC10014 14.8 97 99 7.0 5.0 10.0

UC15023 23.4 152 152 6.8 6.1 8.9

UC15030 30.0 158 153 9.4 6.6 8.9

Table 2: The type and the description for h-column

12
The steel sheet for the warehouse is RM947.70 per sheet and the dimension is 1200mm

x 3000mm (thickness 1.95mm). So, one steel sheet is equal to 3.60m2. For the

warehouse’s wall area, 2 piece 30.48m x 10.00m and 2 piece 15.50m x 10.00m equal to

459.80 m2. Then, the total numbers of the sheets required is 128 pieces and the total

cost for the wall is RM 121,305.60

For the labour cost, we found that a general worker cost RM60 per day and a semi-skilled

labour cost RM75 per day. Then, a skilled worker cost the most when compared among

them. A skilled labour costs RM 95 per day because they are able to carry out skilled

works independently. If a steel warehouse project needed 100 workers and 10 months to

be completed, it will cost approximately RM2250000 and RM2250 for one worker each

month.

13
7.0 Individual Conclusion
7.1 Name: ONG JIT YEONG (17WVD03446)

After we have done our group assignment, I have learnt a lot of knowledge about steel

structure. In my opinion, a steel structure is a metal structure that is interconnected by

structural steel components to carry loads and provide complete rigidity. Due to the high

strength grade of steel, the steel structure is reliable and requires less raw material than

other types of structures such as concrete structures and timber structures. In modern

buildings, steel structures are used in various structures such as heavy industrial

buildings, multi-story buildings, equipment support systems, infrastructure, bridges,

towers, and airport terminals.

For our case study, we have found a lot of information about steel structure and steel

warehouse is the last decision that we made. Through the whole building, a warehouse

is basically built with bolts and nuts which installed by some specific equipment. The way

it connects together is the main factor for the building to become firm. Moreover, the

number of steel structures is increasing in Malaysia because it carries out a lot of benefits

as we mentioned above.

In a nutshell, this assignment made me even more understand how the steel structure

was built through the methods such as bolts and nuts, welding and riveting. I think that

steel structures should be widely used in our country because steel offers architects more

design freedom in colour, texture and shape so that the appearance of buildings will be

more beauty and we will live in a more comfortable environment.

14
7.2 Name: NG KIM FAI (17WVD02376)

In a nutshell, I have learned a lot of knowledge and information about the steel structure

in this assignment. Structural steel is a steel structural material that has a specific cross

section or shape, as well as some specific strength and chemical composition values.

Various steels can be used depending on the application. The main component of the

post-iron structural steel is carbon. Structural steel parts are commonly used in buildings,

manufacturing sheds, transmission line towers, and so on. I also have learned about how

the steel to connect each other such as rivet, bolt and welding. Rivet is a needle or metal

bolt used to combine two or more parts, passing the handle through a hole in each part,

then tapping or pressing the flat end to make a second head. From our case study, we

use the bolts and nuts method to constructed steel warehouse. Bolts are famous for

connect the steel structures. It also a mechanical fasteners, usually used with nuts, to join

two or more parts. There have many type of bolts like track bolt, square bolt, plow bolt,

round bolt, aircraft bolt, lag bolt, flanged bolt, elevator bolt, black bolt and so on. Welding

also one of the method in connect the steel structure. It is the technique of connecting

metal parts usually by heating. This technique was discovered in the effort to manipulate

iron into useful shapes. In case study, we know about the process to construct steel

warehouse. For example, the foundation base is joined by holding down bolts and etc. I

think government should give some financial support to the field steel structure in order

to improve the quality of the steel structure. It can help our country improve the economies

because they can export the steel structure to other country such as Indonesia and so on.

15
7.3 Name: KONG XIN CHING (17WVD03540)

By doing this assignment, I had learned a lot of knowledge about the steel structure.

In this modern construction, steel can be seen in many constructions project. Normally it

will apply for the large structures like multi-storey building, towers, airport terminals, heavy

industry buildings, infrastructure, equipment support system and residential buildings.

Steel structure have 3 different main types of steel construction which are conventional

steel fabrication, bolted steel structure construction and light gauge steel structure

construction. There are many advantages of using steel structure in construction project.

First of all, steel is a strong metal. It can hold an extra of high amount of extra pressure.

Therefore, the structure of steel is resist to earthquake whereas concrete structures are

much weaker. Concrete is not as resist as steel. Thus, the steel structures have better

load carrying capacity than concrete structures. Because of steel has high strength to

weight ratio, so it can be considered as tensile metal. Concrete weigh 60% more than

steel structures. Other than that, steel structure is not suitable for concrete structures

because they are heavy but it can be made without a foundation. As they are easy to

install, it may help to reduce the time of the construction process and help to complete

the project faster. But for concrete construction, it is time-consuming. It takes longer time

to complete the project compare to steel structure. Thus, structural steel is a better

selection because it has a good scrap value compare to concrete which has low scrap

value.One of the reason od because it is easy to be created. Another advantage of steel

structure is easy to transport. This is because they are lightweight. Next, they are an eco-

friendly option as they are easily recyclable.Which mean they can help to save money in

waste management.

16
7.4 Name: YAP RONG JING (17WVD04712)

Total all the information that we obtained, ‘Steel Structure’ is a part of developing

technology that carry loads and provide full rigidity. It gives most often used as a truss,

beam and column. The internal fabricated steel structures provide a steady support along

the entire warehouse. The foundation and structure is hardly tightened with anchor bolts

that maintained the stability and support the tension load. The only exception is

represented by structural members that are generally subjected to equivalent load-

bearing. The durability and affordability of steel structures has long been proven as the

structures built in some high rise building. SCI P358 is the guidance for the design of

bearing type column splices to meet building codes. To be clear with structural design of

the column must be designed to resist uplift and tendency of the column to overturn. The

material use was rolled steel which is important for metal fabrication. The product may

enhance the strength and grain orientation. The rolled steel considered as hot rolled and

cold rolled. Hot rolled is considered cheap and more malleable. It can be cut or stretched

into various shape needed because it follows Hooke’s law very accurately. Cold rolled is

considered has the better durability which there is without heat applied which will weakens

the steel.

Where steel structures are designed close to existing building the sustainability of the

product has significant benefit. With high strength absorption the perspective of location

to construct is preferred to construct in hurricane prone regions, as steel has the high

ductility which can resist some disaster such as earthquakes. It able to absorbs the shock

and will not cause a sudden failure. The building will shows the visible deflections before

the building collapse.

17
8.0 References
1. Discover ideas about steel cladding,Pinterest, Viewed on 20 June 2018,<

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/10836855329980755/>

2. Discover ideas about System Architecture,Pinterest, Viewed on 20 June 2018,<

https://www.pinterest.com.au/pin/288441551109805386/>

3. Advantages of Steel Structure Constructiom, NWL Northern Weldarc LTD., Viewed

on 20 June 2018,< http://northern-weldarc.com/advantages-steel-structure-

construction/>

4. ATAD, STEEL STRUCTURE INTRODUCTION, 2015, VIewed on 2 june 2018

https://atad.vn/steel-structure-introduction/

5. aboutCivil.com, Type of steel structures, 2017, VIEWED ON 2 JUNE 2018

https://www.aboutcivil.org/steel-structure-types-tension-compression-trusses-shell.html

6. MID CITY STEEL, 2017, Material 101, viewed by 26 June 2018,

<http://midcitysteel.com/materials-101-hot-rolled-steel-vs-cold-rolled-steel/ >.

7. SWANTON WELDING, 2017, beam in steel structure construction, viewed by 27

June 2018, < https://blog.swantonweld.com/i-beams-in-structural-steel-construction>.

8. MODERN MACHINERY COMPANY, 2016, Structural Steel Fabrication Equipment,

viewed by 28 June 2018, < http://www.modernmachinerycompany.com/structural-steel-

fabrication-equipment/>.

18
19